Module 3
Module 3
Parent-youth conflict is a normal part of development and can serve as a platform for growth
and improved communication if handled properly. Here is an overview of parent-youth conflict
and its root causes:
2. Desire for Autonomy: Adolescents strive for more independence as they grow older, causing
tension if parents are not ready to grant them more freedom (Smetana, 2011).
3. Differences in Beliefs and Values: As adolescents get exposed to diverse viewpoints, they may
develop beliefs and values differing from their parents, leading to disagreements (Turiel, 2002).
4. Peer Pressure: Adolescents are often influenced by their peers, potentially leading to
behaviour disapproved of by their parents, causing conflict (Brown et al., 1986).
5. Digital Age Challenges: With the rise of social media and digital technology, there are now
more areas where parents and adolescents can disagree, potentially exacerbating conflict
(O'Keeffe et al., 2011).
The psychology behind parent-youth conflict is influenced by various factors, such as biological
changes, psychological aspects, social influences, attachment theory, family systems theory, and
socioeconomic conditions. Here's a brief overview:
2. Psychological Aspects: During adolescence, individuals start forming their identity, which often
involves questioning and challenging established norms and authority (Erikson, 1968). Cognitive
developments during adolescence, like the ability for abstract thought, can also lead to conflicts
(Piaget, 1954).
3. Social Aspects: Socialization with peers and the wider community can expose adolescents to
new perspectives, which may conflict with their familial values and beliefs, leading to tension
(Brown, 2004).
4. Attachment Theory: The nature of the attachment between a parent and child influences how
conflicts are handled. Secure attachment can lead to more effective conflict resolution, while
insecure attachment can lead to volatile conflicts (Bowlby, 1969).
5. Family Systems Theory: This theory suggests that the family operates as an interconnected
system, and changes in one part can impact the whole system, including parent-youth conflict
(Minuchin, 1974).
6. Socioeconomic Factors: Stress from financial difficulties or other socioeconomic issues can
exacerbate family conflict (Conger & Donnellan, 2007).
Please note that these theories and perspectives are fundamental in understanding the
psychology behind parent-youth conflict. However, if these conflicts become chronic or escalate
into emotional or physical abuse, professional help should be sought.
The psychology of sibling relationships
The psychology of sibling relationships is a multifaceted field involving numerous factors such as
family dynamics, birth order, age differences, and personality traits. Siblings often serve as sources of
companionship, models for social behaviour, and even as competitors for resources and parental
attention.
1. Attachment Theory and Sibling Relationships: Attachment theory, initially proposed by Bowlby
(1969), can also apply to sibling relationships. It posits that early experiences with caregivers lay the
foundation for future relationships. Thus, the quality of sibling attachment can influence how
individuals form and maintain relationships outside the family (Teti & Ablard, 1989).
2. Birth Order: Birth order significantly impacts the dynamics of sibling relationships. According to
Adlerian theory, first-born children tend to be responsible and achievement-oriented, while later-
born are more likely to be sociable and risk-taking (Adler, 1928; Sulloway, 1996).
3. Sibling Rivalry: Sibling rivalry, characterized by competition and conflict, is a common aspect of
sibling relationships, particularly during childhood. Some psychological theories posit that sibling
rivalry stems from competition for parental resources and attention (Volling, 2003).
4. The Social Learning Theory and Sibling Relationships: According to social learning theory, much of
human behaviour is learned observationally through modelling. Siblings serve as role models,
teaching each other social and emotional skills, either through positive modeling or through aversive
experiences (Bandura & Walters, 1963).
5. The Impact of Parenting Styles: Differential parenting, where one sibling perceives favoured
treatment by parents, can impact sibling relationships. Research suggests it can lead to feelings of
jealousy, lower self-esteem, and higher levels of distress (Shebloski, Conger, & Widaman, 2005).
6. Social Comparison Theory and Sibling Relationships: Social comparison theory posits that
individuals have an intrinsic drive to assess their abilities and opinions, and often use others as
benchmarks (Festinger, 1954). Siblings offer a natural context for social comparison, with impacts on
self-perception and self-esteem.
7. Social Identity Theory and Sibling Relationships: Social identity theory suggests that individuals
derive self-esteem from their group memberships (Tajfel, 1982). In a family context, siblings may find
a sense of belonging and identity from their family group. However, where siblings differentiate
themselves for individual identity, it could potentially lead to inter-sibling differences and rivalry
(Tucker, McHale, & Crouter, 2003).
The intergenerational gap refers to the differences in opinions, beliefs, skills, and attitudes that exist
between individuals of different generations. These differences can influence a variety of aspects,
such as social, political, and economic trends. While it's important to recognize the nuances within
each generation, three key generations are often examined: Baby Boomers (born 1946-1964),
Generation X (born 1965-1980), and Millennials (born 1981-1996). Each of these generations has
been shaped by the specific societal and technological changes that occurred during their formative
years.
