Simona Mirela Riurean

Monica Leba
Andreea Cristina Ionica

Application
of Visible
Light Wireless
Communication in
Underground Mine
Application of Visible Light Wireless
Communication in Underground Mine
Simona Mirela Riurean • Monica Leba
Andreea Cristina Ionica

Application of Visible Light

Wireless Communication in
Underground Mine
Simona Mirela Riurean Monica Leba
Universitatea din Petrosani Universitatea din Petrosani
Petroșani, Romania Petroşani, Romania

Andreea Cristina Ionica

Universitatea din Petrosani
Petroşani, Romania

ISBN 978-3-030-61407-2 ISBN 978-3-030-61408-9 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-61408-9

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Preface

Bill Gates, said, “We're changing the world with technology.” Due to the present
continuous unexpected progress of science, we are witnessing amazing technolog-
ical discoveries with huge impact on us and on our daily activities. We move faster
than ever, we are eager for high-speed, remote communication, and we are most of
the time connected by Internet.
We are not far from the moment when remote, human-to-human (H2H) commu-
nication has been a novelty. Today, human-to-machine (H2M) or even more
advanced, machine-to-machine (M2M) communication has become reality. Smart
cities (SCs), smart houses (SHs), smart driving, smart personal devices, and so on,
rely on local or remote wireless data communication based on electromagnetic
(EM) spectrum. The Internet of Things (IoT), an already worldwide reality, needs
high-speed data transmission both indoors and outdoors. All smart devices, that we
use every day, need fast and secure data traffic.
As Cisco Visual Networking Index data traffic forecasts, by 2022, there will be
more than 12.3 billion mobile devices connected, exceeding the foreseen population
(of 8 billion) by 50%. Therefore, the wireless transmission based on radio frequency
(RF) is becoming more crowded every day and the RF spectrum crunch will soon
become reality. In order to relieve the limited and expensive RF spectrum, there have
been explored lately new and equivalent wireless communication technologies.
Many alternative solutions have been tried to support this exponential growth and
“hunger for Terra bytes” of wireless data communication. One of the most reliable
and favourable emerging alternatives that offers many advantages over RF commu-
nication is the optical wireless communication (OWC) technology. Since the most
data traffic takes place indoors, OWC proves to be a suitable and reliable partner for
the today’s classical wireless data communication based on RF (such as Wi-Fi,
cellular, Bluetooth, BLE, WiMAX, ZigBee, ZWave, and so on). OWC covers
Infrared (IR), visible light, and ultraviolet (UV) wireless data transmission.
Year 1976 has been an important one for IR transmission, since Gfeller and Bapst
demonstrated for the first time, fast, accurate, and secure wireless optical communi-
cation at up to 125Kbps data rate.

v
vi Preface

More than two decades later, in 2003, Tanaka et al. validated years of theoretical
research and developed a VLC system that conveyed data over illumination at a data
rate of 400 Mbps.
Since then, researchers worldwide presented important works in VLC area. From
a 500 Mbps data rate in a Line of Sight (LoS) topology demonstrated in 2006 to
15.73 Gbps validated in a research laboratory in 2019, step by step, totally or
partially, the many drawbacks of the VLC systems have been overcome.
Numerous VLC projects with remarkable ideas have made possible various
implementations in different fields. A number of areas, such as those where wireless
data communication based on RF is limited (airplanes or health facilities) or forbid-
den (nuclear power plants, petrochemical industry, or coal underground mines with
high explosion risk) as well as other overcrowded places with high demanding
wireless connectivity, are appropriate places for VLC to be used.
For some years, efforts have been made to deploy systems based on VLC, in
different fields, as indoor data wireless communication or indoor positioning sys-
tems and navigation (e.g. in museums, supermarkets, or underground). VLC is also
envisioned to become an advanced technology embedded in smart medical devices,
home appliances, or various other devices. Vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V), infrastructure-
to-vehicle (I2V), or vehicle-to-infrastructure (V2I) types of communication, as well
as underwater and underground VLC are promising research areas, as well.
The miner's profession is one of the most dangerous one worldwide, mainly
because of the specific workplace characteristics. For the underground mining area
activity, no matter the type of exploitation, ore, coal, salt, or any other kind of
minerals, a significant volume of research has been dedicated to identifying the main
risk factors for health and workers' safety and decreasing, as much as possible, their
negative effects.
In order to improve workers' safety underground, many different technologies
have been already theoretically proposed and some practically applied. The workers’
position underground and continuous monitoring of risk factors in real time are
important issues in underground operation, where the conditions are continuously
changing.
More and more internationally well-known companies run projects aiming to add
to the core illumination function, data communication, and to solve challenges for
high-speed, highly secure wireless connectivity.
The VLC technology promises to provide, in the near future, a safer, faster, and
greener underground data wireless communication system. As fast this technology
develops, within a few years, we expect to see VLC together with other wireless
complementary technologies creating a new ubiquitous computing platform. Under
this forthcoming integration, every device large enough to include an LED, a
transmitter driver, and a light sensor can be connected and powered by VLC.

Petroşani, Romania Simona Mirela Riurean

Petroşani, Romania Monica Leba
Petroşani, Romania Andreea Cristina Ionica
Abbreviations

ACO-OFDM Asymmetrically Clipped Optical OFDM

ADC Analogue-to-Digital Converter
AoA Angle-of-Arrival
AP Access Point
APD Avalanche Photo Diode
AR/VR Augmented Reality/Virtual Reality
ARPANET Advanced Research Projects Agency Network
AS Accelerometer Sensor
ASCII American Standard Code for Information Interchange
ASIC Application-Specific Integrated Circuit
ASK Amplitude Shift Keying
ATA Analogue Telephone Adapter
AWG Arbitrary Waveform Generator
AWGN Additive White Gaussian Noise
AZO Aluminium Doped Zinc Oxide LED
BAN Body Area Network
BER Bit Error Ratio
BJT Bipolar Junction Transistors
BLE Bluetooth Low Energy
BRDF Bidirectional Reflectance Distribution Function
BW Bandwidth
CAP ` Carrierless Amplitude and Phase
CB Coherence Bandwidth
CCR Constant Current Reduction
CD Chromatic Dispersion
CIR Channel Impulse Response
CM Coded Modulation
CMOS Complementary Metal-Oxide Semiconductor
CRD Colour Rendering Index
CSK Color Shift Keying
CSMA/CA Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Avoidance
vii
viii Abbreviations

CU Ceiling Unit
DAC Digital-to-Analogue Converter
DC Data Centre
DCO Direct Current Biased Optical
DCO-OFDM DC biased Optical–Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing
DD Direct Detection
DFE Decision Feedback Equalizer
DFT-s-OFDM Discrete Fourier Transformation spread OFDM
DMT Discrete Multitone
DS Delay Spread
DSP Digital Signal Processor
DSP Digital Signal Processing
DU Desktop Unit
E/O Electrical/Optical
ED Excess Delay
EMI Electromagnetic Interference
ENOB Effective Number of Bits
EPSRC Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council
FDM Frequency-Division Multiplexing
FEC Forward Error Correction
FFT Fast Fourier Transform
FIR Finite Impulse Response
FL Fluorescent Lamps
FMF Few-Mode Fibre
FoV Field of View
FSO Free Space Optics
FWHM Full Width at Half Maximum
FWHT Fast Walsh–Hadamard Transform
GaN Gallium Nitride
GBDM Geometry-Based Deterministic Models
GBSM Geometry-Based Stochastic Model
HCM Hadamard Coded Modulation
HL Halogen Lamps
HPC High-Performance Computing Infrastructure
IB Incandescent Bulbs
ICI Inter-Carrier Interference
IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
IETF Internet Engineering Task Force
IFFT Inverse Fast Fourier Transform
IM Intensity Modulation
IM/DD Intensity Modulation/Direct Detection
IoT Internet of Things
IPS Indoor Positioning Systems
IR Infrared
Abbreviations ix

IS Image Sensor
ISI Intersymbol Interference
JEITA Japan Electronics and Information Technology Industries
Association
LED Light Emitting Diode
LFS Leaky Feeder System
LiFi Light Fidelity
LoS Line of Sight
LTE Long-Term Evolution
M2M Machine-to-Machine Communication
MAC Medium Access Control
MCBM Modified Ceiling-Bounce Model
MCMT Multi-Carrier Modulation Techniques
MIMO Multiple-Input, Multiple-Output
MMCA Modified Monte Carlo Algorithm
MOSFET Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistors
M-PAM Multi level Pulse Amplitude Modulation
M-PPM Multi level Pulse Position Modulation
NFC Near-Field Communication
NFT Nonlinear Fourier Transform
NLOS Non-Line of Sight
NLSE Nonlinear Schrödinger Equation
NON GBSM Non Geometry-Based Stochastic Model
NRZ Not Return to Zero
N-SC Nyquist Single Carrier
OCC Optical Camera Communication
OFDM Orthogonal Frequency-Division Multiplexing
OLED Organic LED
OOK On/Off Keying
oRx optical Receiver
oTx optical Transmitter
OWC Optical Wireless Communication
PAM Pulse Amplitude Modulation
PAN Personal Area Network
PAPR Peak to Average Power Ratio
PCB Printed Circuit Board
PCM Pulse Code Modulation
PD Photodetector
PDM Polarization-Division Multiplexing
PHY Physical layer
PIN PD Positive Intrinsic Negative Photodiode
PLC Power Line Communication
PLED Polymer LED
PMD Polarization-Mode Dispersion
x Abbreviations

PoE Power over Ethernet

PON Passive Optical Network
PPM Pulse Position Modulation
PS Phase-Shifted
PSD Power Spectral Density
PSK Phase Shift Keying
QAM Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
R&D Research & Development
RF Radio-Frequency
RFID Radio-Frequency Identification
RGB Red Green Blue
RMS DS Root-Mean-Square Delay Spread
RMS Root-Mean-Square
RS Reed–Solomon
RS GBSM Regular-Shaped GBSM
RSS Received Signal Strengths
SC Smart City
SCMT Single-Carrier Modulation Techniques
SDM Space-Division Multiplexing
SH Smart Houses
SLD Super Luminescent Diode
SNR Signal-to-Noise Ratio
SPAD Single Photon Avalanche Detector
SR Spectral Response
SSL Solid-State Lighting
TCP/IP Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol
TDM Time-Division Multiplexing
TDoA Time-Difference-of-Arrival
TIA Trans-Impedance Amplifier
ToA Time of Arrival
TTE Through-the-Earth Transmission
UHF Ultra High Frequency
UOWC Underwater Optical Wireless Communications
UP&MS Underground Positioning & Monitoring System
USBM US Bureau of Mines
UTP Unshielded Twisted Pairs
UV Ultraviolet
UWB Ultra-Wideband
VCSEL Vertical-Cavity Surface Emitting Laser
VHF Very High Frequency
VLC Visible Light Communication
VLCC Visible Light Communication Consortium
VLD Violet Laser Diode
VoD Ventilation on Demand
Abbreviations xi

VoIP Voice over Internet Protocol

VPPM Variable PPM
WDM Wavelength Division Multiplexing
WiMAX World Interoperability for Microwave Access
WLAN Wireless Local Area Networks
WLED White LED
Contents

1 OWC Developments and Worldwide Implementations . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1 Short History of OWC Concepts and Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Motivation for Using VLC as an Alternative to RF . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 Significant Worldwide Achievements in Wireless
Light-Based Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3.1 Infrared Wireless Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3.2 Visible Light Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3.3 Optical Camera Communication (OCC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.4 OWC Technologies and Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.4.1 Indoor Positioning Systems with VLC and OCC . . . . . . . . 16
1.4.2 Indoor Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.4.3 Hybrid Indoor Connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.4.4 V2V, V2I, I2V and I2I Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.4.5 VLC Embedded in Toys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
1.4.6 Underwater Resource Exploration Based on VLC
Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
1.5 VLC Technology Developed for Underground Mine . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1.6 Worldwide Cross-Countries Corporation and Funds
Invested in VLC Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2 Conventional and Advanced Technologies for Wireless
Transmission in Underground Mine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.1 Short Survey on Conventional Communication Systems in
Underground Mine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.2 Wireless Transmission Based on Visible Light.
A Detailed Blueprint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.2.1 Optical Setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
2.2.2 Electrical Setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

xiii
xiv Contents

2.2.3 Channel Models for IR and VLC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

2.2.4 Modulation Techniques for VLC Setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
2.2.5 IEEE Standard for VLC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
References . ........................................... . 116
3 A Hybrid Communication System for Mining Industry. From
RequirementS’ Analysis to Testing the Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
3.1 State-oF-the-ARt and RequirementS’ Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
3.2 System DesIGN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
3.2.1 General Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
3.2.2 System Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
3.3 System Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
3.3.1 Hardware Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
3.3.2 Software Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
3.4 Integration and Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210

Notations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
List of Figures

Fig. 1.1 Part of the electromagnetic spectrum discovery timeline . . . . . . . . . . 2

Fig. 1.2 Part of the electromagnetic spectrum with VL emphasised . . . . . . . 4
Fig. 1.3 RIR IPv4 Run-Down model [11]. AFRINIC African Network
Information Centre is the Regional Internet Registry (RIR) for
Africa, APNIC Regional Internet Registry administering IP
addresses for the Asia Pacific, ARIN American Registry for
Internet Numbers, RIPE NCC Regional Internet Registry (RIR)
for Europe, the Middle East, and parts of Central Asia, LACNIC
Regional Internet Registry for the Latin American and Caribbean
regions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Fig. 1.4 The augmented trend of Wi-Fi domination in Internet traffic
[14] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Fig. 1.5 Milestones for VLC standardisation, research
and development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Fig. 1.6 Timeline of data rates and considered/improved
characteristics in a VLC system by different researchers
worldwide .. . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . 9
Fig. 1.7 Different domains of application for VLC, IR,
OCC and FSO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Fig. 1.8 The Korean Shopping IPS cart with OCC system
integrated [86] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . 18
Fig. 1.9 General representation of the Qualcomm’s Lumicast
project of IPS with OCC (adapted from [87]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Fig. 1.10 The dongle device of the Outstanding Technology company
[92] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Fig. 1.11 Beam Caster’s different implementations (adapted
from [97]) .. . . . .. . . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . . .. . . . .. . . 21
Fig. 1.12 Li-Flame Ceiling Unit (CU) (source http://purelifi.com/
LiFire/li-flame/) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Fig. 1.13 Li-Flame Desktop Unit (DU) (source http://purelifi.com/
LiFire/li-flame/) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

xv
xvi List of Figures

Fig. 1.14 LiFi-X (source: http://purelifi.com/LiFi-products/

LiFi-x/) .. . . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . 22
Fig. 1.15 pureLiFi block diagram for the academic evaluation
kit: LiF-XC station, LiFi-XC Access Point, Lucicup II
Luminaires .. . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . 23
Fig. 1.16 Underground positioning arhitecture and communication
modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Fig. 2.1 General diagram of a VLC system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Fig. 2.2 Main blocks of a transmission link in VLC (Adapted
from [39]). 1—DSP + DAC, 2—signal, 3—LED with optics,
4—optical wireless channel (white light), 5—Filter, 6—Lens
(optical concentrator), 7—PD, 8—TIA, 9—DSP Board . . . . . . . . . . 47
Fig. 2.3 Topology of a direct LOS communication between oTx
and oRx . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Fig. 2.4 Geometrical model of a LoS VLC link . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Fig. 2.5 Geometrical model of a directed NLoS with a single
reflection LoS light propagation topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Fig. 2.6 Delay spread and coherence bandwidth for high reflective
objects .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . 53
Fig. 2.7 Delay spread and coherence bandwidth for low reflective
objects .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . 53
Fig. 2.8 The inside structure of a LED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Fig. 2.9 Normalized Lambertian characteristics (Lambertian mode
numbers, for 10  20 and  60 patterns and
corresponding FOV. (Adapted from [39]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Fig. 2.10 LEDs and PDs optical spectral response in OWC
(adapted from [39]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Fig. 2.11 Internal structure and symbol of a p–n junction diode . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Fig. 2.12 Quantum efficiency (percent) of PDs according
to their material [39] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Fig. 2.13 Optical band-pass filter’s internal structure and final
product [76] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Fig. 2.14 LED series resistor circuit with DC power supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Fig. 2.15 MOSFET and BJT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Fig. 2.16 (a) N-channel JFET and (b) N-channel MOSFET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Fig. 2.17 NPN BJT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Fig. 2.18 LED and T in series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Fig. 2.19 LED and T in parallel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Fig. 2.20 CMOS inverter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Fig. 2.21 Pulse width modulation current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Fig. 2.22 A regular amplifier circuit (adapted from [80]) . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . 82
Fig. 2.23 Tx with preemphasis drive circuit with wideband
NPN transistors (adapted from [85]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Fig. 2.24 VLC bias-T . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
List of Figures xvii

Fig. 2.25 Feedback TIA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

Fig. 2.26 TIA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Fig. 2.27 Passive analog high pass filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Fig. 2.28 Optical wireless communication models. GBDM
geometry-based deterministic models, GBSM geometry-based
stochastic model, NON GBSM non geometry-based stochastic
model, RS GBSM regular-shaped GBSM, MCBM Modified
Ceiling-Bounce Model (CBM), MMCA Modified Monte Carlo
Algorithm . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . 88
Fig. 2.29 Rayleigh scattering (a) and Raman scattering (b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Fig. 2.30 Light’s behavior incident to surfaces and matter into underground
spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Fig. 2.31 IM/DD general diagram for VLC. ED electrical domain, EM
electrical modulator, OIM optical intensity modulator, AWGN
Additive White Gaussian Noise, ODD optical direct detection,
F matched filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Fig. 2.32 Single-carrier modulation techniques. OOK On–off keying,
M-PAM multilevel pulse amplitude modulation, M-PPM
multilevel pulse position modulation, PWM pulse width
modulation, CAP carrierless amplitude modulation, DFT-s-
OFDM discrete Fourier transformation spread OFDM . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Fig. 2.33 Waveform of ASK modulation signal . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . .. . . 101
Fig. 2.34 PAM, PWM, and PPM modulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Fig. 2.35 PPM and PAM modulations. D/A Digital to Analog conversion,
A/D Analog to Digital conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Fig. 2.36 General representation of modulation and demodulation stages for
VLC. S/P serial/parallel, IFFT inverse fast Fourier transform,
CP cyclic prefix, D/A digital/analog, A/D analog/digital, FFT
fast Fourier transform, P/S parallel/serial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Fig. 2.37 CAP modulation diagram (adapted from [130]). Following up
sampling, a(t) and b(t) are the original bit sequences. Following
digital to analog conversion, s(t) are the transmitted bit sequences.
AWGN additive white Gaussian noise, Following analog to digital
conversion, r(t) is the received bit sequence. Following in-phase
matching filter, rI(t) is the bit sequence. Following quadrature
matching filter, rQ(t) is the bit sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
xviii List of Figures

Fig. 2.38 The most used OFDM multicarriers modulations (adapted from
[134]). DCO⁃OFDM DC biased OFDM, ACO⁃OFDM
Asymmetrically Clipped Optical OFDM, PAM⁃DMT Pulse
Amplitude Modulation—Discrete Multitone, U⁃OFDM Unipolar
OFDM, eU⁃OFDM enhanced Unipolar OFDM, eACO⁃OFDM
enhanced Asymmetrically Clipped Optical OFDM, ePAM⁃DMT
enhanced PAM⁃DMT, SEE⁃OFDM Spectrally and Energy
Efficient OFDM, LACO⁃OFDM Layered ACO⁃OFDM,
RPO⁃OFDM Reverse Polarity Optical OFDM, P⁃OFDM Polar
OFDM, ASCO⁃OFDM Asymmetrically and Symmetrically
Clipped Optical OFDM, SFO⁃OFDM Spectrally Factorized
Optical OFDM, PM⁃OFDM Position Modulation OFDM,
HACO⁃OFDM Hybrid Asymmetrically Clipped Optical OFDM,
ADO⁃OFDM Asymmetrically Clipped DC biased Optical
OFDM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Fig. 2.39 Diagram of DCO-OFDM (adapted from [130]). QAM quadrature
amplitude modulation, S/P serial/parallel, IFFT inverse fast
Fourier transformation, P/S parallel/serial, CP cyclic prefix, D/A
digital/analog, A/D analog/digital, FFT fast Fourier
transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Fig. 2.40 Comparation on stages between DCO-OFDM and
ACO-OFDM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Fig. 2.41 Diagram of ACO-OFDM (Adapted from [157]). QAM quadrature
amplitude modulation, IFFT inverse fast Fourier transformation,
P/S parallel/serial, D/A Digital/Analogue, FFT Fast Fourier
Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Fig. 2.42 Constellation of colors from the chromatic CIE 1931 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Fig. 2.43 PHY layer for VLC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Fig. 3.1 A LFS system deployed underground (adapted from [2]) . . . . . . . . . 129
Fig. 3.2 A general view of a networking backbone of fiber optic . . . . . . . . . . 134
Fig. 3.3 General view of the UP&MS installed into the underground
spaces. (1) Miner’s helmet cap-lamp as oTx with the VLC driver
system embedded. (2) Access Point as oRx with the VLC driver
embedded. (3) VLC location controllers. (4) Master controller
board—Communication head node. (5) Router. (6) Server. (7) PC.
(a) Main galleries with the illumination network/optical fiber
already setup. (b) Coal/waste seam. (c) Vertical mine shaft. (d)
Operating cage room. (e) Surface main monitoring and
surveilance room . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Fig. 3.4 Both VLC transmitter (oTx) and receiver (oRx) on the main
gallery underground. oTx—on the miner’s helmet cap-lamp.
oRx—embedded into the illumination network/optical fibre . . . . . . 138
Fig. 3.5 The light beam of the miner’s helmet cap-lamp, piggybacks data
to AP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
List of Figures xix

Fig. 3.6 The miners’ identity and her/his location displayed

on a digital map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Fig. 3.7 The functional representation of the VLC system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Fig. 3.8 EAN 8 bar code, an example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Fig. 3.9 Type of miner’s cap lamp and its position on miner’s helmet in the
VLC system design considered . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Fig. 3.10 A VLC system with lens in front of LED and PD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Fig. 3.11 Refractive light beam shaping systems with aspheric lens. (a)
Configuration of a Galilean magnifying beam shaping system. (b)
Configuration of Galilean demagnifying beam shaping system
consisted of one magnifying and one demagnifying system. (c)
Configuration of a Galilean demagnifying beam shaping system
consisted of only one demagnifying system. (d) Configuration of a
Keplerian plano-convex lens as refractive beam shaping
system . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . 145
Fig. 3.12 Fermat’s law setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
Fig. 3.13 Incident and refracted ray through glass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Fig. 3.14 Biconvex lens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Fig. 3.15 Biconvex lenses in front of LED, case A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Fig. 3.18 Ray tracing according to Phet simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Fig. 3.16 Biconvex lenses in front of LED, case B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Fig. 3.17 Biconvex lenses in front of LED, case C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Fig. 3.19 Schematic representation of LED, biconvex lens
(LEN) and PD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Fig. 3.20 The two triangles alike behind lens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Fig. 3.21 The two triangle alike in front of lens . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Fig. 3.22 Simulation for distances d1 and d2 in case of a biconvex lens
placed in front of LED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
Fig. 3.23 A plano-convex lens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
Fig. 3.24 Diagram and equivalent test circuits for 2 N3094 transistor . . . . . . 156
Fig. 3.25 Simulation of circuit with three LEDs dimming/brightness
with overloaded current on LEDs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Fig. 3.26 Simulation of circuit with three LEDs dimming/brightness . . . . . . . 159
Fig. 3.27 Electronic circuits designed and simulated for the
oTx driver . . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . 160
Fig. 3.28 LED’s characteristics plotted . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . 160
Fig. 3.29 Plotting Q2, the NPN transistor . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . .. . . 161
Fig. 3.30 Plotting Q1, the NPN transistor . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . .. . . 161
Fig. 3.31 Simulation of the electronic circuit of the oTx with
EveryCircuit application . . . .. . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . .. . . 162
Fig. 3.32 The yellow waveform of the input signal highlighted . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Fig. 3.33 The blue waveform of the input voltage highlighted . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Fig. 3.34 The orange waveform of the LED highlighted . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
Fig. 3.35 oTx circuit with Arduino Uno (Proteus ISIS app) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Fig. 3.36 Options in preference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
xx List of Figures

Fig. 3.37 Setting the compilation procedure in Preference

(Arduino 1.8.5 app) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Fig. 3.38 Arduino Uno component edited in ISIS . .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. . .. .. . .. 167
Fig. 3.39 Basic configuration of Op Amp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Fig. 3.40 Relative radiant sensitivity versus angular displacement . . . . . . . . . . 169
Fig. 3.41 Simulation of the oRx with Op-Amp TL072 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
Fig. 3.42 Simulation of the oRx electronic circuit in Multisim
with Op-Amp NE5532P . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Fig. 3.43 Verbose output during compilation display . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . 173
Fig. 3.44 Arduino Mega and oTx (Proteus ISIS app) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
Fig. 3.45 Settings for simulation the oRx circuit with TL072 . . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . 175
Fig. 3.46 VLC setup for a LoS topology underground . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
Fig. 3.47 Settings for simulation the oRx circuit with NE5532P . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
Fig. 3.48 Results of the first scenario simulated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Fig. 3.49 Results of the second scenario simulated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Fig. 3.50 Results of the third scenario simulated in Octave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Fig. 3.51 LEDs panel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
Fig. 3.52 Different types of LEDs tested .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . 184
Fig. 3.53 LED’s dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Fig. 3.54 Transistors 2 N3904 and 2SC5200 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
Fig. 3.55 oTx with LED array panel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
Fig. 3.56 oTx breadboard with LED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Fig. 3.57 oTx board . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . 187
Fig. 3.58 Types of photocell panels tested . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
Fig. 3.59 Different types of PD tested . . .. . . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . 189
Fig. 3.60 PIN PD used for the oRx in the VLC system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Fig. 3.61 Op Amps tested and used in VLC system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
Fig. 3.62 oRx circuit on breadboard tested with solar panel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
Fig. 3.63 Both oRx circuits on breadboards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Fig. 3.64 Both oRx circuits on boards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Fig. 3.65 The final prototype (left oTx and right oRx) under test . . . . . . . . . . . 192
Fig. 3.66 Odd, even, and CRC positions of the digits on the bar
code, an example . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . . .. . . . .. . 193
Fig. 3.67 Flowchart of the oTx . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Fig. 3.68 Data stored into oTx driver with the VLC embedded. An
example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Fig. 3.69 Different duty cycles for the same frequency .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . 196
Fig. 3.70 Flowchart of the oRx driver embedded in AP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Fig. 3.71 Ethernet frame embedded in AP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
Fig. 3.72 Data acquired are stored on laptop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
Fig. 3.73 LoS topology setup inside the gallery prototype
(dimensions in mm) .. . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . 200
Fig. 3.74 The VLC setup inside the prototype of the gallery.
Front view . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
List of Figures xxi

Fig. 3.75 Setups for simulation with the real situation. (1) Distance between
LED and PD on x axis is 1000 mm; (2) PD tilt with angle 45
degrees on y axys; (3) c. LED positioned at 70 mm high from
bottom; d. LED tilt with angle 45 degrees on y axis . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . 202
Fig. 3.76 Light beam spread in front of LED (without lens) 10 mm from
LED (left) and 20 mm in front of LED (right). The optical
distribution of LED used is checked at 10 and 20 mm in front of
LED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Fig. 3.77 Arduino app. Display with code data (EAN 8) and signal sent . . . 203
Fig. 3.78 Data (Lamp ID 23456785) received at PD’s terminals seen on
oscilloscope display . .. . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . .. . 204
Fig. 3.79 Setup inside the gallery to complete tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
Fig. 3.80 Signals sent (channel 1 blue/up) and received (channel 2—yellow/
down) displayed on the oscilloscope screen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Fig. 3.81 Data processed with EViews support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
Fig. 3.82 Simulation results (red—real data acquired, green—estimated
data, blue—error) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
List of Tables

Table 1.1 Milestones for IR indoor wireless communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Table 2.1 Specific photometric and radiometric quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Table 2.2 The working characteristic parameters of different material
PINs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Table 2.3 Characteristics of PDs used in OWC systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Table 2.4 Comparison between MOSFET and BJT characteristics . . . . . . . . 79
Table 2.5 Comparison between some single carrier modulations . . . . . . . . . . 108
Table 2.6 CIE1931 color model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Table 3.1 Potential RF emitters in a US coal mine [1] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Table 3.2 EAN-8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Table 3.3 Electrical and photometric characteristics of lamps used by
miners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Table 3.4 Characteristics of NPN transistor 2N3904 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Table 3.5 Characteristics of NPN transistor SC5200N . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Table 3.6 Arduino Uno’s main characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
Table 3.7 Characteristics of BPW20R PIN PD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Table 3.8 TL072 parameters . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . 170
Table 3.9 PIN PD VTB8440B . . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . 171
Table 3.10 Op Amp NE5532 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Table 3.11 Arduino Mega’s characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
Table 3.12 Characteristics considered for the optical channel [23] . . . . . . . . . . 177
Table 3.13 Data analyzed with EViews software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206

xxiii
Chapter 1
OWC Developments and Worldwide
Implementations

1.1 Short History of OWC Concepts and Terms

Optical wireless communication (OWC) refers to any kind of communication based

on light as a wireless transmission medium.
Visible light communication (VLC), free space optics (FSO), optical camera
communication (OCC), light fidelity (Li-Fi) and infrared (IR) are all different parts
or applications of OWC.
VLC refers to an artificial light source, a light emission diode (LED) (picocells,
attocells or laser diodes—LD) that uses illumination to send data piggybacked by the
same light beam. The light beam ‘hits’ the active area of a photodiode (PD) (positive
intrinsic negative photodiode—PIN PD or an avalanche photodiode—APD) and
therefore, the optical signal is converted into an electrical one.
FSO communication, similar to VLC, covers additionally, the ultraviolet
(UV) and infrared (IR) spectrum and it doesn’t have an illumination requirement,
thus, communication links between buildings are a good example of proper appli-
cation. Using IR for wireless communication over a distance of several kilometres,
for a long-range transmission is also referred to as free space optics (FSO). As its first
useful applicability, FSO came to bridge the gap between the end user and the
already setup fibre optic infrastructure. The ultra-long range, of over 104 km solution
(also called FSO), has been already successfully applied for Earth-to-satellite or
satellite-to-satellite wireless communications [1].
OCC indoor is a practical application of VLC, which uses the camera embedded
into smart devices as a transceiver to combine imaging, illumination and wireless
communication into a single platform. OCC uses LEDs as transmitters, as laser
diodes (LDs) are not appropriate optical transmitters. OCC outdoor is still unreliable
since the sunlight direct detection highly interferes with the dedicated optical signal.
Li-Fi, as one of the wireless communication emerging technologies, was coined
by Professor Harald Haas in 2011, making an inspired analogy with Wi-Fi and
therefore drawing worldwide attention, and thus, raised the interest of both scientific

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 1

S. M. Riurean et al., Application of Visible Light Wireless Communication in
Underground Mine, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-61408-9_1
2 1 OWC Developments and Worldwide Implementations

Fig. 1.1 Part of the electromagnetic spectrum discovery timeline

and business communities. Although not standardised or fully developed yet at its
entire potential, Li-Fi technology has already been deployed on the market in 2018
and promises to exponentially grow in the near future. Li-Fi can be described as a
high speed, fully networked, duplex, multiple input–multiple output (MIMO) wire-
less communication system that uses the LED lighting fixture and available infra-
structure for signal transmission. Li-Fi technology, equivalent to Wi-Fi, transmits
data using light instead of radio [2].
Li-Fi concept refers to a system embedded into the LED lighting fixture to allow
wireless fast data to be piggybacked by illumination. Full-duplex communication is
possible due to download on visible light and upload on the infrared spectrum.
Multiple mobile users and wireless handoff from one Li-Fi access point (AP) to
another is also possible in early deployed Li-Fi systems.
Since Li-Fi allows multiple gigabits transmission, it ‘holds the key to solving
challenges faced by spectrum crunch’ and 5G wireless technology due to its
strengths: uniquely more secure, virtually interference-free and more reliable than
current wireless technologies based on radio frequency (RF) [3].
Furthermore, LEDs lighting is also forecast to replace present illumination light
bulbs/lamps (incandescent bulbs, fluorescent or halogen lamps) and spread world-
wide due to their obvious advantages (long lifetime—25,000–50,000 h, high energy
conversion efficiency, low heat generation, high tolerance to humidity and high/low
temperatures, mercury free, compact size). Thus, the market for Li-Fi wireless data
communication technology is wide open.
The IR systems related to OWC applications use wavelength within the range of
780–950 nm matching the peak sensitivity of low cost, off the shelf photodiodes
(PDs). The remote control remains the most widespread application of IR for
wireless signal communication.
OWC has the potential to provide security, enough THz of unlicensed bandwidth
(BW) and important spatial reuse. The existing light emission diodes (LEDs)
lighting infrastructure will soon have simultaneously two functions: illumination
and data communication [2].
OWC uses optical wavelengths in the infrared (IR), visible, and ultraviolet
(UV) regions of the spectrum. VLC is therefore part of OWC.
Parts of the electromagnetic spectrum (Fig. 1.1) have been discovered and defined
chronologically since the eighteenth century, as follows:
– 1800—Sir William Herschel—Infrared IR
1.2 Motivation for Using VLC as an Alternative to RF 3

– 1801—Johann Wilhelm Ritter—Ultraviolet UV

– 1867—James Clerk Maxwell anticipated that there should be light with longer
wavelengths than IR light
– 1887—Heinrich Hertz demonstrated the existence of the waves anticipated by
Maxwell by generating radio waves in his laboratory
– 1895—Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen – X-rays
– 1900—Paul Villard, investigating radiation from radium, observed gamma rays
– 1914—Ernest Rutherford coined ‘gamma-rays’ [4].
Light is an essential support of our everyday life and is becoming an important
means of human communication. Most of the authors start their scientific reports
regarding the history of wireless optical communication mentioning the ancient
times when the light has been used as a reliable means of messages’ transmission
in the form of smoke signals and beacon fires. For example, long-distance signals
were sent by Romans moving polished metallic plates in sunlight. For centuries,
after the Great Chinese Wall (21,196 km long) was constructed (200 BC), its
guardians were beckoning, announcing Mongolian invasions, with smoke signals.
In the 1790s, semaphore lines were developed based on optical communication
systems. Starting from 1792 engineer Claude Chappe from France, together with his
brother, developed and deployed, until the 1850s, the first optical telegraphy net-
work having 556 stations, covering a total distance of 4800 km, being used for
military and national communications [5].
After 1863, the U.S. military used solar power to send information between two
mountains’ peak (Panamint Ridge and San Gabriel Mountain), creating the wireless
solar telegraph, named heliograph, based on Morse code flashes of mirror reflected
sunlight [6].
The photophone invented by Alexander Graham Bell in June 1880, used sunlight
reflected off a selenium photocell and a vibrating mirror to send signals over 200 m
[7]. This has been considered as the first application of an FSO communication since
Bell succeeded to modulate a voice message onto a light signal [8].
For centuries, blinking lights have been used for navigation, sending messages
between ships on sea or communicating with onshore lighthouses.

1.2 Motivation for Using VLC as an Alternative to RF

Data traffic based on wireless communications, mostly indoor, is forecast to expo-

nentially increase in the coming years. This perspective in a short time requires new
Gbps type of communication’ systems. Today, the main challenge is in developing
such wireless systems using high-speed RF, but it is widely acknowledged that it will
soon become impossible to be extended because of the limited radio spectrum.
Therefore, it is compulsory to explore different parts of the EM spectrum
(Fig. 1.2), in order to develop reliable, technologically advanced systems, for
wireless communication applications.
4 1 OWC Developments and Worldwide Implementations

Fig. 1.2 Part of the electromagnetic spectrum with VL emphasised

As history reveals, humankind has been continuously seeking to find a better

understanding of life, of physical phenomena in this world, so the light, in all its
forms, is not an exception. Researchers have been trying to understand nature in
order to use it for a healthier, longer and easier living. One of the most important
keys to a better living seems to be human communication. Both face to face and
remote, the worldwide human-to-human communication, has always brought sig-
nificant technological advances.
The last three decades brought many improvements in all aspects of communi-
cation, especially in wireless communication, due to the remarkable progress of
technology. The Internet is the highest boom ever with the most significant effects in
humans’ everyday life. The number of the world wide web users is witnessing an
incredible growth. According to Internet Worlds Stats, on 31 December 2017, the
number of internet users was 4,156,932,140 [9]. It is estimated that, by 2023, there
will be 5.3 billion total Internet users (66% of the global population), 3.6 networked
devices per capita, 14.7 billion M2M connections, 29.3 billion networked
devices [10].
As a result of unprecedented growth of technological advancements in commu-
nication, especially in the wireless transmission that allows mobility, about two
decades ago the number of IPs (IPv4 has 232, meaning 4.3 billion addresses) proved
to be insufficient for all available devices to be connected to the Internet. The number
of logical addresses IPv4 is about to be out of stock, as the Regional Internet Registry
(RIR) report (generated at 25 February 2020) shows (Fig. 1.3) [11]. That situation
forced the specialists worldwide to find different ways to fulfil the devices’ hunger
for IPs to be uniquely identified on the Internet. IPv4 has been deployed in 1983 by
the Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET) as the core protocol
of standards based on internetworking methods. More than one decade later, in 1998,
the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) formalised IPv6 that uses a 128-bit
address, allowing in this way a theoretical 3.4
1038 available addresses [12]. There-
fore, the number of possible addresses IPv6 raises to 2128, more than 7.9
1028
times as many as IPv4. There are some transition mechanisms that allow good
1.2 Motivation for Using VLC as an Alternative to RF 5

4.5
AFRINIC
APNIC
ARIN
4
RIPE NCC
LACNIC
3.5

3
RIR Address Pool

2.5

1.5

0.5

0
2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021
YEAR

Fig. 1.3 RIR IPv4 Run-Down model [11]. AFRINIC African Network Information Centre is the
Regional Internet Registry (RIR) for Africa, APNIC Regional Internet Registry administering IP
addresses for the Asia Pacific, ARIN American Registry for Internet Numbers, RIPE NCC Regional
Internet Registry (RIR) for Europe, the Middle East, and parts of Central Asia, LACNIC Regional
Internet Registry for the Latin American and Caribbean regions

communication between IPv4 and IPv6 addresses, thus, the unique identification of
each smart device connected into the IoT networks seems to be solved, so far.
The RF spectrum extends from 3 kHz to 300 GHz in the range of the EM
spectrum and is controlled and used under strict rules. Wi-Fi originally operated in
the 2.4 GHz band, then at 5 GHz but now many applications are expected to benefit
from the 60 GHz millimetre-wave solutions.
A while ago, the Wireless Gigabit Alliance proposed the use of the millimetre
waves in the license-free 60 GHz band, where 7 Gbps short-range wireless links are
available for 7 GHz bandwidth. The 60 GHz band is considered as a part of the IEEE
802.11ad structure for very high data throughput in Wireless Local Area Networks
(WLANs) using MIMO techniques [13]. Still, the wireless technologies Bluetooth,
BLE and Wi-Fi have become victims of their own success. This situation has been
created on one hand by a constantly increasing number of devices connected to the
Internet and on the other hand by their ‘hunger’ of data attempting to access higher
volumes of multimedia content.
For a short time, millimetre-wave technology can provide a solution to the
bandwidth crunch. In this spectrum range, however, links are highly one direction
6 1 OWC Developments and Worldwide Implementations

Fig. 1.4 The augmented trend of Wi-Fi domination in Internet traffic [14]

communication, and, therefore, they need complicated digital beamforming and

tracking algorithms for their application in mobile wireless networks.
According to the Cisco Visual Networking Index (CVNI) Global IP Traffic
Forecast, wired and wireless global internet traffic (Fig. 1.4) doubled in 2019
compared to 2016 [14].
VLC has been identified as a potential solution in order to alleviate the forth-
coming RF spectrum crisis.
The visible space of the EM spectrum starts at 380 nm, ends at 750 nm and covers
more than 300 THz. It can be used for light communications over a significant wide
range of frequencies [15]. VLC can be useful in many communication applications,
from millimetres range interconnected within integrated circuits (ICs) up to outdoor
kilometres links [16, 17].
Since free Radio Frequency (RF) bandwidth is no longer available worldwide,
reliable, partner technologies are to be considered. OWC has lately grown as a highly
potential ‘reliable partner’ of RF communication for an indoor ubiquitous mobile
wireless transmission.
However, this spectacular bright side of technological growth brings along a
different sight, a difficult to achieve one, that forces scientists to rush the R&D
process in order to deploy reliable wireless VLC systems worldwide.

1.3 Significant Worldwide Achievements in Wireless

Light-Based Communication

1.3.1 Infrared Wireless Communication

For reliable IR systems, the oTx wavelength must be between 850 and 950 nm and
the link lengths up to 10 m. IR wireless communication has today various
implementations being categorised depending on the specific application area, the
distance between oTx and oRx, and the link type [18].
1.3 Significant Worldwide Achievements in Wireless Light-Based Communication 7

In the case of ultra-short-range IR communication, millimetres links refer to inter

and intra chip communications that bring several advantages over copper cabled
connections.
Some of the short-range IR wireless communication examples are the Wireless
Body Area Networks (WBAN) [19] such as wireless medical devices or Wireless
Personal Area Networks (WPAN) such as wireless game controllers, computer
peripherals, remote controls or remote electronic keys.
Wireless Local Area Networks (WLANs), as medium range IR wireless connec-
tion, provide indoor IR network connectivity [20].
From 1979 till 2003, significant milestones for IR indoor wireless communication
have been established by researchers worldwide (Table 1.1).