1. The Technological Divide: Arguably the most visible manifestation of the intergenerational gap is in
the use and understanding of technology. Baby Boomers and Generation X didn't grow up with the
pervasive technology that defines the experiences of Millennials. As a result, younger generations
often have a more innate understanding of digital technology, while older generations may struggle
to adapt. This divide can lead to misunderstandings and frustration in both personal and professional
settings (Prensky, 2001).
2. Work Values and Expectations: There are notable differences between the generations when it
comes to their work values. Baby Boomers, who have shaped much of the current work culture, tend
to value job stability, and consider long hours a badge of honour. In contrast, Millennials and
Generation Z (born 1997-2012) prioritize work-life balance, flexibility, and personal fulfilment
(Twenge et al., 2010). These differences can lead to tension in the workplace, especially as younger
generations start moving into leadership roles.
3. Social and Political Views: There are also clear differences in social and political beliefs among the
generations. Older generations tend to be more conservative, while younger generations lean
towards more liberal views. This divide can be seen in attitudes towards issues such as climate
change, racial equality, and LGBTQ+ rights (Pew Research Center, 2014).
4. Communication Styles: Each generation has its preferred means of communication. Baby Boomers
and Generation X typically prefer face-to-face communication or phone calls, while younger
generations lean heavily on digital communication, particularly text messaging and social media
(Turner, 2015).
The social psychology of the intergenerational gap addresses the societal and group-level influences
that drive differences between generations. This involves studying attitudes, beliefs, and behaviours
across generations within a social context.
1. Intergroup Relations and Social Identity Theory: Generational differences can be understood
through the lens of social identity theory, which suggests that individuals derive a sense of self-
esteem and identity from their membership in social groups (Tajfel & Turner, 1986). Each generation,
as a distinct social group, carries unique identities and experiences that shape their values and
behaviour. Consequently, they may be inclined to highlight their uniqueness and superiority, leading
to intergenerational conflicts.
2. Normative Influence and Cultural Shift: Normative influence is a powerful social force where
individuals conform to group norms to gain acceptance or avoid disapproval. As societal norms shift
over time, each generation develops unique attitudes, beliefs, and behaviours that align with these
changing norms. For instance, research has found generational differences in attitudes towards work,
marriage, and social issues, reflect the normative influences of their times (Twenge, 2014).
3. Stereotyping and Prejudice: Stereotyping and prejudice play significant roles in the
intergenerational gap. Stereotypes about different generations (e.g., Baby Boomers being tech-
averse, Millennials being entitled) can lead to misunderstanding and bias, further widening the
intergenerational gap. Such stereotyping can result in 'intergenerational tensions' where older and
younger generations have negative attitudes towards each other (North & Fiske, 2012).
4. Social Change and Collective Memory: Generations are often defined by significant societal events
that happened during their formative years. These collective memories can shape a generation's
shared experiences and identity, influencing their worldview and contributing to the
intergenerational gap (Schuman & Scott, 1989).
Overall, the social psychology of the intergenerational gap provides insights into how societal and
group-level influences contribute to the differences between generations, offering potential ways to
bridge these gaps.
Peer group identity refers to a person's sense of belonging and identity that is derived from their
association with a particular group of peers. This identity is shaped by several interconnected factors
including shared experiences and interests, societal norms, cultural backgrounds, socio-economic
status, and individual characteristics and experiences.
1. Shared Experiences and Interests: Shared experiences and common interests are a key factor in
the formation of peer groups. Individuals naturally gravitate towards others with whom they share
commonalities, whether it's hobbies, sports, academics, or other activities (Brown, 2004).
2. Cultural Background: Cultural factors including values, traditions, languages, and shared historical
experiences also contribute to the formation and identity of peer groups. They can instil a strong
sense of unity and shared identity among group members (Phinney, 1990).
3. Socio-economic Status: Socio-economic status, including aspects such as family income, parental
education level, and occupation, can influence the formation and identity of peer groups.
Adolescents, in particular, tend to form associations with peers who share similar socio-economic
status (McPherson, Smith-Lovin, & Cook, 2001).
4. Age and Developmental Stage: Peer group identity becomes more prominent during adolescence.
As children grow and become more independent from their families, they seek validation,
acceptance, and identity from their peer groups.
5. Social Pressure and Conformity: Peer pressure can exert a significant influence on individual
behaviour and group dynamics. The need for acceptance and fear of rejection can lead to conformity
with the group's norms, even if they conflict with personal beliefs or values.
6. Family Influence: Parenting styles and family values may influence the type of peer groups with
which an individual identifies. The attitudes and values imparted by the family can carry over into the
peer relationships.
It is important to note that peer group identities are not static but rather are subject to evolution and
change as individuals and their circumstances change. Understanding these influencing elements is
essential for educators, parents, and mental health professionals to foster healthy peer relationships
and support positive development.
Workplace identity and relationships are two closely related concepts that can have a significant
impact on an individual's work experience. Workplace identity refers to an individual's sense of self
in relation to their work. It is shaped by a variety of factors, including the type of work they do, the
organization they work for, and the people they work with. Workplace relationships refer to the
interpersonal connections that individuals form with their colleagues, managers, and other
stakeholders in the workplace. These relationships can be formal or informal, and they can have a
positive or negative impact on an individual's sense of belonging, satisfaction, and productivity.