1.3.2 Visible Light Communication

2Almost two decades ago (due to important discoveries both regarding the optical
and electronic parts of the final devices), the visible field of the electromagnetic
spectrum has, for the first time, been considered as a potential candidate for a reliable
indoor wireless communication and therefore has been regulated in Japan (Fig. 1.5).
Following the Japanese Visible Light Communication Consortium (VLCC) pro-
posal, in June 2007, the Japan Electronics and Information Technology Industries
Association (JEITA) issued the first two visible light standards JEITA CP-1221 and
JEITA CP-1222 [25].
The TG7 task group, Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), at
the beginning of 2009, was working on a VLC standard 802.15.7 covering both
Medium Access Control (MAC) and Physical (PHY) layers based on an innovative
start. The P802.15.7 IEEE draft standard was published in November 2010 as ‘IEEE
Standard for Local and Metropolitan Area Networks, Part 15.7: Short-Range
Wireless Optical Communication Using Visible Light’ [26].
One of the most important discoveries regarding the type and quality of the main
actor of the transmitter device, the LED, has been made by a team of two researchers
(Isamu Akasaki and Hiroshi Amano) from Japanese Nagoya University and an
American researcher, Shuji Nakamura from University of California. They have
been awarded in 2014 the Nobel Prize in Physics for ‘the invention of efficient blue
light-emitting diodes which has enabled bright and energy-saving white light
sources’ [27].
Light fidelity (Li-Fi), the first optical wireless networking technology, was coined
by Professor Harald Haas at TED Global talk in 2011 [28]. This talk is considered as
one of the milestones in VLC technology since, during his live presentation,
professor Haas made both a lexical connection to Wi-Fi and a practical demonstra-
tion of the data communication by sending a high definition movie through light
using a desk lamp.
 8

Table 1.1 Milestones for IR indoor wireless communication

Modulation Area Original theoretical/technical IR system improvements

techniques covered/ Optical
Year Resear-chers Data rate used link range transmitter (oTx) Channel Optical receiver (oRx)
1979 Gfeller and 64 kbps Phase-shift Range of • Define physical aspects of • Baseband PCM receiver
Bapst [21] keying (PSK) max 50 m2 the diffuse optical channel • High-pass filter formed by a cas-
125 kbps Pulse-code cade of 5-RC coupling circuits
modulation
(PCM)
1996 Kahn and 50 mbps On–off keying 2.9 m • Hemispherical concentrator with a
Marsh [22]. (OOK) hemispherical band-pass optical fil-
ter
• High-impedance hybrid preampli-
fier
• High-pass filter
• Decision-feedback equaliser
1997 Kahn and 50 mbps OOK, PPM 2–2.5 m • Quasi-diffuse • Baseband channel model • Angle diversity receivers
Barry [23] transmitters • Three non directed NLoS
link designs
2000 Carruthers 70 mbps OOK, PAM 4.2 m • Multiple • Determine the delay • Multiple, narrow FOV receivers
and narrow-beam spread in different
Kahn [24]. transmitters scenarios
1 OWC Developments and Worldwide Implementations
1.3 Significant Worldwide Achievements in Wireless Light-Based Communication 9

Fig. 1.5 Milestones for VLC standardisation, research and development

Fig. 1.6 Timeline of data rates and considered/improved characteristics in a VLC system by
different researchers worldwide

The main parts of a reliable, consistent VLC indoor system with its key charac-
teristics are (1) the optical transmitter (oTx), (2) the optical channel, (3) topologies
and communication mode and (4) the optical receiver (oRx) (Fig. 1.6).
1. The optical transmitter (oTx) module refers to:

(a) electrical/electronic part ,

(b) modulation and data conversion (digital to analogue – DA) and coding
,
(c) optical module :

– LEDs/picocells/attocells/LDs with their key characteristics.

– particular lenses adapted to a specific environment,
10 1 OWC Developments and Worldwide Implementations

2. The optical channel refers to:

(a) Channel Impulse Response (CIR) that depends on:
– the indoor environmental structure with all the surrounding elements (ceil-
ing, walls, floor), obstacles in front of the oTx with their shape, position,
materials and colours necessary to determine their reflective characteristics
in order to define CIR,
– the intrinsic characteristics of the wireless communication optical channel
itself (filled with tiny particles of dust, moisture, smoke etc., if any) for the
system identification,

(b) the Additive White Gaussian Noise (AWGN) consists of different other
natural and/or artificial light sources (incandescent, halogen, fluorescent light
bulbs or LEDs);
3. Topologies and communication mode refer to:
(a) the VLC entire setup topology meaning the oTx position related to oRx:

Line of Sight (LoS) .

Non Line of Sight (NLoS) .

(b) Communication mode can be:

Simplex.
Duplex .
Full duplex.
4. The optical receiver (oRx) module refers to:

(a) optical module having:

optical concentrators/lenses,
filters adapted according to specific optical beam received,
PIN PD/APD/image sensor with their key characteristics.

(b) electrical/electronic part consisting of both hardware with trans imped-

ance amplifier (TIA) and software characteristics related to demodulation,
data conversion (analogue to digital) and data decoding.

A VLC’s performance is measured by high optical links , bit error ratios

, multiple input–multiple output transmission capability and high data
rates achieved.
1.3 Significant Worldwide Achievements in Wireless Light-Based Communication 11

Fig. 1.7 Different domains of application for VLC, IR, OCC and FSO

Different parts of the above-mentioned characteristics have been considered and

improved worldwide during the past two decades (Fig. 1.6).
Based on Fig. 1.7, a short literature review regarding the VLC technology, with
the main focus on the data rates reached in laboratories worldwide, is presented,
underlining the considered VLC characteristics and achieved improvements in each
phase.
VLC, as a technology able to convey data indoor using the LED’s light, was for
the first time demonstrated by Tanaka et al. in 2003. The proposed system demon-
strated the use of the LED with two simultaneous functions: illumination and data
communication. The wireless optical channel model for VLC has been considered,
computer simulated and calculated the influence of an optical path difference.
Authors had two approaches: first, they used On–Off Keying Return-to-Zero
(OOK-RZ) coding to alleviate the optical path delay and second, the Orthogonal
Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) coding in order for the delay to be
absorbed by a guard interval. For 100 Mbps and 400 Mbps data rates, the results
of the Bit Error Ratio (BER) versus received optical power are presented [29].
In 2006, Afgani et al. rely on the main advantages of the Intensity Modulation/
Direct Detection (IM/DD), simplicity and low cost, by demonstrating the concept of
the transmission scheme Direct Current biased Optical Orthogonal Frequency Divi-
sion Multiplexing (DCO–OFDM). They took into consideration the main disadvan-
tage of RF communication, high Peak to Average Power Ratio (PAPR) in OFDM
and transformed it into an important advantage in VLC by modulating the intensity
of a white LED. They proved that the theoretical assumption is very close to
experimental results in a practical demonstration of the VLC system in a LoS
12 1 OWC Developments and Worldwide Implementations

topology at a distance of 1 m between the optical transmitter (oTx) and optical

receiver (oRx) [30].
In 2009 Elgala et al. in the paper ‘Indoor Broadcasting via White LEDs and
OFDM’, based on the development of Solid State Lighting (SSL) technology,
describe the physical layer application of a VLC system with a modified version
of the OFDM modulation technique, and using two Digital Signal Processing (DSP)
development boards, made a hardware sample for short-range broadcasting using a
White LED (WLED) lamp [31]. It was one of the first references to SSL as its
potential duality function for simultaneously the use of illumination and indoor
wireless data communication.
By the end of 2010, the highest data rate ever demonstrated in VLC, 513 Mbps
was reported by Vučić et al. using Discrete Multitone (DMT) modulation and
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM) between a WLED as a source and an
APD at the oRx. DMT is based on the idea to split the frequency range (bandwidth)
into a large number of frequency bands (channels). Although at a relatively short link
length of 300 mm, for an illumination level of about 1000 lx, at a transmission rate of
450 Mbps, the Bit Error Ratio (BER) of the encoded data and a Forward Error
Correction (FEC) was demonstrated to be smaller than 2
103 [32].
The key technologies to achieve high spectral efficiency in optical communica-
tion are different FEC techniques and multilevel modulation formats. This combi-
nation is known as Coded Modulation (CM), where the sensitivity loss caused by the
nonbinary modulation is recovered using FEC [33]. Few months later, in March
2011, the same team from Heinrich-Hertz Institute, Fraunhofer Institute for Tele-
communications in Germany, (Vučić et al.) almost doubled the speed of VLC data at
803 Mbps using the second important LED, RGB LED, considered in VLC as the
main actor of both illumination and data communication. To reach this speed,
Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM) and DMT modulation were used with
DCO-OFDM. Although usually applied in IR, WDM has also been used for the
visible light spectrum. WDM is a modulation method that combines multiple signals
at various visible light wavelengths for free space transmission. Each wavelength is
independently modulated by a set of signals. At the receiver, wavelength sensitive
filters as well as visible light colour filters are used [34].
Although in a LoS topology and a 3 cm link, for the first time, the barrier of Mbps
has been overpassed at 1 Gbps with a single phosphor-coated WLED, reported by
Khalid et al. in 2012. The optical source used was a WLED with a 120 Lambertian
emission with a luminous flux of about 13 lm at 80 mA bias current. A Lambertian
emitter is an optical source having a uniform luminous distribution for all directions
[35]. An APD was used with 0.42 A/W responsivity at 620 nm with an active area of
0.8 mm2. The discrete multitone waveform, with 512 subcarriers and 180 MHz
bandwidth was uploaded into an Arbitrary Waveform Generator (AWG) and then
the signal was amplified in order to achieve an appropriate modulation index of the
WLED light. Then, via a Bias-Tee, the electrical discrete multitone signal was
superimposed on the WLED DC bias current at 80 mA. At the receiver, an integrated
Trans Impedance Amplifier (TIA) was used. In front of the APD, was positioned a
dichroic optical band pass filter (Semrock type) with 97% transmissivity at 452 and
1.3 Significant Worldwide Achievements in Wireless Light-Based Communication 13

45 nm Full Width at Half Maximum (FWHM) bandwidth to reject the slow

phosphorescent components. A biconvex glass lens has the role of focusing the
light onto the APD active area (consisting of 25.4 mm focal length and 25.4 mm
diameter) [36].
With a fast polymer colour converter, having a nominal bandwidth (BW) higher
than 200 MHz and a Gallium Nitride (GaN) μLED, the data rate of 1.68 Gbps has
been achieved in 2014 by a reliable working group of 15 researchers. This time, there
are witnessed important efforts on enhancing the oTx/oRx characteristics by
optimising the ratio between the blue electroluminescence of the μLED and yellow
photo luminescence of the copolymer colour converter [37].
A practical implementation and proof-of-concept of a Spatial Shift Keying (SSK)
in a VLC system have been presented by Videv and Haas in 2014. A matrix of 4
4
system LED and PD was used to encode information and decode the spatial
signatures (incoming data signal). Applying FEC, the achieved BER was less than
2
103. The main challenge in this practical setting of SSK in VLC represents
maintaining symbol separation in the received constellation [38].
The highest data rate with the longest transmission distance of 80 cm free space
based on an RGB LED, using a pre-equalisation circuit has been achieved by Huang
et al. in June 2015. They proposed a compact size and easy to install hardware
(constant-resistance symmetrical Bridged-T amplitude) equaliser, reaching 1.05
Gbps using Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (64—QAM), OFDM and 1.42
Gbps (7% pre-FEC limit of 3.8
103) [39].
A team consisting of 16 British researchers, in 2015, demonstrated a reliable VLC
with a data rate of 2.3 Gbps using GaN micro RGB LEDs. With WDM modulation, a
higher data rate of 2.3 Gbps in 2015 at a highly dimmed illumination level of just
70 lux was reported [40].
Typically, LEDs can be dimmed either by Constant Current Reduction (CCR) or
by Pulse Width Modulation (PWM). In the CCR case, the level of lighting required
must be proportional to the current that flows through the LED. Current flows
continuously through the LED and is amplified or reduced based on the require-
ments, suitable for a brighter or dimmed light. PWM dimming refers to the technique
that allows switching the current at a high frequency, started from zero to the ranked
output current [41].
3.22 Gbps data rate was reported by Chinese researchers Wu F.M. et al. based on
WDM VLC with a single WLED using Carrier less Amplitude and Phase (CAP)
modulation over 25 cm link [42].
Cossu et al. for the first time, in 2015, developed a VLC duplex communication
with a length of over 1.5 m into indoor free space with four visible LEDs for 5.6
Gbps downlink and one IR uplink LED for 1.5 Gbps. These promising results for
future wide deployment of the system rely on an optimal choice of the optical filter
spectra and the LED emission wavelengths. Also, important to underline that all the
channels BER were held under the FEC limit of 3.8
103 [43].
The year 2015 seemed to be a prolific one not only for VLC researchers with
many brilliant ideas and implementations but for the VLC technology itself [44],
since significant higher data rates have been achieved (8 Gbps) by four Chinese
14 1 OWC Developments and Worldwide Implementations

researchers at the end of the year using a hybrid post equaliser and an RGBY
LED [45].
According to Tsonev et al. as the main disadvantage of WLED consists of the
optical efficiency and bandwidth limitation ratio, laser diodes (LDs) are to be
considered a potential alternative for better use of VLC for communication purposes.
Due to this fact, few off-the-shelf LDs were used by the British researchers in several
situations with illumination restraints and the result indicates that optical wireless
data rates of 100 Gbps are possible to be reached in usual conditions of standard
indoor illumination levels [46].
Chinese researchers from several educational institutions and research facilities
fabricated an Aluminium doped Zinc Oxide (AZO) LED with a maximal output
power of 42 mW to carry 3 Gbps using 32 QAM and OFDM data at the chip level.
They had a different approach to the VLC implementation and proposed to enhance
the free space data communication ability of LEDs by improving their non-linearity.
A single power type LED, without using any type of pre-equalisation, could reach in
their experimental setting, 3 Gbps at high optical power [47].
A new level of data rate was reached by Chun et al. in 2016 presented in the paper
‘LED Based Wavelength Division Multiplexed 10 Gb/s VLC’. They used a bit rate
adaptive OFDM scheme, to demonstrate a VLC transmission higher than 10 Gbps up
to 11.28 Gbps using WDM [48].
During 2016, we noticed that not only high data rates but, very important, a
higher distance for communication were achieved. Chi, the head of a team consisting
of four researchers from China, proposed 8-Pulse Amplitude Modulation (8-PAM)
based on Phase-Shifted (PS) Manchester coding using WDM. They reached a data
rate of 3.375 Gbps with an RGB LED at a distance higher than 1 m [49].
In June 2016 an important progress in the development of the micro-scale GaN
micro-LEDs (μLEDs), optimised for VLC was reported by Ferreira et al. They used
single pixels from individually addressable arrays of μLEDs having a nominal peak
emission wavelength of 450 nm. Wireless data transmission at up to 0.5 m were
demonstrated using OOK, 4—PAM and bit loaded OFDM at three different rates:
1.7, 3.4 and 5 Gbps [50].
In September 2016, researchers from Saudi Arabia and the United States
published in Optics Express Journal, an article presenting ‘the 405 nm emitting
Super Luminescent Diode (SLD) with a broad emission of 9 nm at optical power of
20 mW’. The SLD presented by Shen et al. with a 3-dB bandwidth of 807 MHz,
reached 1.3 Gbps data rate with OOK modulation [51].
During November 2016, the Journal of Lighting Technology published an inves-
tigation of the Multichannel WDM-VLC Communication System. Using a WLED,
based on WDM, a VLC channel spacing of 33 nm, the authors Cui et al. with
10 channel OOK, achieved up to 5.1 Gbps data streaming [52].
Based on the previous research regarding data rate achieved and distance between
LED and PD, at the end of 2016, an imaging MIMO system became available. Hsu
et al. built a high speed of 3
3 imaging MIMO VLC system. The imaging MIMO
uses a single lens in front of the PD to focus on three lights. The 3 WLEDs reached
1.3 Significant Worldwide Achievements in Wireless Light-Based Communication 15

1 Gbps data rate transmission at 1 MHz bit loaded OFDM over a 1-m distance with a
high responsive PIN PD and a large spectral response range (340–1040 nm) [53].
Four researchers from Taiwan, at the beginning of 2017, achieved a 6.36 Gbps
data rate over 1 m, applying the indoor illumination standard (standard for minimum
light level office is 400 lux). Worldwide, illumination standards refer to wellbeing
(light characteristics essential for health and comfort), efficiency (light tailored to
specific needs), compliance (regulations and specifications comply with environ-
ments). Lu et al. established a 2
2 polarisation-multiplexing MIMO VLC system
with RGB LEDs [54].
During March 2017, Islim et al. (a team of 15 UK researchers) achieved 11.95
Gbps data rate transmission using 400 nm violet GaN μLEDs, when the source of the
VLC’s main noise is the nonlinear distortion of the micro-LEDs [55].
A very documented scientific report has been published in Nature Journal in
September 2017 that makes a deep investigation of the Violet Laser Diode (VLD)
enabled warm white light or daylight with high Colour Rendering Index (CRI) for
high-speed lighting communication [56].
A high data rate, the highest ever reached by end of March 2019, for LED based
VLC systems of 15.73 Gbps with an FEC coding over a 1.6 m link was achieved by a
team of scientists in the University of Edinburgh, using four LEDs (red, blue, green
and yellow) and dichroic mirrors [57].
Data rates over 20 Gbps have been demonstrated in 2020 by Lee C. et al. in a
Li-Fi system using an optic collimator and a laser diode (LD) of surface mount
device (SMD) type having 10–100
the brightness of conventional LED sources.
The 3 W blue LD used in the experiment offers over 3.5 GHz of 3 dB bandwidth and
an SNR above 15 dB up to 1 GHz. QAM and OFDM maximised bandwidth
efficiency [58].
As it can be seen in the timeline selection of the most important characteristics
regarding the improvements made by numerous authors in a VLC system presented
in Fig. 1.6, the highest data rates have been achieved mainly based on the improved
key characteristics of optical oTx or oRx, enhanced electronic circuits both of oTx
and oRx and more sophisticated modulation techniques.

1.3.3 Optical Camera Communication (OCC)

OCC technology relies on the same emitter as the VLC or IR technology, but instead
of a PD (PIN or APD), it uses an optical image sensor. Since optical image sensors
are already worldwide embedded into mobile smart devices like smartphones, rear
vehicle cameras, digital cameras, surveillance cameras or tablets, one of the most
important advantages of OCC is the current off-the-shelf receiver. Most of the image
sensors in current cameras are capable to recognise three colours; therefore, RGB
LEDs can be used as oTx. OCC has also several drawbacks such as low data rate due
to the low sampling rate, out-of-focus effect, unstable frame rate and random
block [59].
16 1 OWC Developments and Worldwide Implementations

Although the OCC subject is relatively new, today, more than 150 scientific
papers are indexed by the web of science databases. The research community on
OCC has proposed different solutions to overcome the above limitations, therefore,
due to its multiple advantages, OCC is a valuable candidate for indoor positioning
and monitoring, motion capture, IoT and intelligent transportation systems.
Other possible applications of OCC can be dynamic advertising when back-
ground LEDs send advertisements to users over a smartphone camera [60]. AR is
also a promising application of OCC [61].

1.4 OWC Technologies and Applications

VLC, as well as OCC, have many implementations in different scenarios (Fig. 1.7)
such as Indoor Positioning System (IPS), indoor communication (offices, museums,
commercial spaces, airplanes, hospitals/healthcare applications, underground trans-
portation, underground mining), mobile connection, vehicle transportation, toys,
underwater resource exploration and so on.
Both VLC and OCC systems implemented so far are single way communication
in LoS or NLoS topologies or hybrid types. The VL spectrum is used for one way
(download for example) and IR or RF is used for the other way (upload) with the
same possible topologies (LoS or NLoS). As for the Li-Fi concept, although many
improvements and implementations have been noticed, it is not fully developed, yet.
Li-Fi consists of a complete wireless network covering bi-directional multiuser
transmission, also involving multiple access points. They comprise a wireless
network with tiny optical attocells with continuous handover [62].
Due to the last years of intense R&D activity, following the proof of concept,
some VLC, IR, OCC, FSO and Li-Fi prototypes have already been implemented in
various commercial applications.
The developed technology for wirelessly transmitting and receiving information
using light is meant to replace in certain places and situations, the well-known
overcrowded and/or forbidden radio communication. Li-Fi uses LEDs to transmit
data, which enables data transmission at speed of 10 Gbps in real-world situations.
At the same time, some experiments conducted so far suggest that, in certain
situations, Li-Fi could be much cheaper to implement than Wi-Fi [63].

1.4.1 Indoor Positioning Systems with VLC and OCC

Most of the Indoor Positioning Systems (IPSs) already well developed are based on
different wireless technologies such as Wi-Fi [64], Bluetooth [65], RFID [66],
ZigBee [67] or acoustic [68].
On the other hand, many other research papers having the main subject IPS, based
on VLC or OCC technologies present a deep survey of the issue with authors all over
1.4 OWC Technologies and Applications 17

the world, such as Do et al. [69], Zhang et al. [70], Wang et al. [71], Yan et al. [72],
Hassan et al. [73], Arafa [74], Pisek [75], Kim et al. [76].
A Korean project conducted at a university in Seoul developed an IPS using an
Image Sensor (IS) and an Accelerometer Sensor (AS) to provide precise location
information. The algorithm proposed in this project (that uses both IS and AS)
allows the arbitrary orientation of the mobile device. To improve the precision of
the positioning algorithm, a mechanism for image sensor noise decreasing is pro-
posed and then simulated to check the performance of the algorithm [77].
In Europe, Philips Lighting and Osram companies financially supported and
deployed IPS in many facilities, mainly retail stores [78].
Due to the many advantages of LEDs, different types of methods—already
applied for IPS based on RF are applied in IPS using LEDs—have been proposed,
covering different techniques:
– RSSs—Received Signal Strengths [79, 80] with the algorithms: (a) trilateration,
(b) fingerprinting and (c) proximity [81];
– AoA—Angle-of-Arrival—has the main disadvantage of high cost but, on the
other hand, has a very good accuracy [82] with the algorithms: (a) triangulation,
(b) image transformation [81, 83];
– ToA—Time of Arrival—require an accurate synchronisation between the
receiver (PD) and emitter (LED) [78] with the algorithms: (a) trilateration and
(b) multilateration [81, 84];
– TDoA—Time-Difference-of-Arrival—requires synchronisation between LEDs,
and has a high cost for the installation of the positioning system [85] with the
algorithms: (a) trilateration, and (b) multilateralism [81];
– Image [85, 86];
– Combination of the above [87].
In 2011, venture-funded start-up company ByteLight [88] launched its indoor
location service using VLC and a few years later, in 2015, their patent portfolio
together with the intellectual property was acquired by Acuity [89].
The USA company, LVX System [90], during the same period, 2011, claimed to
be the first company that launched a VLC commercial product. A few years later, in
2015, LVX System, has entered into a Space Act Agreement (SAA) with NASA to
research and develop applications of LVX System’s patented VLC technology for
use on NASA missions in forthcoming journeys to deep space.
During 2013, a South Korean supermarket uses a guiding light to point out
discounts on the smartphone [91]. Emart, the app on the smartphone sorts out
automatically the lenses and the lights, so shoppers don’t need to worry about
compatibility issues. Shopping carts have a special place for the smartphone (Fig. 1.8).
This system avoids other technologies like Near Field Communication (NFC) and
Quick Response (QR) codes which tend to be either fragmented across devices or
too difficult for most of the customers in the supermarket [92].
Lumicast project has been presented in 2016 by the USA’s company, Qualcomm.
They developed a positioning system based on VLC consisting of lighting fixtures of
LEDs as the optical transmitter (oTx) and sensors available in commercial
smartphone devices as an optical receiver (oRx) (Fig. 1.9).
18 1 OWC Developments and Worldwide Implementations

Fig. 1.8 The Korean Shopping IPS cart with OCC system integrated [86]

Fig. 1.9 General representation of the Qualcomm’s Lumicast project of IPS with OCC (adapted
from [87])
1.4 OWC Technologies and Applications 19

Fig. 1.10 The dongle

device of the Outstanding
Technology company [92]

The system is capable of high position accuracy (length of centimetres) in a tenth

of a second. At the same time, it has the ability of device orientation directing and
positioning in three dimensions. These capabilities can provide extremely advanced
users’ experience compared with other available commercial positioning
technologies [93].
The smartphone sensor with the support of a mobile software determines the
position of the mobile device being able thus to decode the VLC signals. Given its
compatibility with existing smartphone devices and LED lighting infrastructure, this
technology is able to support a broad range of IPS implementations in offices,
commercial places and industrial locations, and has been adopted by leading players
in the LED lighting ecosystem such as Acuity Brands [93, 94] and GE Lighting [95].
The Japanese company Outstanding Technology, has also launched in 2012 its
own product named Commulight for wireless communication, achieving high secu-
rity and Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) and high accuracy positioning infor-
mation platform for smartphones or tablets using LED lighting. Their device
(Fig. 1.10) consists of a dongle having a USB or a socket that plugs into any device
of 3.5 mm jack and a sensor that senses relevant location-based information from the
LED lighting fixtures that transmit data [96].
Commulight is projected to give accurate, real-time information to visitors in a
museum, for example, regarding the exhibits, or send coupons to customers in a
supermarket or provide precision indoor location services more accurate than Global
Positioning System (GPS) or Wi-Fi [97].
Another important developer, France’s Oledcomm [98], continues to research
this technology. Oledcomm claims to be, after years of research, the first company in
the world that had deployed Li-Fi products in the market: they equipped in 2012 the
first public space, a museum in Europe and deployed in retail (Leclerc) and
government-owned facilities like the Paris Metro [99].
20 1 OWC Developments and Worldwide Implementations

In the white paper ‘Unlocking the Value of Retail Apps with Lighting’ Philips
describes a wall-to-wall IPS based on VLC that enables the United States, the
Netherlands and retailers from France to provide personalised location-based ser-
vices into their store app. Phillips company deployed its first IPS based on VLC in
EuraLille Carrefour supermarket on June 2015 [100].
In 2015, at the Lightfair in New York, Acuity Brands presented a working
prototype of indoor location technology based on VLC. VLC proved to be one of
the most noticeable topics at fair since a large number of retail stores were interested
in applying the new technology in their stores. IPS based on VLC, guide customers
to the discounted products they are interested in and send them targeted advertise-
ments and coupons based on the section of the store they are browsing in [101].

1.4.2 Indoor Communication

A subdivision of the Russian company Stins Coman, developed in April 2014, RiT
Technologies, the wireless optical technology as part of the BeamCaster project
launched in order to provide an innovative solution on transferring information to
electronic devices and light–medium based on VLC technology [97, 102].
The main part of the network is a light beam attached to a router that is capable to
send a signal to a distance of up to 7–8 m. Eight devices transmit the signal at once in
other parts of an office on speed four times faster than standard Wi-Fi. According to
its developers, the solution has significant advantages due to the mobility and speed
of its configuration. Their module transfers data at 1.25 Gbps but they expect
enhanced speeds up to 5 Gbps in the near future [94].
According to Stins Coman company representatives, their innovation has been
tested and implemented in a few countries and different offices for indoor business
communication (Fig. 1.11) [102].
An interesting paper published in the US National Library of Medicine, National
Institutes of Health magazine, written in 2016 by a team of four researchers from
Pakistan, India and the United Kingdom, investigated the previously
non-highlighted concept on VLC and LED technologies applied in healthcare
[103]. Many other papers investigate the opportunity of embedded VLC applications
as well as Li-Fi, both in healthcare facilities and medical devices, as well [104–109].
VLC is a reliable high capacity and radiation free communication system that will
be useful in hospitals. Starting from the idea that the lighting fixtures equipped with
LEDs are able to use the ubiquitous Power Line Communication (PLC) network that
would naturally be able to serve as the backbone network for the Li-Fi and VLC
systems in hospitals, Song et al. present in their paper an integrated PLC and VLC
system with OFDM modulation for the indoor hospital applications, giving a novel
solution to replace the conventional wireless communication systems in
hospitals [110].
1.4 OWC Technologies and Applications 21

Beam Caster’s CHINA’S SOARSKY

ARRIS Implementations systems for its open
for video applications engineering office

ISRAEL’S BYNET
CORTINA for servicing its call center
for maintaining its engineering center

Fig. 1.11 Beam Caster’s different implementations (adapted from [102])

Fig. 1.12 Li-Flame Ceiling

Unit (CU) (source http://
purelifi.com/LiFire/li-
flame/)

Fig. 1.13 Li-Flame

Desktop Unit (DU) (source
http://purelifi.com/LiFire/li-
flame/)

1.4.3 Hybrid Indoor Connection

The British company pureLiFi, succeeded to launch the first available Li-Fi system,
the Li-first, at the 2014 Mobile World Congress in Barcelona [111].
pureLiFi company also launched in 2014 the device Li-Flame consisting of two
units: Li-Flame Ceiling Unit (CU) (Fig. 1.12) and Li-Flame Desktop Unit
(DU) (Fig. 1.13).
22 1 OWC Developments and Worldwide Implementations

Fig. 1.14 LiFi-X (source: http://purelifi.com/LiFi-products/LiFi-x/)

Li-Flame technology was able to deliver half duplex communication providing

10 Mbps downlink (VLC) and 10 Mbps uplink (IR) up to 3 m with standard LEDs,
full mobility (battery-powered, portable desktop unit) with a high data rate. The high
data rate can be archived with many Li-Fi Access Points (APs) thus serving multiple
users per Li-Fi AP (multiple access) while maintaining high bandwidth for each user.
The state-of-the-art device launched by pureLiFi company, named Li-Fi-X,
(Fig. 1.14) has been publicly demonstrated along with the Li-Fi integrated Luminaire
at Mobile World Congress in Barcelona on March 2017. The dongle USB-powered
station has turned some of the Li-Fi’s weaknesses in strengths allowing a full duplex
communication with a 40 Mbps downlink with a photodetector as receiver and
40 Mbps uplink with an infrared transmitter. The device allows full mobility being
portable and is a multiple users device per Li-Fi Access Point, supported through
multiple access.
The company pureLiFi also announced signing a contract with Apple, to enable
iPhones to use Li-Fi via its on-board camera [3]. pureLiFi company underlines that
Li-Fi wireless technology, ‘holds the key to solving the issues that 5G communica-
tion has to encounter’.
The second generation of Lucibel Li-Fi integrated into lighting fixtures has been
prepared to be sold on the market [3]. An Academic Evaluation Kit was available for
academic research projects at pureLiFi company—consisting of Li-Fi-XC station,
Li-Fi-XC Access Point and Lucicup II Luminaires. The system is possible to be
deployed through Power over Ethernet (PoE), a standard main powered solution. In
2018, pureLiFi company has made commercially available a Li-Fi system for the
academic community (Fig. 1.15). This system, created in partnership with LED
maker Lucibel, consists of a modulator that is connected to the lighting fixture (Tx—
module) and a USB dongle (Rx module) to connect a display or a computer being Li-
Fi-enabled for both illumination and data transfer.
Two young Indian entrepreneurs Deepak Solanki and Saurabh Garg received
funding from BuildIT and therefore launched a start-up venture in Li-Fi technology
in Estonia. They developed and launched the ‘Jugnu’ project, a new wireless
1.4 OWC Technologies and Applications 23

Fig. 1.15 pureLiFi block diagram for the academic evaluation kit: LiF-XC station, LiFi-XC Access
Point, Lucicup II Luminaires

technology for high speed up to 1 Gbps data transmission using the VLC concept.
Velmenni company created VLC links that can transmit data at high speed, send data
to up to 20 m, and also works to deploy the system in aviation using its own Li-Fi
technology [112].
The project consists of a light wireless entertainment system allowing passengers
to access the internet and to wirelessly stream videos and movies through Li-Fi.
Airbus considered the weight savings of VLC technology implementation instead of
Wi-Fi to be very important since it eliminates wired equipment like seatback
screens [113].
A new platform with cybersecurity solutions has been launched on the market by
the Oledcomm company with the products: MyLiFi®, LiFiMAX (office kit and
dongle) and GEO-LiFi® Kit aiming to provide high-speed Internet access with
duplex transmission through visible/invisible light [114].
24 1 OWC Developments and Worldwide Implementations

1.4.4 V2V, V2I, I2V and I2I Communication

In the USA Journal, Applied Optics has been published starting with 2012, several
interesting papers related to the VLC application in vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V) com-
munication. One of them proposes an early analytical line-of-sight (LoS) path model
proved and validated by the measurement results. The influence of both artificial
lighting and background solar radiation are studied as important sources of interfer-
ence when an unobstructed LoS channel has to be guaranteed for this communica-
tion system. Few different modulation schemes are analysed in order to evaluate the
performance of an outdoor V2V communication based on VL [115].
In 2013 Căilean et al. published the paper ‘Visible Light Communications:
Application to Cooperation between Vehicles and Road Infrastructures’ presenting
a first prototype of a VLC system communicating data both between vehicles and
between LEDs infrastructure and vehicles.
The red backlight of the vehicle was modulated with OOK amplitude modulation
with a microcontroller and a digital power switch that was not too expensive and was
used in order to send data to the silicon PD included in the front of a different vehicle
behind it up to 15 m away. The experimental results showed that BER was lower
than 3
105 over a distance of maximum of 10 m using a 10 kHz modulation
frequency. A four-synchronisation bit configuration has been set with a data length
of 4 ASCII characters (4
8 useful bits) [116].
As a result of the unprecedented high accomplishments and based on promising
technological capabilities, in Taiwan, the local subsidiary of Ford Motor of the U.S.,
Ford Lio Ho Motor Co., signed a cooperation agreement with the Department of
Computer Science and Information Engineering (CSIE) of the National Taiwan
University (NTU) in a vehicular VLC development project. Their main objective
was to improve vehicular energy efficiency and lower costs on road infrastructure
construction and making driving safer due to an instant react of a vehicle immedi-
ately after receiving information from other vehicles [117].
The paper ‘A Visible Light Communication based Infra-to-Vehicle Intelligent
Transport Demo System’ presented at an international conference by Fang et al.
addresses a VLC infra-to-vehicle (I2V) system designed and implemented using a
specific scenario [118].
The Dubai operator Du [119] is one of the companies that demonstrated the
Li-Fi’s applicable domains, being one of the Middle East’s earliest adopters of Li-Fi.
Du, in cooperation with Zero.1 (a Dubai-based technology firm), proved how Li-Fi
hotspots can be set up to offer internet access [120].
Telecoms operators and technology firms in the United Arab Emirates (UAE) are
experimenting with applications for Li-Fi technology [121], hoping that the high-
speed data transmission concept will aid the development of smart city
systems [122].
1.4 OWC Technologies and Applications 25

1.4.5 VLC Embedded in Toys

Different interesting projects conducted by the Disney Research team in Switzerland

presented VLC applications in clothes for children and toys [123] as well as an
indoor VLC setup based on networked LEDs [124].
Disney Research has mainly focused on using the visible light to make possible
interaction between toys as magic wands or princess dresses [125, 126].

1.4.6 Underwater Resource Exploration Based on VLC

Technology

Underwater Optical Wireless Communications (UOWC) research has gained a

significant interest during the last few years being a promising alternative method
for broadband inexpensive submarine communications, especially due to the fact
that has many similarities with the Free Space Optical (FSO) communications or
laser links to the satellite. Using the appropriate wavelengths, high data rates can be
reached. UOWC of several Mbps has been achieved in laboratory experiments using
an aquatic medium that was simulated to have characteristics close to the oceanic
waters. It was also demonstrated that UOWC networks are feasible to operate at high
data rates for medium distances up to a hundred meters [127].
Kaushal et al. in the paper ‘Underwater Optical Wireless Communication’ pre-
sents an exhaustive overview of many advances in UOWC by 2016. Channel
characterisation, coding techniques and modulation schemes as well as different
noise sources specific to UOWC are considered [128].
Using an 80 μm blue emitting GaN based micro-LED, high speed of 800 Mbps
data rate was achieved in UOWC by Tian et al. at an underwater distance of 0.6 m,
with a BER of 1.3
103, below the FEC criteria [129].
Wang et al. addressed a hybrid acoustic—optical Underwater Wireless Sensor
Network (OA-UWSN) in order to solve the open issue of high-speed communication
of real-time images and video in marine information detection. A novel energy-
efficient contention based on MAC layer protocol OA-CMAC is also proposed.
Based on optical-acoustic fusion technology, in order to achieve high-speed in real-
time data communication, the protocol combines the mechanism of Carrier Sense
Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA) and multiplexing based
Spatial Division Multiple Access (SDMA) technology. The proposed MAC protocol
was evaluated with OMNeT++ simulations and the results showed that when the
optical handshaking success ratio was greater than 50%, it could outcome doubled
throughput [130].
26 1 OWC Developments and Worldwide Implementations

1.5 VLC Technology Developed for Underground Mine

Human casualties due to repetitive accidents with unexpected costs in underground

mines drove to significant worldwide efforts and numerous research projects dedi-
cated to identifying all the specific risk factors that lead to accidents [131].
Regardless of the underground exploitation, the most frequent accidents hazards
are related to inappropriate lighting, rocks or roof falling, structural complexity with
narrow spaces and irregular floor or low ventilation level that lead to poor air quality.
Poor air quality comes from a high level of dust with different shapes and dimen-
sions of suspended particles in the air, due to exploitation itself or from constant/
instant emission of gases specific to mining activity [132]. A low ventilation level
results in a denser air with undesired dust particles that would also have a high
negative influence on both accuracy and link length of the VLC transmission.
Continuously monitoring and real-time communication of personnel location as
well as all type of data regarding risk factors are important issues in underground
mining, where the conditions are constantly changing. A fast positioning of person-
nel (and various equipment operating underground) during normal activity can
significantly improve not only security but can also increase daily production,
as well.
Different monitoring and communication solutions have already been investi-
gated [133–140] for various mining exploitation. The most studied solutions based
on RF communication [141–143] have already been applied in some mining exploi-
tations worldwide.
Therefore, in order to determine the personnel position (and/or various equipment
operating underground), the following range-based methods are used for wireless
communication technologies using RF, IR or VL spectrum range:
1. Received signal strength (RSSI)—the optical signal of a VLC link slowly
becomes weak while the oRx moves away from the light transmitter. In case
that the oTx and oRx are tilt and the oTx’ optical beam does not meet the oRx,
this positioning method is unfeasible.
2. time of arrival (ToA)—uses the time it takes to the EM waves to travel from oTx
to oRx. In this method, the oRx’s clock is synchronised with the oTx’s in order to
determine the necessary time for the optical signal to travel from oTx to oRx.
However, synchronisation between oTx and oRx is a difficult task,
3. time difference of arrival (TDoA)—for this method, Time Division Multiplexing
(TDM) or Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) techniques are used. It is
assumed that there is a LoS topology between oTx and oRx and at least three
sources have to be sensed by the targeted entity (person/equipment) to be
localised,
4. angle of arrival (AoA)—used in a LoS topology, both angles (incidence angle and
irradiance angle) of the optical signal that hits the active area of the PD are
measured. This method needs at least 2 LED lights for 2-D. It is also assumed that
the oTx and oRx are aligned in the same X–Y plane, therefore, incidence angles
and irradiance angles are equal. Other sensors (accelerometers, for example
1.5 VLC Technology Developed for Underground Mine 27

[144]) can be used to compensate for the effect of tilt oRxs in combination with
multiple PD array. However, using the sensors, the lifetime of the battery in
mobile devices is reduced [145].
For example, using Wi-Fi technology, SCADA and Ethernet networks near and
far field proximity detection and collision avoidance system as well as underground
tracking of personnel and vehicle has been developed by Becker company for
Mining in South Africa. One important implementation for miners’ security and
safety is the underground remote evacuation signalling based on the same technol-
ogies mentioned above [146].
However, there are several drawbacks [147] when wireless communication
technologies based on RF are used in underground mining:
1. a long response time,
2. the short range of the RF technology (that operates in the 2.4 GHz band) cannot
provide large coverage in underground environments [148],
3. RF-based communication is not a suitable solution in some specific underground
mine environment where RF signals are limited by strict rules or, their use is even
forbidden, as it is the case of the underground coal mining.
4. technologies such as RFID, Wi-Fi or ZigBee involve additional costs for devel-
opment and particular configuration since they have to be installed in large
spaces,
5. low precision (typically between a few tens and several hundreds of meters).
Therefore, alternative solutions have to be searched, developed and implemented
[149] to reduce the downsides brought by the use of RF signals but mostly to avoid
possible hazards and accidents caused by the signals in the RF spectrum.
VLC is a suitable technology to replace or enhance any underground coal mine
communication system, due to some advantages that optical wireless transmission
has over the RF communication:
1. LED light is the most suitable type of light to be used in mine for lighting such as
in miners’ cap lamps but also the luminaires [150].
2. LEDs, as lighting sources used underground are already set into the illumination
system on the main galleries underground.
3. the key characteristics of LEDs have been significantly enhanced to be able to
convey data at the same time with the illumination,
4. industrial LEDs are also engineered to operate in extremely harsh environments,
that is, explosion-proof, resilient to shockwave, immunity to vibration [151–153].
There are different possible architectures and communication modes of the RF,
IR and VLC wireless networks [145] dedicated to underground positioning:
1. Remote positioning (RP)—when signals received by oRxs are sent to a central
station and the position is determined by combining data received from signal
provided by or reflected from the targeted entity (person/equipment) to be
localised.
28 1 OWC Developments and Worldwide Implementations

Fig. 1.16 Underground positioning arhitecture and communication modes

2. Self-Positioning (SP)—when the oRx measures the signal from the anchor nodes
and then uses the data received to determine its position.
3. Indirect Remote Positioning (IRP)—when an SP oRx sends location data to a
remote site or vice versa.
4. Indirect Self-Positioning (ISP)—when the central station sends data about the
position to the targeted entity (person/equipment) to be positioned.
The main challenges for reliable underground positioning systems [145] in the
case of the architectures mentioned earlier are:
1. RP—when the whole architecture is based on RF technologies, the entire system
needs to be enhanced.
2. SP—IR needs fixed PD placed inside the main gallery and data about the targeted
entity (person/equipment) to be positioned do not reach the central station.
3. IRP and ISP—a full duplex communication is a challenging task for optical
wireless communication (coined in this case, Li-Fi) technology, especially
because a MIMO system is expected to be used and therefore intersymbol
interference (ISI) has to be mitigated. In this situation, the system complexity
and therefore its cost is expected to be high.
No matter the architecture, topology or communication method, the distribution
of optical power is sent (by the miner’s cap lamp or by luminaire) and received
(by luminaire or by the miner’s cap lamp) is important to be determined into an
underground environment. Depending on the LoS setup, when the miner passes
under the luminaire (with LED), the received power could meet the demand of
communication [153].
A general representation of the architectures and communication modes of the
RF, IR and VLC wireless networks dedicated to underground positioning is
presented in Fig. 1.16.
1.6 Worldwide Cross-Countries Corporation and Funds Invested in VLC Projects 29

Since the optical signal propagation in underground undergoes many physical

phenomena (such as diffraction, reflection, absorption, refraction and scattering) due
to the natural composition of such a complex environment (ground, walls and
ceiling), very accurate data regarding the optical channel are necessary in order to
achieve high-quality optical signal transmission [154].

1.6 Worldwide Cross-Countries Corporation and Funds

Invested in VLC Projects

European scientists from Germany, Greece, France, Italy, Austria, Slovenia and the
United Kingdom were part of the OMEGA consortium who reached to transfer data
at a rate of 100 Mbps using LEDs in the ceiling that light up more than 10 m2
[155]. Researchers from Heinrich Hertz Institute, Fraunhofer Institute for Telecom-
munications in Germany, one of the early OMEGA partners, say the receiver can be
placed anywhere within this radius, being enough for fast communication. European
OMEGA Project was closed in March 2011 and presented several working demon-
strations of VLC including high data rates [156].
The UK consortium EPSRC (Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Coun-
cil) funded by UK universities led by the University of Strathclyde aim to develop
Li-Fi innovative technology. Most of the researches around the world concentrate on
developing Li-Fi LEDs around 1 mm2 in size.
The EPSRC team develops tiny, micron-sized LEDs that offer many major
advantages: first, the tiny LEDs are able to flicker on and off 1000 times quicker
than the larger LEDs, this meaning they would be able to transmit data more quickly.
On the other hand, 1000 micron-sized LEDs are fitting into the space of a single
larger 1 mm LED. Each of these tiny LEDs action as a separate transmission channel
as well as a tiny pixel. Therefore, one large LED array display can also be used as a
screen, providing internet connections and displaying information at the same time,
as well as room lighting [157].
Students of Mangalore Institute of Technology and Engineering (MITE), in India,
demonstrated data communication through the light at high speed and won the third
prize at the Annual seventh Edition of UNISYS India Project Competition Cloud
20/20, on April 2016. They proved to be passionate by the technology and drive it to
a new level using three colours Triplet Li-Fi (T-Li-Fi), each colour carrying different
data streams, thus tripling conventional Li-Fi capacity [158].
In October 2011, the industry group Li-Fi Consortium proved a high-speed
optical wireless system and demonstrated the possibility to overcome the limited
amount of radio-based wireless spectrum available that is still unexploited. Actually,
they are mainly focused on technology development of high data transmission
speed. As they demonstrated, this has already been done in relation to different
scenarios. They developed new docking technology as well as wireless at high-speed
30 1 OWC Developments and Worldwide Implementations

data communication for beaming and provide wireless data broadcasting and a
wireless data hotspot [159].
One interesting project, OpenVLC aims to develop open-source, software-defined
technology, being focused on developing concepts like Li-Fi, built around a credit-
card-sized device with a LED front end and embedded Linux platform. It offers a
simple physical layer, a set of medium access devices, as well as protocols for the
Internet. They also developed a room connector (acting as replicator) that sends data
stream between two walls via an optical fibre cable, which connects the two-room
connectors on both walls [160].
The Mexico software development company Sisoft reached 10 Gbps transfer data
ratio across a light spectrum emitted by LED lamps and has caught up with the
Scottish research team headed by Harald Haas in achieving 10 Gbps Internet data
transmission using VLC also known as Li-Fi, being able to transmit video, audio and
data on Internet using light emitted by LED lamps [161, 162]. There are, lately, an
increasing number of posts on GitHub with Arduino code available for those
wishing to build VLC systems as educational projects or at home [163, 164].
Global corporations like Philips, Toshiba, Samsung, GE, LG, Innotek,
Panasonic, Sharp, Cisco, Airbus, Rolls Royce and Acuity Brands (as part of
eldoLED) are working on Li-Fi, “internet of lights” (IoL) technology and VLC
applications for smart cities, as well [160, 161, 165, 166].
As far as we are aware, no financial funds have been invested yet for any kind of
underground mining activity based on visible light wireless communication tech-
nologies and applications.