Workplace identity and relationships are mutually reinforcing. Our sense of self at work is influenced
by the relationships we have with others, and the relationships we form are shaped by our workplace
identity. For example, if we feel like we are a valued member of a team, we are more likely to be
engaged in our work and to have positive relationships with our colleagues.
(Workplace Identity) 1. Professional Identity: This is tied to an individual's role and career within the
organization. It can be influenced by job title, responsibilities, and how the role aligns with personal
values and career goals.
2. Organizational Identity: This refers to how an individual aligns with the values, culture, and goals of
the organization. It may also involve loyalty to the organization.
3. Social Identity: This aspect of workplace identity is concerned with how employees fit into the
social fabric of the workplace. It includes relationships with colleagues, managers, and teams, as well
as participation in workplace culture.
2. Managerial Relationships: The dynamics between managers and subordinates, influencing aspects
like mentoring, feedback, and leadership style.
Youth entering the workplace often face unique challenges and opportunities related to workplace
identity and relationships. Understanding these aspects is vital for organizations that aim to attract,
integrate, and retain young talent. Let's delve into some of the key aspects and implications:
1. Forming Professional Identity: Young individuals are often in the process of forming their
professional identities. They might be unsure about their career paths or how they fit into the
organizational culture, making orientation and mentorship crucial.
2. Value Alignment: The younger generation often seeks work that aligns with their personal values
and passions. They may prioritize social responsibility, innovation, or flexibility, impacting how they
identify with their roles and the organization.
3. Adaptation to Organizational Norms: Youth might face challenges in adapting to workplace norms
and expectations, especially if they are transitioning from educational settings or less formal work
environments.
1. Building Professional Networks: Young professionals often need to learn how to build and navigate
professional relationships. This might include understanding organizational hierarchies,
communicating effectively, and networking.
2. Mentorship and Guidance: Mentorship programs can be highly beneficial for youth, providing
them with guidance, support, and opportunities for personal and professional growth.
3. Intergenerational Dynamics: Young employees may find themselves working with colleagues of
various ages and experience levels. Navigating these relationships requires adaptability, empathy,
and an understanding of diverse perspectives.
Organizations can take various steps to support youth in forming a positive workplace identity and
relationships:
1. Onboarding Programs: Tailor onboarding processes to meet the unique needs of younger
employees, helping them to understand their roles and the organizational culture.
2. Fostering Inclusivity: Creating a culture of inclusivity can help bridge gaps between generations
and diverse backgrounds, fostering positive relationships.
3. Flexible Work Environments: Recognizing and accommodating the evolving expectations and
values of youth, such as desires for work-life balance or social impact, can enhance alignment with
organizational identity.
Youth and workplace identity and relationships are interconnected themes with significant
implications for modern organizations. By recognizing the unique needs, values, and dynamics of
young professionals, organizations can create environments that foster growth, satisfaction, and
long-term engagement. Addressing these aspects is not merely a matter of accommodating the
younger workforce; it can lead to fresh perspectives, innovation, and vitality within the workplace.
Globalization refers to the integration and interaction between different countries and people
worldwide, facilitated by international trade, investment, technology, and cultural exchange. The
effects of globalization are both positive and negative. On one hand, it fosters economic growth,
technological advancement, and cultural enrichment. On the other hand, it can lead to economic
inequalities, cultural homogenization, and potential exploitation of resources in less developed
regions.
1. Technology and Social Media: The rise of technology and social media platforms has facilitated
cross-border interactions among youth. While these platforms promote a global understanding
(Boyd, 2014), they may also contribute to a dilution of local cultures and traditions.
2. Fashion and Lifestyle: Global fashion trends have influenced youth across the world, leading to a
convergence in the way young people dress and express themselves. Global brands often
overshadow local tastes and may erode distinct cultural identities (Klein, 2000).
3. Music and Entertainment: The global spread of music genres like Western pop and K-pop reflects
another facet of globalization, where youth in disparate parts of the world are united by shared
musical tastes (Jin & Ryoo, 2014).
4. Education and Ideology: Education has become a global enterprise, promoting universal values,
and fostering a more interconnected youth. However, the globalization of education might also lead
to conflicts with traditional beliefs and local cultural norms (Marginson & Sawir, 2005).
5. Global Food Culture: Globalization has enabled the spread of international cuisines, allowing youth
to experience flavours and culinary traditions from around the world. While this can foster a sense of
global belonging, it might also result in a loss of local culinary traditions (Wilk, 2006).
6. Language and Communication: The prominence of English as a global language influence how
youth communicate and identify with each other. This encourages global connections but can also
diminish the importance and usage of local languages (Crystal, 2003).
7. Political Activism: Globalization has galvanized youth around common causes, such as climate
change and human rights. This shared activism creates a global youth movement but also might
cause a disconnect with local political issues (Younge, 2010).
Globalization profoundly influences youth identity, touching nearly every aspect of their lives. The
complexity of this influence invites ongoing exploration and a careful balancing of global integration
with the preservation of local culture and individual well-being.