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2. Povey, G., Visible light communications, http://visiblelightcomm.com [Online]. Last accessed
28.02.2020.
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Chapter 2
Conventional and Advanced Technologies
for Wireless Transmission
in Underground Mine

2.1 Short Survey on Conventional Communication Systems

in Underground Mine

Due to an avalanche of smart devices with wireless communication capability

integrated, the well-known wireless communication technologies and applications
based on RF (Wi-Fi, BLE, world interoperability for microwave access—WiMAX,
Bluetooth, ZigBee, Z-Wave, 6LowPAN, RFID, Ultra Wideband—UWB, NFC) are
increasingly used, lately. These wireless technologies and applications based on RF,
intense exploited every day by a significant number of users, have become too
crowded and almost overwhelmed, especially indoors, where the most wireless
transmissions take place [1].
Some of the RF technologies have been already investigated and tested in
underground mine, and a number of them are successfully applied in spaces where
the environmental conditions allow the use the RF signals. For example, Bluetooth,
Wi-Fi, UWB, WiMAX, RFID, or ZigBee technologies and applications for wireless
transmission have been tested and, in some cases, deployed for underground com-
munication, tracking, monitoring, and personnel positioning.
The first known experiment to detect radio signals into underground mines has
been done in 1922 by US Bureau of Mines (USBM) in Pennsylvania [2]. The main
objective of the research project of USBM was to test on the propagation of radio
waves through the ground in order to track and fast rescue miners following an
accident. Research results showed that electromagnetic EM signals at ultralow
frequency (ULF) (from 630 Hz to 2 kHz) were transmitted through mine rock up
to a distance of 1645 m. The prototype developed by USBM for the wireless
communication system used state-of-the-art technology of that time with off-the-
shelf components to reach targeted reliability and low cost. The innovative technol-
ogy enabled a real-time warning of the underground personnel, by inducing flashing
on their cap lamps [3].

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 41

S. M. Riurean et al., Application of Visible Light Wireless Communication in
Underground Mine, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-61408-9_2
42 2 Conventional and Advanced Technologies for Wireless Transmission in Underground. . .

The EM detection and through the earth communication aiming to shorten the
time till the miners’ rescue after an underground accident or disaster, using narrow-
band transmitter has been investigated, described, and developed by many authors.
Most of the early developed systems aimed to permit signals to be continuously send
to the surface from the point where the miners were trapped underground due to roof
falling or collapse of side gallery [4–8].
Although these systems proved to be very useful, even in lives saving, there are
limitations for their world wide application in underground mines, because the radio
waves can be propagated to the targeted distance only if the environment has the
appropriate physical and electrical properties [9, 10].
The most important property of the signal transmission, signal attenuation,
depends mainly upon the physical properties of the environment such as obstacles
in the propagation path, rock density, wall roughness, entry tilts, and so on
[11]. Other effects that also influence attenuation are earth conductivity and dielec-
tric constants. The low frequency of the EM field can penetrate kilometers of rock
and soil; therefore, the signal will reach surface from deep underground making it
suitable for different underground applications. Many investigations regarding the
EM waves’ propagation (600 Hz–60 MHz) through rock have been developed by
researchers in different parts of the world [12, 13] and a reliable communication has
been proved and settled (at 200 m depth) in coal mines in South Africa [14].
An interesting application of the EM wave modulation for early detection of
miners’ position (up to 90 m in LoS or 20 m through walls and debris) while they are
in dangerous situations underground was developed in 1995 by Selectronics (Ger-
many) and manufactured under the name SIRUS. The system relies both on the
heartbeat and chest’ movement while miners are breathing. A microwave transmitter
with directional antenna and a Doppler receiver detects the reflected signals, both
cardiac and breathing [7].
Thanks to researchers’ efforts in universities and government agencies around the
world, some useful commercially available products have been launched. A reliable
system (consisting in dedicated coded belt-wearable miner’s tag—with a buzzer and
LED integrated—and a portable search unit) assigned to detect and locate trapped
miners underground (at a distance of more than 30 m through rock) has been used at
CSIR Mining Tek in South Africa [15].
In Austria, at Schwaz, a system consisting of a beacon enclosed into the miner’s
cap lamp and a handheld location receiver used to search for the trapped miner’s
beacon was successfully tested in a mine in Tirol with a detection accuracy of
50 cm [16].
There is an ever-increasing demand of a real-time surveillance of personnel,
equipment, and different kind of data acquired by sensors to inspect the air quality,
for example, in order to increase the underground safety and security at work.
More and more advanced technologies are applied and developed for under-
ground, aiming to get a continuous monitoring of the mining entire activity.
Local underground wireless communication and remote data-transfer solutions
have already been applied worldwide in underground mines since 2000 [17–22].
2.1 Short Survey on Conventional Communication Systems in Underground Mine 43

New, emerging technologies have also been researched and proposed to be

implemented in mining industry, for example, the use of robots with remote wireless
communication for real-time surveying or rescue operations [23–26], advanced
wireless tracking technologies [27–29] based on Wi-Fi, RFID, ZigBee, Bluetooth,
UWB, or hybrid systems [30–33], all of them aiming to improve, on one hand, the
workers’ safety and then productivity in underground mines, and on the other hand
to provide fast and reliable rescue systems.
Although a hybrid communication consisting in wireless and cable-based (PLC,
PoE, coaxial cable, twisted pairs, or optical fiber) underground to the surface
transmission, seems to the most appropriate applicability in mining industry, there
are many issues needed to be overcome related both to the RF wireless and cable-
based communication.
The use of cable-based communication in underground mining industry has its
own drawbacks [34], as follows:
– the entire communication system becomes vulnerable in case of emergency, due
to cable breakage,
– risk to appear sparks/flames that would seriously threaten workers’ security and
safety underground,
– lack of efficient coverage, because new working areas are opened every day due
to the methods of mining by advancement,
– support for only point-to-point communications,
– mobility of personnel and equipment is limited or seriously reduced.
The use of RF wireless communication has also its drawbacks since it mainly
suffers from signal attenuation and experiences EMIs.
Signal attenuation occurs due to the environmental intrinsic properties of the
transmission optical medium (absorption, reflection, diffraction, scattering, and
bending losses) that can be filled with smoke, tiny suspended particles of rock and
tiny drops of water in air, the obstacles (from different materials with lower or higher
density) on the path of the signal communication and, of course, natural occurring
(and linearly increasing) over a long-distance transmission.
The signals’ power attenuation Ap in decibels (dBs) is given by the formula:

PTx
Ap ¼ 10 log 10 ð2:1Þ
PRx

where:
PTx—the signal power at source (transmitter—Tx).
PRx—the signal power at destination (receiver—Rx).
And PTx > PRx.
Signal also experiences high attenuation when it encounters corners, therefore,
propagation around multiple corners is severely attenuated. Although high frequen-
cies are likely to be used in straight, open spaces (as main galleries underground are)
they suffer from great loss when passing over a number of corners [35]. Therefore,
the choice of signal’s frequency depends on the space configuration.
44 2 Conventional and Advanced Technologies for Wireless Transmission in Underground. . .

EMI can seriously affect the operation of electronic devices when it is in the
vicinity of an EM field in the RF spectrum that is caused by another electronic
device. These interferences can decrease the performance of sensitive wireless
receivers nearby.
Also, an important limiting factor in using RF communication system is that the
machinery used in underground environments randomly creates a wide range of
many types of intense EMIs during everyday mining operation.
In mines with potential risk of explosion, all equipment must be shielded to keep
unwanted RF energy from entering or leaving. Depending on the level of risk the
mine has, there are standards that rule the class of protection for any type of
equipment underground, starting from illumination, air ventilation, transport equip-
ment, machinery, and so on. Electromagnetic noise amplitude decreases with
increase in frequency [36].
Therefore, alternative to RF wireless networks, new wireless data communication
technologies are not only necessary today and in the near future, but compulsory.

2.2 Wireless Transmission Based on Visible Light. A

Detailed Blueprint

In the optical spectrum, the IR together with visible light regions is about 2600 times
larger than the RF spectrum (0–300 GHz) [37].
The general characterization of a VLC channel is done by its optical channel
impulse response (CIR), which is used to investigate and decrease, as much as
possible, the effects of channel noise. Both experimental measurements and com-
puter modeling approach on the channel characterization of underground and out-
door systems have already been described. Figure 2.1 shows a general block diagram
of a conventional VLC system.
The power penalties associated with the optical channel are usually separated into
optical path loss and multipath dispersion that expresses itself as the intersymbol

Fig. 2.1 General diagram of a VLC system

2.2 Wireless Transmission Based on Visible Light. A Detailed Blueprint 45

interference (ISI). Dispersion is modeled as a linear baseband channel impulse

response (CIR) h(t).
The channel characteristic of a VLC link is stable in case of:
– a given position of oTx,
– a given position of oRx,
– accurate reflecting characterization of the underground surroundings and objects.
The general optical channel model is given by formula:

yðt Þ ¼ R  xðt Þ  hðt Þ þ nðt Þ ð2:2Þ

where:
ℛ—the photodetector’ (PD) responsivity.
x(t)—transmitted optical signal—since in optical wireless systems the instanta-
neous optical power is proportional to the generated electrical current, x(t) represents
the power signal.
—convolution.
y(t)—signal received at PD.
h(t)—optical CIR.
n(t)—total noise consisting of ambient noise in optical channel, shot noise, and
thermal noise in oRx entire front-end device.
Ambient noise comes from natural and different other artificial light.
Shot noise refers to fluctuations in the number of photons sensed in PD according
to their occurrence independent of each other. Shot noise is one of the main noise
source in the OW link and arises fundamentally due to the discrete nature of energy
and charge in the PD.
Thermal noise (also known as Johnson noise) arises in all conducting materials
and is produced by the thermal variation of electrons in a receiver circuit of
corresponding resistance and temperature (Te) [38]. The electrons are in constant
motion, and they frequently bump into the molecules or atoms of the substance.
Every free flight of an electron creates a minute current. The sum of all these currents
during a long period of time is equal to zero. This is because the power spectral
density (PSD) does not depend on frequency. Furthermore, the AWGN follows the
Gaussian distribution with zero mean and variance for IM/DD and coherent
receivers.
As shown in Fig. 2.1, E/O stands for converting electrical signals to optical
signals, and O/E converts optical signals into electrical signals. In the frequency
domain, the channel can be characterized by its frequency response, which is the
Fourier transform of the impulse response.
In order to evaluate the overall performance of a particular type of communica-
tion topology, it is important to know the distribution of the channel characteristics
over the entire area and to take into consideration the worst receiver position, since
that describes best the lower limit for the link performance [39].
Considering the IR communication, the optical channel impulse response (CIR)
(h(t), Eq. 2.3), was for the first time modeled by Gfeller and Bapst [40], as follows:
46 2 Conventional and Advanced Technologies for Wireless Transmission in Underground. . .

8
< 2t 0 t0
, t0  t 
hð t Þ ¼ t 3 sin 2 ðFoV Þ cos ðFoV Þ ð2:3Þ
:
0, elsewhere

where:
FoV—field of view.
t0—the minimum delay.
The optical signal transmitted has the following constraints:
– x(t) is real and positive x(t)  0,
– the maximum optical transmit power is limited by the eye safety photobiological
standards and regulations EN 62471–2006 and 60,825–2008.
Therefore, the average value of x(t) should not exceed a specified maximum
power value Pmax, that is:
Z T
1
Pmax ¼ lim xðt Þdt ð2:4Þ
T!1 2T T

In VLC systems, high optical transmit power is required, therefore only a small
path loss of the optical signal is allowed. In this regard, the most suitable modulation
techniques are high peak-to-mean power ratios that can be achieved by trading-off
the bandwidth against the power efficiency. The signal-to-noise ratio, in case that the
shot noise is dominant, is proportional to the active area of the PD (APD2).
The PD’s capacitance increases proportional with its active area, resulting in a
limited bandwidth received by PD and, therefore, the transmission capacity is
restricted.
So, the two main trade-offs in optical communication consist of increased
bandwidth requirement connected with power-efficient modulation techniques.
The HVLC( f ) of the VLC is:

H VLC ð f Þ ¼ H LoS þ H dif ð f Þ ð2:5Þ

where:
HLOS—the transfer function in line of sight (LoS) scenario (dependent on the
distance and objects set between oTx and oRx and their orientation but independent
on the modulation frequency).
Hdif—the transfer function in environments with diffused link.
In most of the research papers, the transfer function in environments with diffused
link (Hdif) has not been taken into consideration because most indoor environments
are homogeneous and isotropic. The underground mine environment or industrial
halls are not considered here and not yet deeply investigated, as far as the
authors know.
Kahn and Barry characterized for the first time the indoor optical wireless channel
for communication (for IR spectrum) in these two scenarios: line of sight (LoS) and
2.2 Wireless Transmission Based on Visible Light. A Detailed Blueprint 47

non-line of sight (NLoS), based on the relative strength of light (signal components)
between the LoS and NLoS [41]. The path of propagation of oTx and detected by
oRx characterize the two link arrangements in LoS and NLoS communication.
Regarding the geometry of a VLC scenario, there are important underground
position of oTx and oRx, their radiation/detection characteristics as well as the
reflection properties of the objects in the specific environment under study.
In order to achieve the best communication between oTx and oRx, depending on
space’s geometry, the number and type of objects into the studied area (walls, ceiling
and floor, furniture, including windows and doors) and their radiation/detection
characteristics, the network has to be positioned as to maximize both the coverage
and optical capacity over the room where the VLC is setup [39].
However, the VLC network setup has to take into account that the primary
functionality of the network is the underground’s illumination. The spotlighting at
oRx can improve the irradiation intensity of the oTx [42].
Many studies have already been made on VLC channel and spatial conditions
related to the optical network configuration based both on direct measurements [43]
and ray-tracing simulations [44].
The main building blocks (general structure) of a transmission link in VLC are
presented in Fig. 2.2.
A digital signal processor (DSP) together with digital to analog converter (DAC)
is used generally in VLC setups in order to apply the necessary modulation tech-
nique with the aim to code and convert the information necessary to be wireless
remotely sent through the optical channel.
The electrical signal (current) drives the LED (or an array of LEDs) where the
information-carrying current signal is transformed into optical intensity.

Fig. 2.2 Main blocks of a transmission link in VLC (Adapted from [39]). 1—DSP + DAC, 2—
signal, 3—LED with optics, 4—optical wireless channel (white light), 5—Filter, 6—Lens (optical
concentrator), 7—PD, 8—TIA, 9—DSP Board
48 2 Conventional and Advanced Technologies for Wireless Transmission in Underground. . .

When between the oTx and oRx a high distance is planned to be reached,
different optical components are used, positioned in front of the LDs (laser diodes)
or μLEDs (consisting of one or many chips arranged in series or parallel in order to
act as a single emitter) in order to achieve higher output power. The optical
components consist of lenses of different shapes and dimensions, collimators, or
diffusers that shape the transmitted beam in such a way that is going to be optimum
for the specific scenario planned.
The optical signal is now transmitted through space, named optical wireless
channel. The PD collects both the desired optical signals and other lighting signals
known as AWGN with a negative effect on the VLC communication quality. In front
of the PD is usually used as an optical filter with the aim to decrease the effect of
AWGN produced by ambient light. The original optical signal’s quality decreases is
attenuated both due to the optical path length and to the first major component of the
AWGN, the background illumination, and the sunlight (which is not applicable
underground). An optical non-imaging concentrator is also used in order to improve
the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of the PD.
Some amount of the optical energy is also absorbed by different objects (ceiling,
floor, furniture, etc.) in the environment, and some are reflected back in a diffuse or
specular way. Both LoS and NLOS signals arrive at the oRx with different delays
that depend on a number of environmental characteristics.
In order to select the necessary part from the optical spectrum, to avoid the slow
response of the yellow color emitted by the white LED, to reduce the interference
from ambient light, a blue wavelength optical filter is used in front of the oRx.
Afterward, the optical signal passes through a system of optical elements. These
optical elements (collimator lenses) have the role to amplify the signal, align the light
beam, and spot it on the active area of the PD for an optimum detection of the
original optical signal sent by the oTx.
The PD (a PIN PD, an APD, or arrays of PDs) converts back the optical signal
into electrical current. An electrical low-pass filter is used to filter all the undesirable
noise components. Next, the received current signal is very weak, so, it is electron-
ically pre-amplified with a transimpedance amplifier (TIA).
In order to recover the original data transmitted, a digital signal processor (DSP)
with an analog to digital converter (ADC) is used, transforming in this way, the
analog current signal into a digital signal and demodulate the information bits [39].
When is necessary to decide on the proper VLC topology in specific environment
for underground applications, a correct estimation of the light propagation, charac-
teristics of both LEDs and PDs, the environment particularities, the space geometry
including reflections, and the channel model with the channel impulse response
(CIR), have to be all taken into consideration and deeply investigated.
Two of the most used light propagation topologies for VLC’s indoor/under-
ground applications are classified according to:
– the degree of directionality between oTx and oRx (e.g., direct LoS as shown in
Fig. 2.3),
– direct or diffuse LoS or NLoS light’s path between oTx and oRx (Fig. 2.4).
2.2 Wireless Transmission Based on Visible Light. A Detailed Blueprint 49

Fig. 2.3 Topology of a direct LOS communication between oTx and oRx

Fig. 2.4 Geometrical model of a LoS VLC link

A direct LoS link provides at the oRx a high irradiation intensity and a wide
channel coherence bandwidth (Fig. 2.3). Where high user mobility is required, LoS
is not a suitable setup, since the link can be easily interrupted or blocked by other
users.
In the direct LoS link, oTx and oRx are straight aligned. Although the advantage
of this topology is high power utilization, it requires alignment of both terminals,
because once there is an obstacle in the transmission path, the data communication
will be obstructed. This is the best choice topology for a point-to-point communi-
cation suitable for two, close to each other, static terminals as long as there are no
obstructive objects between oTx and oRx.
Regarding the diffuse LoS topology for data communication, in order to avoid the
system to be more or less affected by the shadow effect, the directional requirements
of oTx and oRx must be reduced. This allows the oRx to use a larger perspective to
realize an enhanced communication between oTx and oRx. The optical power will
be, in this case, uniformly distributed into the room, but, on the other side, the
multipath effects of the link limit the signal’s transmission rate.
In case of a shadowed LoS channel, the model is quite difficult to be described,
since the LoS path is blocked. The entire optical CIR is determined by reflections
which, as for LoS unshadowed channels, are quite difficult to predict. Hence, neither
the path loss nor the large delay spread is easily predicted.
50 2 Conventional and Advanced Technologies for Wireless Transmission in Underground. . .

For the generalized Lambertian radiant intensity, the angular dispersal of the
radiation intensity pattern has the following distribution [45]:
8 h i
< ðm1 þ 1Þ cos m1 ðφÞ,
>
φ2  ,
π π
R 0 ð φÞ ¼ 2π 2 2 ð2:6Þ
>
: π
0, φ
2

where:

 ln 2
m1 ¼   ð2:7Þ
ln cos φ12

The radiant power intensity P(φ) is given by:

m1 þ 1
PðφÞ ¼ Pt cos m1 ðφÞ ð2:8Þ
2π

The active area of PD, Aeff_PD collects the radiation incident at angle ω smaller
than the PD’s FoV:
8 π
< APD cos ω, 0  ω 
2
Aeff PD ðωÞ ¼ π ð2:9Þ
: 0, ω>
2

A large-area PD seems to be suitable for indoor/underground VLC in order to

collect as much power as possible but in reality, this situation draws a lot of
additional problems:
– increased junction capacitance and therefore decreased receiver bandwidth,
– increased manufacture cost,
– increased receiver noise.
There is, however, a solution for this situation that stands in the use of a
non-imaging concentrator in front of PD in order to increase the overall effective
collection area of the oRx.
An ideal non-imaging concentrator has an optical gain g(ω) represented by the
expression:
8
< n2
, 0  ω  ωc
g ð ωÞ ¼ sin 2 ωc ð2:10Þ
:
0, ω > ωc

where:
n—internal refractive index.
2.2 Wireless Transmission Based on Visible Light. A Detailed Blueprint 51

ωc  π/2 is the FoV.

The FoV of the oRx is related to the of PD’s lens Acol PD and the PD active area
[16, 40] as:
 
ωc
Acol PD  APD ð2:11Þ
2

Results that, there is an inverse proportional relation between the FoV and the
concentrator gain: when the FoV is reduced, concentrator gain increases. When the
length between oTx and oRx is of the order of few meters or less, the optical power
attenuation due to the absorption and scattering is low.
The DC gain of oRx in an LoS scenario for VLC system, with a Lambertian
source having ml ¼ 1, a band-pass filter, and a non-imaging concentrator is [46]:
8
< APD ðm1 þ 1Þ
cos m1 ðφÞT s ðωÞgðωÞcosω, 0  ω  ωc
H LOS ¼ 2πd 2
:
0, elsewhere
ð2:12Þ

where:
Ts(ω)—optical transmission of the band-pass filter.
d—distance between oTx and oRx (see Fig. 2.3).
The optical intensity received becomes in this case:

PPD LOS ¼ H LOS ð0ÞPt ð2:13Þ

In case of an indoor/underground VLC with short distance oTx and oRx, the
multipath dispersion is not taken into consideration, a LoS link channel is modeled
as a linear attenuation and delay. Therefore, the system is considered as
non-frequency selective and the path loss depends on the square of distance between
the transmitter and the receiver. pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
In this case that φ < 90 , ω < FoV, and d  APD, the optical CIR is given by:
 
APD ðm1 þ 1Þ d
hLoS ¼ cos ðφÞT s ðωÞgðωÞ cos ðωÞδ t  ð2:14Þ
2πd2 c

where:
c—speed of the light in free space (3 108 m/s).
δ(.)—Dirac function.
δ(t  d/c)—signal propagation delay.
An NLoS VLC propagation scenario is generally known as diffuse system that
takes into consideration reflections off the room’s surfaces (ceiling, walls, floor,
window, door, and their reflection’s index due to specific surface composition) as
well as furniture or any other type of static or dynamic obstacles inside the room.
52 2 Conventional and Advanced Technologies for Wireless Transmission in Underground. . .

Fig. 2.5 Geometrical model of a directed NLoS with a single reflection LoS light propagation
topology

NLoS is generally described as a light propagation scenario that takes into

account the signal arriving from oTx to oRx after one or multiple reflections or
bounces from the objects inside a room, being separately considered by the direc-
tivity of the oTx relative to oRx. However, there are two different NLoS propagation
scenarios:
– directed NLoS,
– diffuse NLoS.
In case of directed NLoS, the oTx has a narrow radiation characteristic, projecting
a single spot of light on the ceiling, for example. The ceiling, in this case, acts as a
new oTx, conveying the strong light intensity to the oRx based on its reflection
characteristics.
As for the case of diffuse NLoS, oTx has a wide radiation characteristic irradiating
a large portion of the reflecting surface. The light will arrive at the oRx after one or
multiple reflections (bounces) on the different surfaces of objects indoor/
underground.
In some circumstances, these reflections are considered as unwanted signals since
they carry out multipath propagation and thus distortions, ray tracing delay, and
therefore, the estimation of the path loss has a potential growth.
In Fig. 2.5, the correlated orientation of oTx and oRx as well as orientation toward
the reflecting object is described highlighting both the observation angles θo and
incident angles θi.
Low path loss is experienced with high reflective objects underground, due to the
increased power of the rays coming from different path of propagation. This
situation drives to low channel bandwidth and high delay spread (Fig. 2.6).
2.2 Wireless Transmission Based on Visible Light. A Detailed Blueprint 53

Fig. 2.6 Delay spread and coherence bandwidth for high reflective objects

Fig. 2.7 Delay spread and coherence bandwidth for low reflective objects

On the other side, when objects underground are low reflective, high path loss is
expected, leading to higher channel bandwidth and consequently a lower delay
spread (Fig. 2.7).
In case of underground mining where environments are highly polluted and in
some industrial halls, characteristics of the propagating optical beam are highly
affected, thus resulting in optical losses and turbulence-induced phase fluctuation
and amplitude fades on the scale of a wavelength.
Gfeller and Bapst [40], the first researchers who modeled the path loss of an IR
wireless channel, presented an analytical model of the received optical power in IR
radiation, both for LoS and one reflection NLoS. They also took into consideration in
their study, the orientation of oTx and oRx as well as orientation in the direction of
the reflecting surface.
Most of the researchers so far took into consideration the VLC model with the
oTx modeled according to a Lambertian radiation pattern and the oRx according to a
Lambertian detection pattern with a specific FoV.
The bidirectional reflectance distribution function (BRDF) R(θi) is:
54 2 Conventional and Advanced Technologies for Wireless Transmission in Underground. . .

cos θo
Rðθi Þ ¼ ð2:15Þ
π

where:
θi—incident angle of the incoming light.
θo—observation angle of the outgoing light.
Thus, the general form of an optical power received on the PD (PPD) active area,
in a diffuse single path LoS topology and a BRDF, is defined as a sum of the optical
power received from LoS direct path (PLoS_dp) topology and the optical power
received from a single reflection coming from the reflecting surface (object)
(PNLoS_sr), taking into consideration the BRDF as well:

PPD ¼ PLos dp þ PNLoS sr ð2:16Þ

m1 þ 1 A
PLoSdp ¼ PLED cos m1 ðφo Þ PD cos ðωi Þr FOV ðωi Þ ð2:17Þ
2π d2
Z Z
m þ1
PNLoSsr ¼ PLED 1 cos m1 ðφt Þ
2π φ ω

ρRðθi Þ APD
cos ðωr Þr FOV ðφt Þdφdω ð2:18Þ
d 21 d22

where:
PLED—total optical power of LED.
m1—Lambertian number of LED’s radiation lobe related to LED directivity.
φo—observation angle of oTx on the direct path.
ωi—incident angle of the oRx.
APD—active area of the PD.
d—distance between oTx and oRx on the direct path
(
1 for ωi  ωr
r FoV ðωi Þ ¼ ð2:19Þ
0 for ωi > ωr

ρ—reflection coefficient of the reflecting object according to its material’s

surface.
d1—distance between oTx and the reflecting object.
d2—distance between the reflecting object and oRx.
However, in a real scenario, the light behavior is much more complex and the
VLC setup has to take into consideration the oTx emittance spectrum, oRx spectral
response in a function of wavelength (λ), as well as the underground objects and
their geometry and the type of materials in the surrounding environment.
Still, in a VLC setup, WLED has a wide range of emittance spectrum and the
spectral response of the oRx is close to the spectral response of the oTx, therefore
PPD (Eq. 2.16) depends on the wavelength (λ). When a complex underground
2.2 Wireless Transmission Based on Visible Light. A Detailed Blueprint 55

geometry and material characteristics of the objects impose multiple reflections, light
undergoes multiple reflections, and a ray-tracing algorithm should be applied [39].
As Pakravan et al. showed in the paper “Indoor Wireless Infrared Channel
Characterization by Measurements” [47], for an oRx changing the elevation angle
from 0 –180 , not more than five points along the entire path are enough to calculate
variation of channel path loss for a full rotation range, therefore, the statistical path
loss in a VLC setup is a simple curve fitting that can be approximated with
intermediate values.
We have already underlined that the optical signal experiences multipath fading if
PD size (i.e., the active surface area) is proportional to one wavelength or less.
Fortunately, VLC receivers use PDs with a surface area usually millions of square
wavelengths.
Furthermore, the total photocurrent generated is proportional to the integral of the
optical power over the entire PD’s active area.

2.2.1 Optical Setup

Optical Transmitter

LEDs are used as light sources in VLC systems aiming to piggyback data transmis-
sion along with illumination. The optical signal transmitted by LEDs experiences,
invariably, free-space diffusion to the receiver, which is usually one or more
photodetectors (PDs).
A LED consists of a number of semiconductor materials overlaid. Inside the LED,
electricity is converted directly into light particles, photons, leading to an efficient
result (gain) related to other light sources where only a slight amount of the
electricity is converted into light and for the most part into heat. Electric current is
used both in incandescent bulbs (IB) and halogen lamps (HL) to heat a wire filament,
making it glow. In case of fluorescent lamps (FL), it is produced a gas discharge that
creates both heat and light. On the other hand, LEDs, compared to classical light
sources, need a low level of energy to emit light. Furthermore, LEDs are improved
every day, getting more efficient with higher luminous flux (measured in lumen [lm])
per unit electrical input power (measured in watt [W]).
The main “actor” of the optical transmitter (oTx), the optical signal emitter in a
VLC setup, can be any of the following:
– white LED,
– RGB LED.
– an array (attocells or picocells) of μLEDs,
– laser diode LD.
Because there are many advantages of using the LEDs in underground spaces for
the illumination networks, for the miner’s cap lamp (placed on the helmet) and the
machinery spot lights, the solid-state lighting (SSL) is expected to replace the
56 2 Conventional and Advanced Technologies for Wireless Transmission in Underground. . .

existing lighting infrastructure in the underground mines. Some of the most impor-
tant advantages of SSLs are summarized as follows:
– long lifetime,
– high energy conversion efficiency,
– minimum heat generation characteristics compared to all other lighting sources,
– high tolerance to humidity and extreme (high/low) temperatures,
– mercury free,
– small with compact size,
– most important, allow fast switching,
– can operate for 25,000–50,000 h before their output drops; LEDs are more long
lasting than other lamps, hence decreasing materials consumption. IB tends to last
1000 h, as heat damages the filament, while FL typically last around 10,000 h,
– 1/4 of worldwide electricity consumption is used for lighting, therefore, the high
energy/efficient LEDs can contribute to saving the Earth’s resources. This oppor-
tunity opens a bright road for the various applications of wireless optical
communication.
However, despite all the advantages underlined above, there are still a number of
drawbacks and technological challenges needed to be addressed by researchers
worldwide in various fields, from electronics to lighting, communication, and so
on. Some of the most important challenges refer to the designing of low cost, high
efficient front end devices with high luminous efficiency, and outstanding color
quality since the primary function of LEDs still should be illumination.
All the listed advantages and opportunities due to advanced technologies devel-
oped today, give the possibility to efficiently aggregate lighting, along with data
wireless communication embedded into different network types:
– Miner to miner (M2M).
– Miner to illumination–infrastructure/illumination–infrastructure to miner
(M2I/I2M).
– Mining equipment to miner/miner to mining equipment (E2M/M2E).
– Mining equipment to illumination–infrastructure/illumination–infrastructure to
mining equipment (E2I/I2E), and so on.
So, a special design for LEDs is requested with innovative optical solutions
embedded in order to bring reliable glare-free along with energy-efficient solutions
for every workspace underground as well as high-quality products that solve the
challenges end-users encounter. Instead of covering the light sources, or to tilting the
work light to avoid miners blinding each other, or in the vehicles’ proximity,
different companies found ingenious optical solutions that solve this problem
[48]. These solutions still allow a reliable optical data communication along with
illumination.
Efficient LEDs have more than 300 lm/W, which can be compared to 16 for
regular IBs and about 70 for FLs.
The power (P) of a LED in watts [W] is equal to the luminous flux (ΦV) in lumens
[lm], divided by the luminous efficacy η in lumens per watt [lm/W]:
2.2 Wireless Transmission Based on Visible Light. A Detailed Blueprint 57

– +
hole

p-layer
active layer
n-layer electrons
electron holes

light

Fig. 2.8 The inside structure of a LED

∅vðlmÞ
PðW Þ ¼ ð2:20Þ
ηðlmÞ
W

A LED consists of several layers: p-type layer with a deficient amount of

electrons (also called surplus of positive holes), n-type layer with an extra number
of negative electron and a special layer between them named active layer (Fig. 2.8).
When an electric voltage is applied to the semiconductor, both the positive holes and
the negative electrons are driven between these two layers into the active layer. The
light is created at the moment when electrons and holes meet.
The LED itself is no bigger than a grain of sand and the light’s wavelength
depends on the semiconductor used during the manufacturing process. For example,
blue light has the wavelength between approximately 380 and 500 nm, making it one
of the highest energetic efficient with the shortest wavelengths that can be produced
by certain materials.
“Creating light in a semiconductor LED technology originates in the same art of engineer-
ing that gave us mobile phones, computers and all modern electronics equipment based on
quantum phenomena” [49].

Henry J. Round and Guglielmo Marconi reported for the first time, in 1907, a
discovery based on a semiconductor that emitted light and therefore they became
Nobel Prize Laureates in 1909 [50].
Oleg V. Losev in the 1920s and 1930s, in the Soviet Union, carried out closer
studies of light emission [51]. However, both Round and Losev didn’t reach a deep
understanding of the phenomenon discovered.
Few decades later, the prerequisite for a theoretical description of the electrolu-
minescence was created. Although at the end of the 1950s, was invented the red
light-emitting diode, a blue diode—was actually needed to create white light [52].
Researchers fought to find out how to set the appropriate angle with which the
light escapes the semiconductor, since this “light cone” is quite narrow. Following
many attempts, they figured out how to intensify the light output by forcing light to
refract and bounce off all surfaces of the crystal’s semiconductor. This is the reason
why traditional LED displays have been properly viewed only from one best angle.
The light-emitting diode in this type of lamp that consists of some diverse layers
of gallium nitride (GaN). By mixing in indium (In) and aluminium (Al), the Nobel
58 2 Conventional and Advanced Technologies for Wireless Transmission in Underground. . .

Prize laureates (Akasaki, Amano, and Nakamura) succeeded in increasing the lamp’s
efficiency.
Red and IR LEDs are made with gallium arsenide, white LEDs are made with
yttrium aluminium garnet and bright blue is made with gallium nitride (GaN).
Phosphor is used to filter the light that goes out of the LED, therefore, being created
a cleaner “harsh” white color [53, 54].
In 1986, both Akasaki and Amano were the first to produce a high-quality gallium
nitride crystal. They positioned over a sapphire substrate, a layer of aluminium
nitride and then, on top of it, placed a high-quality gallium nitride. At the end of
the 1980s, Akasaki and Amano succeeded and create a p-type layer. It was a chance
for Akasaki and Amano to notice that, when it was studied in a scanning electron
microscope, the material used was glowing more intensely and therefore the p-type
layer made was more efficient under the electronic beam of the microscope. Finally,
in 1992, they succeeded to present the first diode emitting a bright light of blue color.
In 1988, on the other side of the world, Nakamura began to develop the blue LED
and in 1990 he also succeeded in creating high-quality GaN LED. He created the
crystal in his own different way, by growing first a thin layer of GaN at low
temperature, and then growing successive layers at a higher temperature.
Both research groups succeeded, during the 1990s, to improve the blue LEDs,
making them more efficient. They made different GaN alloys by using indium or
aluminium, therefore, the structure of the LEDs became more and more complex.
Amano, together with Akasaki, as well as Nakamura, invented also a blue laser, in
which, the blue LED, is an essential component. A blue laser emits a cutting-sharp
beam, in contrast to the dispersed light of the LED. As for the disk digital data
storage supports, since the light colored blue has a very short wavelength, four times
more information can be stored by the same area compared with infrared light. Blu-
ray discs were therefore developed having increased storage capacity and longer
playback times, as well as better laser printers.
Today, there are basically two types of LEDs as energy-efficient emitters of white
light: a single-color LED (obtained from the tree colors red, green, or blue) and a
white LED (WLED). These two technologies generate white light via LEDs. One is
by combining RGB (red ~625 nm, green 525 nm, and blue 470 nm) in an accurate
quantity in order to generate white light. Usually, these three devices stand by one
with three emitters and suitable optics, being often used in applications where
adjustable color emission is required. These devices allow WDM.
The phosphorescent white LEDs are created by a different technique. This
technique involves the use of GaN blue LED coated with an inorganic phosphor
layer that emits yellow light. The layer of phosphor absorbs a part of a short
wavelength light produced by the blue LED and then the radiated light from the
absorber experiences wavelength change to a longer wavelength of yellow light. The
red-shifted emission mixes additively with the non-absorbed blue part to create the
required white color.
However, the slow response of the phosphor layer has an important disadvantage
since it limits the modulation bandwidth of the phosphorescent white LEDs to just
few megahertz [55].
2.2 Wireless Transmission Based on Visible Light. A Detailed Blueprint 59

In spite of the many advantages that WLEDs have compared with incandescent
bulbs, halogen, or fluorescent lamps, their modulation bandwidth far exceeds that of
the mentioned traditional lighting sources. The large area of WLEDs induces a large
capacitance and slow response of the yellow phosphor that limit the 3 dB bandwidth
to a few megahertz [56]. However, by removing the signal from the yellow phosphor
that arrives at the oRx active area (with a filter), the 3 dB modulation bandwidth is
possible to reach 10 or even more megahertz [57]. There are some references to
different equalization circuit or digital signal processing used in order to extend the
3 dB bandwidth as well as a high order of multi-carrier modulation embedded for
high spectral efficiency [58].
RGB mixed white LEDs provide a high spectral bandwidth, being more complex
(the modulation circuit) and more expensive than W LEDs, therefore are not widely
used in the VLC systems.
The emission of light is due to an electron’ transition from an excited to a lower
energy state. The energy difference leads to a radiative process that results in light
generation. The recombination of the carrier is therefore used to provide flux
photons.
Both the wavelength and frequency of the emitted/absorbed photons are related to
the energy difference E of two energetic states (E2 and E1), and is given by equation:

hc
E ¼ E2  E 1 ¼ hf ¼ ð2:21Þ
λ

where:
h—Planck’s constant (6.626 1034 Js).
f—frequency.
c—speed of light (3 108 m/s).
λ—wavelength of the absorbed/emitted light.
Depending on the energy band gap of the semiconductor material, the radiated
photons, can be in any part of the electromagnetic spectrum: UV, visible, or IR. In
the case of LEDs, this conversion process is quite efficient. Therefore, a very slow
amount of heat results compared to incandescent lights, for example.
The luminous efficiency of a LED is defined by the ratio of the luminous flux
(in lumens) to the input electrical power (in Watt) (see Eq. 2.20). The luminous flux
describes the “quantity” of total emitted light. The luminous flux (ΦV) is the total
emitted flux scaled properly to reflect the flexible sensitivity of the human eye to
different wavelengths of light.
Z
ϕV ¼ 683 V ðλÞPsd ðλÞdλ ð2:22Þ

where:
683 [lm/W]—a normalization factor.
V(λ)—relative eye sensitivity (is normalized to unity at the peak wavelength of
555 nm).
60 2 Conventional and Advanced Technologies for Wireless Transmission in Underground. . .

Psd(λ)—radiation power spectrum of the LED.

The optical power (Po) emitted by a light source is then given by:
Z
Po ¼ Psd ðλÞdλ ð2:23Þ
λ

The off-the-shelf high-performance single-chip visible spectrum LEDs can have a

ΦV of about 10–100 lm at an injection current between 100 and 1000 mA.
A typical VLC link uses a white LED where both lighting and communication
link are provided by the LED. The blue light can be extracted from the optical beam
at the PD, using an optical filter.
The small-signal modulation bandwidth of the white LED depends on the LED
driving current.
The most important characteristics of the oTx front-end device refer to:
(a) the radiation pattern,
(b) optical spectral response,
(c) electrical modulation bandwidth,
(d) electrical to optical (E/O) conversion.

The Radiation Pattern

The radiation pattern of a single LED is modeled by means of a generalized

Lambertian radiation pattern shown in Fig. 2.9 [39].
The FoV of an LED is defined as the half-angle between the points on the
radiation pattern φFoV,oTx.
An incoherent diffuse LED can have an FoV in the range between 10
and 60 .

LED’s Optical Spectral Response

In Table 2.1 [59] there are shown few common engineering terms used for specific
photometric and radiometric quantities, with their corresponding SI units.
The oTx has to be manufactured according to BS EN 62471:2008 standard for
photobiological safety of lamp systems and lamps. LEDs with incoherent diffusion,
continuous wave modulated wave is part of the excepted group classification, and
are not dangerous for human eye in case that, at a distance of 0.2 m, the irradiance is
not higher than 100 W/m2 from the optical source in the direction of maximal
directivity within 1000 s [39]. However, the intensity can be substantially increased
due to specific optical system of lenses and collimators and this situation has to be
carefully conducted in case of a VLC or LiFi system that is constantly used indoor/
underground.
2.2 Wireless Transmission Based on Visible Light. A Detailed Blueprint 61

90
120 60

150 30

180 0
Lambertian
FOV = ±10° m = 45,
0.2 FOV = ±20° m = 11,

0.4 FOV = ±60° m = 1,

210 330 Generalized Lambertian
0.6

0.8
240 300
1 270

Fig. 2.9 Normalized Lambertian characteristics (Lambertian mode numbers, for 10 20
and 60 patterns and corresponding FOV. (Adapted from [39])

Table 2.1 Specific photometric and radiometric quantities

Photometric (SI) Radiometric (SI)
Flux Luminous flux [lm] Radiant flux [W]
Flux/area Illuminance [lux ¼ lm/m2] Irradiance [W/m2]
Flux Luminous intensity [candela ¼ lm/sr] Radiant intensity [W/sr]
Flux/(area/solid angle) Luminance [nit ¼ lm/(m2  sr)] Radiance [W/(m2  sr)]

Today, on the market there are lots of incoherent diffuse IR LEDs with different
optical centers of frequencies (830, 850, 870, 890, 940, 950) nm with a 3 dB
bandwidth of approximately 40 nm. White LEDs have a spectral emission in the
range between 380 and 780 nm (see Fig. 2.10).

LEDs Modulation Bandwidth

A VLC modulation bandwidth is directly influenced by the LEDs’ frequency

response, therefore, affects the rates of data transferred. The LEDs’ modulation
bandwidth depends on the lifetime (τ) of the carrier recombination on the active
region and the p–n junction capacitance. Increasing the area of LED, its internal
junction capacitance increases and consequently LED’s RC delay time (τ ¼ RC) is
also increased. RC delay time is defined as the necessary time for the voltage to rise
from zero to about 63.2% of the DC voltage applied. Therefore, the modulation
bandwidth of LEDs is restricted by great RC delay time. The frequency response of
62 2 Conventional and Advanced Technologies for Wireless Transmission in Underground. . .

Fig. 2.10 LEDs and PDs optical spectral response in OWC (adapted from [39])

on-the-shelf white LEDs is highly influenced by the slow response of the yellow
phosphor layer.
The modulation bandwidth of a VLC system is still limited to megahertz which is
not good enough when trying to achieve data communication with high data rates.
One of the solution explored is the use of a blue filter at the oRx to clean out the slow
response of yellow phosphor.
Both the LED’s frequency response and modulation bandwidth are related to the
level of input current and the junction and parasitic capacitance.
The value of the capacitance is almost invariant, however, the response grows
with increasing current, therefore, the effects of the above-mentioned factor can be
decreased by superimposing the AC signal on a constant DC bias.
Considering the DC power (P) at frequency (ω), the relative optical power output
at any given frequency is given by:

PðωÞ 1
¼ qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ð2:24Þ
Po
1 þ ðωτÞ2

The LED’s cutoff frequency is also important. It refers to the maximum frequency
at which LED’s light emission drops to half of the initial light intensity.
2.2 Wireless Transmission Based on Visible Light. A Detailed Blueprint 63

Electrical to Optical (E/O) Conversion

LEDs, being complex semiconductors, are designed to convert an electrical current

(electrical signal) into light (optical signal). The conversion process is fairly efficient
in that it generates little heat compared to the incandescent bulbs or fluorescent tubes.
The LED’s output power is linearly proportional to the drive current. As the LED
is driven with higher currents, its chip gets hotter causing a drop in E/O conversion
efficiency.

OLEDs
Organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs) are SSL sources made of organic semicon-
ductor (OSC) materials. SSL products, during illumination process, produce less
heat and less energy dissipation due to the property of converting blue light in white
light using photoluminescence, the same principle that is used for traditional fluo-
rescent tubes [60].

Laser Diodes—LDs
An LD has the same basic structure as an LED in the sense that it contains p-type and
n-type semiconductors, though, LDs are made with an additional region between the
p–n junction, that has an intrinsic in nature, without dopants. Laser diodes have a
threshold current which must be reached before lasing can occur. Before the
threshold, LDs emit spontaneous light similar to LED. When the threshold current
is reached the optical gain is exceeding the optical losses for the cavity. The cavity of
an LD is created by the edges of the semiconductor, usually polished and cleaved to
create a highly reflective side (99%) and a completely reflective side. This cavity
delivers an oscillator for the emitted photons to become mobile back and forth.
When photons are injected and transporting through the cavity, a photon stimulates
an electron and hole recombination. The result is the emission of a photon duplicate
to the one that produced the recombination. When this process occurs, and the
amount of emitted light has become greater than the amount of absorbed light inside
the cavity, lasing occurs.
The most advanced LDs feature the highest luminance of any light source
available off-the-shelf today, with more than 1000 Mcd/m2, which is more than
100 times higher than the brightest LEDs. The extraordinary illumination of LD
combines the benefits of solid-state illumination, such as compact form factor,
minimal power consumption, and long lifetime, with the highly directional output
that has been possible only with legacy lighting technology [61].
The use of LD for different projects aiming to use LDs as efficient emitters for
different setups of VLC systems has been reported in many research works world-
wide with promising results [62–66]. In fact, LEDs and LDs are very similar devices
and, when operating below their threshold current, all LDs act as LEDs.
64 2 Conventional and Advanced Technologies for Wireless Transmission in Underground. . .

Optical Receiver

The main “actor” of the optical receiver is the photodetector (PD) which is, in fact, a
semiconductor with a p–n junction.
In a VLC setup, the PD can have any of the following:
– positive intrinsic negative photodetector (PIN-PD),
– avalanche photodiode (APD),
– an array of PIN-PDs or APDs,
– Light-dependent resistor (LDR).
The photons that arrive on the active area of the PD’s surface, hit the p–n junction,
and therefore, excite the electrons resulting in a current. A p–n junction diode is
made when a p-type semiconductor is fused to an n-type semiconductor generating a
possible barrier voltage across the diode’s junction (see Fig. 2.11).
A PD can be operated in a (a) photovoltaic (zero biased) or (b) photoconductive
(forward or reverse biased) mode.
In zero biased (photovoltaic mode), the cathode (C) and the anode (A) are
connected to a load (the input of a TIA that converts photocurrent into voltage);
therefore, the PD delivers a current (up to several mA) being used as sensor. PDs
zero biased are used in power measurement applications.
When the PD is in the photoconductive mode (generally used for VLC), the
incident optical power has a direct effect on the reverse current.
Photoconductive mode decreases considerably the reaction time to incident
photons, so PDs biased in the reverse direction are used as high-speed PDs.
On the other hand, the temperature dependency of the PD current, though, is a
downside of the reverse bias PD. In this conductive mode, current is measured
through the circuit, which indicates the level of device’s illumination, is direct and
linear proportional to the input optical power. The width of the depletion junction, in

depletion layer

N-area P-area
+ + + + –
– – –
+ + +
– – –
+ + +
– – –
+ + + Id = Imax R
– – –

+
PN junction –
– +

Forward Biasing Voltage

Fig. 2.11 Internal structure and symbol of a p–n junction diode

2.2 Wireless Transmission Based on Visible Light. A Detailed Blueprint 65

this case, increases, having a direct response in a high responsivity of PD, with a
decrease in junction capacitance, producing a very linear response. However, these
conditions are likely to produce a high dark current that can be limited based on the
PD’s material.
This dark current is produced by a leakage current flowing when a bias voltage is
applied on PD. In photoconductive mode, the dark current is high and has significant
fluctuation with the temperature’ variation. For every 10 C temperature increase, the
dark current doubles and the shunt resistance doubles with 6 C. A higher bias
increases the dark current present and decreases the junction capacitance. Both the
PD’s size of the active area and its material influence the dark current. Silicon
devices, for example, have low dark current compared with germanium devices
being therefore the favorite choice for VLC.
A PIN PD is a highly linear, fast device, having high quantum efficiency. The
overall performance of the oRx front-end device depends on the bandwidth, sensi-
tivity, and active surface of the PD as well as the quality of the communication
channel.
An optical filter is placed in the system in order to select the spectrum of light that
is sent to the receiver. The overall performance of the optical receiver (oRx) depends
on the bandwidth, sensitivity, and surface of the detector as well as the quality of the
communication channel.
When incoming light is absorbed in the depleted region of the junction semicon-
ductor, it generates photocurrent, thus converting light into an electrical signal which
is pre-amplified and then sent to data recovery and signal processing.
The PD is, therefore, an optoelectronic transducer generating an electrical signal
that is proportional to the square of the optical signal striking on its active area.
Hence, the electrical signal generated by the PD is proportional to the optical power
received.
In order to achieve the expected data rate, the PD must have high quantum
efficiency (η); high responsivity (ℛ); high photosensitivity (S) within its opera-
tional range of wavelengths; low noise level; minimum response at wide range of
temperature’s fluctuations; and long operational lifetime.
The ratio between the average number of electron–hole (e–h) pairs generated by a
PD and the average number of incident photons in a certain time is named the
quantum efficiency (η). Assuming that the absorption coefficient of the p–n junction
is α(λ) and the junction width is w, then the quantum efficiency η is:

Ip
η¼ p
e
¼ 1  eαðλÞw ð2:25Þ
hv

For a high value of quantum efficiency (η), junction (w) must be as wide as
possible. This is the reason why the I-layer is introduced between p and n layers.
The responsivity (ℛ) is defined by the ratio between the generated photocurrent
(IPD) and the incident power (P0) at a given wavelength:
66 2 Conventional and Advanced Technologies for Wireless Transmission in Underground. . .

1700

1500
Wavelength (nm)
InGaAs Ge

1300 10%
30%
1100 50%
70%
90%
900
Si
700

500
1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2
Responsivity (A/W)

Fig. 2.12 Quantum efficiency (percent) of PDs according to their material [39]

 
I PD λ μm
R¼ ¼ ð2:26Þ
P0 1:23985 μm  WA

Therefore, the spectral response is related to the amount of current and wave-
length, as all wavelengths are at the same level of light.
The ratio of light energy in watts [W] incident on its surface to the resulting
current in amperes [A] is called photosensitivity.
A small surface of a detector leads to low capacitance and high bandwidth. In case
of a large surface of the PD, the power received increases by the same factor and is
equal to an increase in sensitivity.
The spectral response as well as the quantum efficiency depends both on the
material properties and PD’s structure. The quantum efficiency (η) of the PD from
the n and p layers can be ignored when the PD’s surface-active area has zero
reflectivity. In this case, the I-layer absorbs the entire light in the working voltage
and therefore, the η is:

η ¼ 1  eαðλÞw ð2:27Þ

where:
α(λ)—the absorption coefficient
w—thickness of the I-layer
The thickness of the I-layer (w) should be sufficiently large to improve η.
The long-wavelength limitation is influenced by the upper cut off wavelength.
2.2 Wireless Transmission Based on Visible Light. A Detailed Blueprint 67

Quantum efficiency (percent) of PDs according to their materials is shown in

Fig. 2.12 where the dependency of the responsivity related to the wavelength can be
seen. Si material is the best choice for 500–900 nm band while Ge and InGaAs are
best suited for 1300–1600 nm bandwidth.
Quantum efficiency and responsivity vary with the wavelength. The quantum
efficiency of the PD can be improved by reducing the reflectivity of the incident
surface in order to force as many possible photons to move into the pn junction. As a
result, when the width of the depletion region is increased, photons are completely
absorbed in this region.
The current generated by PD without light on the active area is named the dark
current. The Si-PIN PD has a minimum dark current, and on the other hand, the
Ge-PIN PD has a maximum dark current. This is one of the main reasons why the
Si-PIN PD is preferred in VLC systems.
Both the frequency and response time of a PIN PD are mostly determined by the
transit time of the production of carriers in the depletion layer as well as the RC
constant of the oRx front-end device including PD.
The transit time can be decreased by reducing the width of the depletion layer (w),
thus improving the cutoff frequency. However, in this case, the quantum efficiency η
will be reduced accordingly.
The circuit’s RC time constant limits the cutoff frequency ( fc) as:

1
fc ¼ ð2:28Þ
2  π  Rc  Cd

where:
Rc—sum of the series resistance and the load resistance of the PD.
Cd—sum of the junction capacitance (Cj) and the distributed capacitance:

ε  Aj
Cj ¼ ð2:29Þ
w

where:
ε—dielectric constant
Aj—the junction area
w—the depletion layer width
The noise of a PIN PD mainly refers to the shot noise and thermal noise. Shot
noise comes from both signal current and dark current. The thermal noise is
produced by the load resistance and the input resistance of the amplifier.
Root mean square of the shot noise is:
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
RMS ns ¼ 2  e  Ip ð2:30Þ

where:
Ip—peak current.
e—elementary electron charge e ¼ 1.602 1019 [C] (coulombs) [67].
68 2 Conventional and Advanced Technologies for Wireless Transmission in Underground. . .

Root mean square of dark current noise:

pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
RMS nd ¼ 2  e  Id ð2:31Þ

where:
Id—dark current.is:
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
4kT B
RMS nt ¼ ð2:32Þ
Rr

where:
k—the Boltzmann’s constant (1.38 1023 [J/K]) [68].
T—equivalent noise temperature.
B—bandwidth.
Rr—parallel result of the load resistor and the amplifier input resistor.
In the VLC system, the shot noise is produced by the natural and artificial light
present indoor/underground.
In the oRx front end, the thermal noise mainly comes from the electronic
preamplifier i.e. the TIA. (The AD8015, is one example of TIA model that keeps a
low AWGN power at the oRx with an important amplification of the optimum signal
gained [39].)
The values of these two noise components (shot noise and thermal noise) are
dominant at the oRx for the AWGN calculation.
At the oRx, the AWGN has a complex value with a double-sided electrical PSD.
The electrical gain (σAWGN) of the oRx depends on wavelength as follows:

σ 2AWGN ðλÞ ¼ ns þ nt ð2:33Þ

where:
ns—shot noise
nt—thermal noise
Shot noise is defined by equation:

ns ¼ 2eðPo ðλÞ þ Pam ðλÞÞ  RðλÞ  GTIA  GOC  B ð2:34Þ

where:
ℛ—PD’s responsivity
GTIA—TIA’s gain.
Goc—optical concentrators’ gain
B—bandwidth
Thermal noise is defined by equation:
2.2 Wireless Transmission Based on Visible Light. A Detailed Blueprint 69

nt ¼ 4  k  T  B ð2:35Þ

In a VLC system, carriers with wavelength between 375 and 780 nm are useful
signals, thus, all the other carriers in near IR, for example, can also be classified as
noise.
Since the peak response of the PIN PD made by Si is between 625 and 900 nm
(although the VLC stands around 420–760 nm) the communication signals are
drowned by a quite high background noise induced by other types of light (natural
or artificial light).
In case of a Si-PIN PD, the recombination of the photo-generated carriers in
p layer and n layer reduces considerably its internal quantum efficiency (IQE). When
light hits the n layer, high doping occurs and the PD carrier lifetime is significantly
reduced and therefore its IQE for short wavelengths is low. On the other hand, in
case of long wavelengths, the recombination of the photo-generated carriers in
n layer doesn’t matter much, due to its great penetration depth. Light with long
wavelengths penetrates deep into silicon p layer; therefore, the recombination
reduces the IQE.
Noise (forward-biased or shunt resistance noise) related to the shunt resistance
(SR) is defined as the ratio voltage to the amount of current generated.
Noise equivalent power is the amount of light (of a given wavelength) that is
equivalent to the noise level.
The SNR of a PD is defined as:

2
S Ip 4k  T  B
¼ þ ð2:36Þ
N 2e  I p þ I d B Re

where:
B—bandwidth.
T—temperature equivalent noise.
Re—equivalent resistance.
There are mainly two types of PDs used in VLC systems:
– Positive intrinsic negative (PIN).
– Avalanche photodiode (APD).
A PIN diode has a wide area between the p-type and n-type area (typically heavily
doped), consisting of an undoped intrinsic semiconductor. The intrinsic area pro-
vides a greater separation between the p and n areas, allowing higher reverse
voltages to be tolerated. The wide intrinsic area makes a PIN different from an
ordinary p–n diode, being therefore suitable for photodetectors (Table 2.2).
APDs are high-sensitivity, high-speed semiconductor light sensors being widely
used to convert optical data into electrical form. The main advantage of an APD is
that it has a greater level of sensitivity compared to PIN since the avalanche action
multiplies the gain of the diode.
70 2 Conventional and Advanced Technologies for Wireless Transmission in Underground. . .

Table 2.2 The working Parameters

characteristic parameters of Symbol
different material PINs Unit Si Ge InGaAs
Wavelength range 400–1000 800–1650 1100–1700
k
[nm]
Responsivity 0.4–0.6 0.4–0.5 0.75–0.95
R
[A/W]
Dark current 1–10 50–500 0.5–2.0
Id
[nA]
Rise time 0.5–1.0 0.1–0.5 0.05–0.5
τ
[ns]
Bandwidth 0.3–0.7 0.5–3.0 1.0–2.0
B
[GHz]
Bias 5 5–10 5
VB
[V]

On the other hand, an APD needs a higher operating voltage and the output is
nonlinear, therefore, APDs also have a higher level of noise than a PIN PD. Also,
APDs, not like PIN PDs, need a high reverse bias state to work. That permits
avalanche multiplication of the electrons and holes formed by the initial electron-
hole pairs.
APDs have an internal area where electron multiplication occurs by use of an
external reverse voltage. The gain resulted in the output signal means that, at high
speed, low light levels can be measured. APDs are not as widely used as PIN PDs.
PINs are widely used where the resulting gain is important and have the advan-
tage that the necessary working voltage spreads are between 5 and 15 V.
A PIN PD responsivity refers to its ability to convert optical power to electrical
current according to the material it is made of being different for each wavelength.
PIN’s responsivity (ℛPIN) is defined as follows:
h i
ηe A
RPIN ¼ ð2:37Þ
hf W

where:
η—quantum efficiency.
e—electron charge (1.6 1019 C).
h—Planck’s constant (6.62 1034 J or 4.135 1016 eV s/rad).
f—frequency corresponding to the photon wavelength.
2.2 Wireless Transmission Based on Visible Light. A Detailed Blueprint 71

InGaAs PIN diodes have good response to wavelengths corresponding to the low
attenuation window of optical fiber close to 1500 nm. The atmosphere also has low
attenuation into regions close to this wavelength.
APDs are ideal for detecting extremely low light levels. This effect is shown in
the gain GAPD:

IG
GAPD ¼ ð2:38Þ
IP

where:
IG—value of the output current, amplified due to avalanche effect.
Ip—current without amplification.
APD has a higher level of the output current than PIN PD for the same value of
optical input power, but the noise increases correspondingly by the same factor and,
in addition, has a slower response than the PIN PD.
The spectral responsivity (ℛAPD) that appears multiplied by GAPD in an APD is:

IG qλ
RAPD ðλÞ ¼ ¼η G ð2:39Þ
P0 h  c APD

Table 2.3 shows some of the materials and their physical properties used to
manufacture PDs [69].
APDs are PDs with internal gain produced by the application of a reverse voltage.
APDs have a higher signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) than PIN PDs, a faster time
response, lower dark current, and higher sensitivity. The spectral response range is
typically within 200–1150 nm.
Therefore, to create the optimum receiver design is a real challenge. Light emitted
by LED is concentrated using optical elements both on the oTx and oRx, then is
filtered and finally received on the PD’s surface.
To achieve high data rate, the bandwidth-limiting effect generated by the yellow
layer of phosphor has to be avoided.
In order to avoid it, there are some techniques used today in a VLC system:
– use of complex modulation schemes involving multiple bits carried by each
symbol transmitted. This method involves merging multilevel modulation tech-
niques like QAM with optical OFDM or DMT modulation. When used with blue
filtering, the transmission rate can be extended to hundreds of Mbps [70],
– blue filtering at the PD to clean out the yellow components with slow response
[71],
– preequalization at the oTx and post equalization at the oRx [72].
The choice of the best-suited PD for a specific VLC setup refers to its active area,
capacitance, the spectral response as well as any transit-time limited bandwidth
effects.
 72

Table 2.3 Characteristics of PDs used in OWC systems

Material and structure Wavelength (nm) Responsivity (A/W) Gain Dark current Rise time (ns) Speed Cost
Pin 300–1100 (visible to NIR) 0.5 1 Low 0.1–5 High speed Low
Silicon (Si)
Pin 1000–1700 (NIR to MIR) 0.9 1 Low 0.01–5 High speed Moderate
Indium gallium arsenide (InGaAs)
APD germanium (Ge) 800–1300 (NIR) 0.6 10 High 0.3–1 Low speed Low
APD 1000–1700 (NIR to MIR) 0.75 10 Low 0.3 High speed Moderate
Indium gallium arsenide (InGaAs)
NIR near InfraRed, MIR middle InfraRed
2 Conventional and Advanced Technologies for Wireless Transmission in Underground. . .
2.2 Wireless Transmission Based on Visible Light. A Detailed Blueprint 73

PINs, APDs as well as single-photon avalanche detectors (SPADs) have the main
role in VLC setups, using modulation schemes as pulse-position modulation (PPM)
or PAM [73] as well as OFDM [74].
Although SPADs, as photon-counting detectors, have significant higher sensitiv-
ity than APDs for the same active area, there are difficulties in using them in VLC
setups because of the fast dead time, high dark noise, and therefore a limited
gain [75].
The most frequently used PD in VLC setups is the Si PIN PD due to its low
voltage operation, linear response characteristics, high tolerance to a wide range of
fluctuations in temperature, and low cost.

The Optical Filter

The optical filter used in a VLC system has to eliminate the light from any other
natural or artificial sources; cutout the IR wavelength; remove the slow light from the
yellow phosphor.
The yellow phosphor layer has been applied to the blue light in order to obtain
white light in on-the-shelf commercial LEDs.
The optimum spectral response (SR) of the oRx depends both on the SR of the PD
and the filter in front of it. As mentioned before, the SR of the PD is described by the
ℛ, the ratio between the optical power and electrical current according to optical
spectral range. Most of the on-the-shelf PDs ℛ used for VLC setups today are
between 0.6 and 0.8 A/W. The PDs SR raise from 320 to 1100 nm, therefore, optical
filters have the role to separate the individual optical channels.
Optical filters used for VLC setups have a narrow optical bandwidth of 3 dB
(10 2 nm) in spectrum of UV/visible band-pass filters from 340 to 694.3 nm, with
1, 3, 10, or 40 nm band-pass regions and a gain factor of 0.8–0.9 (Thorlabs band-
pass filters for visible spectrum e.g., FKB-VIS-10) [39].
The structure of a band-pass filter consists of several layers (dielectric stacks) of
material on the surface of the substrate (spacer layers) (see Fig. 2.13).

Fig. 2.13 Optical band-pass filter’s internal structure and final product [76]
74 2 Conventional and Advanced Technologies for Wireless Transmission in Underground. . .

Each dielectric stack has a thickness of λ/4, where λ is the central wavelength of
the band-pass filter (i.e., the wavelength with the best transmittance through the
filter).
Each spacer layer (consisting of colored glass, epoxy, dyes, metallic, or dielec-
tric), placed between the dielectric stacks, has a thickness of (nλ)/2, where n is an
integer.
A Fabry–Perot cavity is formed by each spacer layer sandwiched between
dielectric stacks. These interference conditions of a Fabry–Perot cavity resulted
from its construction, allowing light to be sent efficiently at the central wavelength,
and a small band of wavelengths, since all interference with negative effects stop the
light outside the passband to be transmitted. Still, the band of blocked wavelengths
on either side of the central wavelength is quite small.
Different materials with wide-blocking ranges are used between the spacer layers
and the substrate in order to increase the blocking range of the filter.
While these materials successfully block out the transmission band of the incident
radiation they also reduce the communication through the filter in the passband.
Filter orientation in the VLC setup is important to be done according to manu-
facture marks to avoid any thermal negative effects or possible damages. About 1 nm
over the operating temperature range of the filter can result in shifts from the central
wavelength of the band-pass filter [76].

The Optical Concentrator

The gain of a conventional optical concentrator (Goc) is limited by its geometric

properties that define the capability of the flux collecting of the optical system, called
etendue. Etendue, in an optical system, is the property of light that characterizes how
the light is “spread out” in both area and angle. Étendue is preserved as light travels
through an optical system where it experiences reflections or refractions.
Etendue conservation means that gain of this optical concentrator can only be
increased at the expense of decreasing the PD FoV. This limitation can be overcome
when an optical concentrator is used. Light incident on the entrance aperture on the
concentrator reaches the exit plane after being reflected on its side walls. The reliable
concentrator for VLC setups has a hollow conical shape with reflecting material or a
solid paraboloid, made from dielectric material. A paraboloid concentrator has a
higher gain than the hollow one and is more commonly used in VLC
applications [77].
A concentrator with a large gain in front of the PD results in an improved SNR
since a small active area of the PD is preferably due to the small capacitance and
therefore a higher bandwidth. Hence, an improved oRx has a concentrator with a
large collection area, a wide FoV, and a PD with a small active area. The gain of the
concentrator is limited by the condition imposed by conservation of etendue.
The optical concentrator usually receives light from a wide FoV (generally 2π
steradians) and has the role to concentrate it on the PD’s active area, therefore, its
geometrical gain (Goc), is:
2.2 Wireless Transmission Based on Visible Light. A Detailed Blueprint 75

n2
Goc ¼ ð2:40Þ
sin 2 φ

where:
n—the refractive index of the concentrator.
φ—half-angle FoV [78].
A steradian (sr) is defined as the solid angle subtended at the center of a unit
sphere by a unit area on its surface. For a general sphere of radius r, any portion of its
surface with area A ¼ r2 subtends one steradian at its center.
When a PD has a large active area, it collects a large amount of the emitted optical
signal with the expense of a reduced electrical modulation bandwidth because of a
high capacitance of PD. Instead of using a single PD, an array of PDs, collocated in a
nonplanar mode (an angular diversity receiver, e.g., can be fabricated by assembling
multiple small PDs on a semispherical shape base), eases this trade-off, increasing in
this way the photosensitive area without reducing the modulation bandwidth [39].

2.2.2 Electrical Setup

oTx Driver

Hardware design and manufacturing of a suitable electrical transmitter module for a

VLC setup is not an easy task since there is necessary to reach a proper balance
between different optical and electrical characteristics considering that the electronic
design has conflictual requirements.
Since LEDs emit noncoherent light and therefore, an unstable, nonlinear carrier,
VLC setup employs the IM/DD method where the underground channel offers
direct-data connection used as wireless communication link. The LED’s nonlinearity
can severely alter the output signal due to the large peak to average power ratio
(PAPR).
One of the main requirements regarding the LEDs characteristics for a reliable
optimal wireless communication is its fast response time. The LED, as the current-
driven simple conducting device, has the brightness proportional to the forward
current.
Taking into account that the main role of the LED in a fixture is illumination, not
data communication, the oTx has to be designed to prevent LED’s damage since the
high current and therefore overheating would shorten its life. To ensure both a long
time and normal operation of the LED and efficient VLC setup, some important
requirements are necessary when designing the transmitter driver: its input DC
voltage drop should not be lower than the LED’ forward voltage drops; current
must be controlled into the linear region; the driving circuit should adopt a DC
current source or a unidirectional pulsed current source, rather than a voltage
source [79].
76 2 Conventional and Advanced Technologies for Wireless Transmission in Underground. . .

Fig. 2.14 LED series +V

resistor circuit with DC
power supply

I R = IF
RS

VS

LED
VF
k
IF

The LED, as the main actor of the oTx in a VLC setup, is a semiconductor device
that converts—when operated in a forward-biased direction—the electrical energy
into light. Because the LED’s junction does not truly emit a high amount of light, its
shell is covered inside by a transparent, hard plastic epoxy resin hemispherical shape
that enforce the emitted photons to be reflected away and then focused upwards
through the hemispherical top of the LED. In this way, the dome shell acts like a
lens, focusing the amount of light.
The color of light emitted by the LED depends on the wavelength of the light
being determined by the type of semiconductor compound used in the PN junction
during its manufacturing process. White and blue light LEDs result by mixing two or
more complementary colors at a precise ratio within the semiconductor composite
and furthermore by inserting nitrogen atoms into the crystal structure during the
doping procedure [80].
LEDs are devices dependent by current with forward voltage drop VF, depending
on the semiconductor structure (light color/wavelength) and the forward-biased LED
current (IF), as well. Most LEDs require a forward operating voltage from 1.2 to
3.6 V with IF from 10 to 30 mA.
Although both the current and forward operating voltage fluctuate depending on
their composition and dopant materials, for a regular red LED the step where
conduction begins (and therefore light is produced) is about 1.2 V (3.6 V for a
blue LED and 3.3 V for white LED).
The LED’s light intensity is directly proportional to the forward current that flows
through it. When connected in forward bias scenario across a power supply, LED
must be current limited using a series resistor as seen in Fig. 2.14.
2.2 Wireless Transmission Based on Visible Light. A Detailed Blueprint 77

Fig. 2.15 MOSFET and BJT

The series resistor value (Rs) is calculated according to Ohm’s Law based on the
LED forward current (IF) according to (2.45).

Vs  VF
Rs ¼ ð2:41Þ
IF

In case of a 5 V DC power supply, when the red LED’s current must be limited to
10 mA, for example, Rs has to be 380 Ω. To increase the LED’s light intensity, its IF
should rise (e.g., to 30 mA) and therefore the Rs should be 126 Ω.
However, the brightness of a LED shouldn’t be controlled by simply varying the
current flowing through it because high values of current will result in more heat
dissipation and thus a shorter LED’s lifetime.
Besides LEDs, the most frequently used active devices for oTx driver are metal-
oxide semiconductor field-effect transistors (MOSFETs) and bipolar junction tran-
sistors (BJTs), both of them having the same operating principle, being charge
controlled devices, meaning that their output current is proportional to the charge
established in the semiconductor by the control electrode.
The etymology of the word Transistor describes their mode of operation and is a
combination of Transfer and Varistor. MOSFET is a voltage-driven device also
called insulated-gate device. BJT is a current-driven device.
MOSFETs (Figure 2.15a) and BJTs (Figure 2.15b) are the key switching com-
ponents in applications with high frequency and efficiency requirements, as VLC
setups are [81].
In case of MOSFET, when a voltage is applied between the gate (G) and source
(S) terminals, they produce a flow of current in the drain (D).
On the other hand, in the BJT case, a specific current must be applied between the
base (B) and emitter (E) terminals to produce a current in the collector (C)
(Fig. 2.16).
A MOSFET has low transfer resistance, being capable to operate at high current
values and undertake low power dissipation. On the other hand, BJEs have the input
78 2 Conventional and Advanced Technologies for Wireless Transmission in Underground. . .

D D
+ Drain D D Drain

Substrate
IDS
D
IGSS N
N Gate S
G P P Gate G G P G
– VDS S Substrate
N
S
VGS SiO2
S Source
0
S Source S S
a. b.

Fig. 2.16 (a) N-channel JFET and (b) N-channel MOSFET

Fig. 2.17 NPN BJT

maximum voltage specification much lower and need to have high base current for
proper operational phase and therefore lower input resistance than MOSFETs.
The DC–DC converter, used in some oTx driver setups, inputs an irregular DC
voltage and outputs a constant or regulated voltage. The constant voltage source can
be realized by using any of the conventional power converter topologies such as
buck (e.g., EN6360QA or TMS320F2803x), buck-boost, and single-ended primary-
inductor converter.
BJTs are devices regulating current handling the amount of current flowing
through them from the E to C in proportion to the value of biasing voltage applied
to the B terminal (Fig. 2.17).
As a small current flows into B terminal, controls a higher collector current
forming the transistor action.
MOSFETs as well as BJTs have switching speed very close due to the necessary
time for the charge carriers to cross the semiconductor region.
MOSFETs’ most important characteristics are compared to BJTs’ characteristics
[80] in Table 2.4.
So far, two different categories of drivers for oTx have been developed:
2.2 Wireless Transmission Based on Visible Light. A Detailed Blueprint 79

Table 2.4 Comparison between MOSFET and BJT characteristics

D
B

MOSFET S BJT E
Voltage-controlled device Current-controlled device
Low voltage gain High voltage gain
High current gain Low current gain
Very high input impedance Low input impedance
High output impedance Low output impedance
Low noise generation Medium noise generation
Fast-switching time Medium switching time
Easily damaged by static Robust
Some require an input to turn it “OFF” Requires zero input to turn it “OFF”
Difficult to bias Easy to bias
More expensive than bipolar Cheap

Fig. 2.18 LED and T in

series

A. Digital oTx drivers (On/Off)—for digital modulation formats transmission.

B. Analog oTx drivers—for different more complex modulation formats being
necessary continuous output level or multiple output levels.

Digital oTx Drivers (ON/OFF)

In case of a digital oTx driver that allows different modulations, the current control is
coming from an input signal with a stable voltage and low current capabilities.
80 2 Conventional and Advanced Technologies for Wireless Transmission in Underground. . .

Fig. 2.19 LED and T in

parallel

In the circuit shown in Fig. 2.18, when Vin rises, both the current in transistor (T)
and LED rise. In case that the voltage across the T is considerably smaller than the
LED forward voltage, the current is limited by R.
For a high rate switching, Cd must charge and discharge at a high rate.
When current rises in T, Cd starts charging, being though limited by R.
The moment when T switches off, Cd has a slow discharge due to a high
resistance value.
A solution to the slow discharge of the Cd is to connect in parallel a second T.
A LED transistor driver circuit is shown in Fig. 2.19.
A different configuration is the one in Fig. 2.19 where LED is active at the
moment when Vin is low. The LED’s capacitance is discharged through RSD(on) while
charged through R, therefore, there is not a proper balance between rise/fall times.
RSD(on) is the total resistance in the path from source to drain, crossing the path of
current flow.
Another useful LED oTx driver circuit is based on a complementary (n-type and
p-type) metal-oxide semiconductor (CMOS) inverter (Fig. 2.19).
Considering an ideal situation, when the devices are perfect, without leakage
current, in the stationary phase, the circuit does not consume power.
Both gates of Q1 and Q2 are at the same bias Vin, meaning that they are in a
complementary state all the time. When Vin is high and equal to supply voltage (+),
the n-type transistor is ON, while the p-type is OFF. Alternatively, when the input
voltage is low (0 V), Q2 is OFF, and Q1 is ON. The Q1 transistor feeds current to
LED and charges CD. The second transistor, Q2 drains the charge from CD (current
sink) (Fig. 2.20).
When LED dimming is necessary, less current (let’s say, e.g., below 5 mA), LED
will dim its light output significantly or even will turn it OFF completely. A most
proper way to control the LED’s brightness is to use PWM when LED is turned ON
and OFF repeatedly at varying frequencies (Fig. 2.21).
The same PWM is used when higher light outputs are necessary using an equally
short duty cycle—ON–OFF ratio. In this way, the output light intensity and therefore
the LED current increase significantly, keeping, on the other hand, the power
dissipation in limits that are safe. Pulses of the LED’s ON–OFF at frequency of
100 Hz or more are brighter for the eye but still seem continuous.
2.2 Wireless Transmission Based on Visible Light. A Detailed Blueprint 81

Fig. 2.20 CMOS inverter

Fig. 2.21 Pulse width modulation current

PWM is used to encode a message into a pulsing signal. This modulation

technique is used to encode information for wireless communication. The narrow
pulse comes from the LED dimmed with a low average current where the brightness
of LED results in a wide pulse due to a high average current.
A common amplifier circuit is shown in Fig. 2.22.

Analog oTx Drivers

More complex modulation techniques such as QAM or OFDM require an analog

oTx driver. One important advantage of analog drivers is that they have high
linearity.
There are also two different approaches here: signals can be represented by
voltage or by current.
82 2 Conventional and Advanced Technologies for Wireless Transmission in Underground. . .

Fig. 2.22 A regular amplifier circuit (adapted from [80])

In case of a LED voltage-mode analog driver, there are linearity issues since the
current/voltage characteristic is intrinsically nonlinear, and therefore, voltage/current
conversion has nonlinear effects that drive to low performance for PAPR.
The current-mode analog drivers are more appropriate due to both a linear
behavior of the LED’s power/current ratio and the system’s high speed [82].
The oTx driver circuit can operate at larger bandwidths than the LED’s bandwidth
limited at 3 dB. In order to overcome this inconvenient, the oTx analog driver circuit
has a preequalization stage which is an efficient way to enhance the data rate and
increase the bandwidth, as well.
Fujimoto et al. [83] achieved in 2013, a bit rate of 477 Mbit/s using OOK-NRZ
modulation scheme, a low-cost commercial available PIN PD and an adapted LED
driver with a simple preemphasis circuit with a BER less than 109.
Another example of high speed, low complexity VLC circuit was designed in
2014 by Li et al. [84] using WLED analog preemphasis circuit at oTx and post-
equalization at oRx.
The oTx driver circuit has three stages amplify circuit Q1 and Q2 BJT BFR520
and Q3 BFR540, an amplifier type ZHL-6A, Bias-T type Aeroflex 8810, and LED
type OSRAM LUW W5AM (Fig. 2.23).
The oRx circuit has a differential amplifier ADA4937–1, a TransImpedance
Amplifier TIA type MAX3665, and a PD type HAMAMATSU S10784. It has
been used as a simple Not Return to Zero—On–Off Keying (NRZ-OOK) modula-
tion technique [85].
They extended communication from 3 to 233 MHz using a blue filter placed in
front of the PD, achieving the highest performance in VLC systems by then. They
2.2 Wireless Transmission Based on Visible Light. A Detailed Blueprint 83

R1 R3 R6 R8 R11
C3 C5

C1
Q1 Q2 Q3
VIN Bias Bias Bias
point 1 point 2 point 3
C6 R13
R2 R7 R12
VOUT
R4 R5 R9 R10
R14
C2 C4

Fig. 2.23 Tx with preemphasis drive circuit with wideband NPN transistors (adapted from [85])

reached a data rate of 480 Mbit/s and even 550 Mbit/s at a distance of 60 cm and
160 cm, respectively.
The system designed had a BER of 2.6 109, considerably lower than the FEC
limit 3.8 103.
Next year, in 2015, Huang et al. [86] demonstrated 750 Mbit/s using a bridged-T
amplitude equalizer embedded in the oTx driver circuit with 64QAM-OFDM mod-
ulation scheme, based on an RGB LED and a high sensitivity APD PD with BER
under pre forward error correction (FEC) limit of 3.8 103.
Software equalization provides more accurate results. Zhou et al. [87] experi-
mentally implemented a power exponential software preequalization and reached
2.08 Gbps based on a WLED, lens, and blue filter, at a distance of 1 m.
When LiFi is implemented in the lighting fixture, the most important issue that
has to be taken into account is that the primary function of the setup has to be
illumination and only the second one is data communication. Fast wireless data
communication can be achieved with LEDs fast switching that can affect the
illumination function. In order to accomplish a proper balance on both functions—
illumination and wireless signal communication—the LiFi setup has to combine data
wireless communication with LED biasing. The most used scenario to achieve this
task, rely on a bias-T. A VLC bias-T (see Fig. 2.24) consists of passive LC
components where input is applied at the capacitor, output is taken from the LC
node and L is grounded.
For illumination purpose, the bias-T has to provide strong attenuation for signal,
passing the low frequencies and for data communication, strong attenuation at low
frequencies has to be achieved.
There have also been developed special circuits delivering a separate control of
both functions, illumination, and data signal for wireless communication [88].
84 2 Conventional and Advanced Technologies for Wireless Transmission in Underground. . .

Fig. 2.24 VLC bias-T

The oRx Driver

The PD converts all types of light (natural and artificial light) that hits its active
surface area into a current that is proportional with the light’s intensity.
At first thought, in order to detect an ideal optical signal sent by LED to PD
through free space, the PD’s surface-active area should be as large as possible.
However, a large active area of the PD has a significant trade-off: large intrinsic
capacitance and therefore a reduced electrical modulation bandwidth.
As an alternative solution, instead of one PD, at the oRx can be used an array of
PDs in order to avoid this trade-off. A possible geometry of the PD matrix can be
shaped to receive any pattern of light depending on different situations or special
requirements [39]. Other different solutions consist of different frequency optimiza-
tion procedures including capacitive [89] and inductive peaking [90], [91].
The PIN PD converts optical signals into current that is processed by TIA. The
TIA front-end circuit amplifies the signal and converts the PD’s current into voltage,
with low penalties on gain, bandwidth, and noise [92].
The current produced by the PIN PD can be amplified with a reverse voltage. This
solution is not appropriate since a reverse voltage would result in an increased
reverse leakage current (also known as dark current) that creates additional unwanted
noise. A good alternative is the one using the TIA which will amplify the signal and
convert current in voltage, increasing therefore both gain and speed [93].
However, designing an appropriate TIA for a performant oRx in a VLC setup is
not an easy process since there it is also difficult to establish a correct balance, a
proper trade-off between gain and bandwidth. TIA used in VLC setups are classified
as (1) open-loop TIA (with low input impedance amplifiers or high input TIA) and
(2) feedback TIA [94].
1. Open-loop TIA
Low input TIAs are appropriate for high bandwidth and low noise perfor-
mance in VLC oRx setups with low sensitivity drawback. In contrast, high input
TIA is highly sensitive with low-frequency performance.
2.2 Wireless Transmission Based on Visible Light. A Detailed Blueprint 85

Fig. 2.25 Feedback TIA

2. feedback TIA
On the other hand, feedback TIAs overcome the above-mentioned drawbacks
of the open-loop TIAs having small input impedance with high bandwidth and
high gains with low sensitivity [95].
The feedback resistor (Rf) sets the operating voltage level at the inverting input.
The output voltage Vout is proportional to input current generated by PD (Fig. 2.25).
Achieving a proper trade-off between gain and bandwidth when a TIA is
designed is not the only challenge, since noise has to be taken into consideration
as well. Although there are many sources of noise in electronic circuits, (1) shot
noise, (2) thermal noise, and (3) flicker noise are the most important, affecting the
performance of the TIA in an oRx circuit of a VLC setup. Flicker noise (or 1/f noise),
dominates at low frequencies and thermal noise dominates at high frequencies. Shot
noise and thermal noise are white noise sources with small spectral density.
Data received by the PD from LED can be seriously compromised by noise. All
additional light sources, besides the LED’s light coming from the oTx, produce
electrical current at the oRx. When the signal is weak, the SNR value is low, as well
as BER, and therefore, error detection, equalization, or correction codes are methods
applied to overpass the negative results of a weak optical signal [96].
In order to remove all additional unwanted signals that become noises, a filter has
to be considered in the oRx hardware.
In order to reduce unwanted noises, both the shot noise and thermal noise, a
low-pass Bessel filter is proposed by K. Sindhubala et al. [97].
TIA has to operate in low noise conditions and wide bandwidth of frequency.
Adiono et al. present a detailed description of noises and make a deep analysis of
frequency band in TIA’s design in order to cope with VLC’s high-performance
requirements [98].
Low frequencies are undesirable noise resulting from optical excess signal,
therefore, a high-pass filter (with a bypass capacitor) at the input of the front end
is possible to be used. However, this method is not suitable for integration because a
large area is necessary to implement a proper capacitor.
To remove the low-frequency noise, Chang et al. propose a fourth-order high-
pass filter with Sallen–Key method consisting of two high-pass filters in cascade and
a Schmitt trigger. They designed this new VLC oRx architecture based on OOK and
experiments showed that the interference effects produced by the low-frequency
noise of AWGN are considerably reduced achieving 12 dB gain [99].
86 2 Conventional and Advanced Technologies for Wireless Transmission in Underground. . .

Fig. 2.26 TIA

–
PD A +

+
PIN

Fig. 2.27 Passive analog

high pass filter

Karimi-Bidhendi et al. proposed a new TIA designed for a simplex wireless data
VLC, consisting of three embedded stages:
(a) a shunt series feedback that has a transformer-based positive feedback module,
(b) an RC—degenerated common–emitter module,
(c) an inductively degenerated emitter follower module.
TIA developed achieves a measured gain of 41 dB and an input current noise
spectral density of 39.8 pA/√Hz over a 50 GHz bandwidth [100].
A different, simple approach for a suitable oRx in a simplex VLC setup has been
proposed by Böcker et al. consisting in a TIA (Fig. 2.26), high-pass filter (Fig. 2.27),
an automatic gain control circuit (used to keep signal strength to different oTx to oRx
distances) followed by an analog to digital converter from front to end in this
order [93].

2.2.3 Channel Models for IR and VLC

Due to the recent years of intensive research to find an alternative solution for the
“spectrum crunch,” many new VLC applications for indoor scenarios have been
developed.
Regarding the channel model for optical wireless communication, some impor-
tant research papers and books have been written [88], [101–105], several models in
2.2 Wireless Transmission Based on Visible Light. A Detailed Blueprint 87

MatLab, codes on GitHub [106], and different other advanced dedicated software
have been so far developed. Since light in the visible spectrum has several particu-
larities, the various scenarios of VLC are not deeply investigated and
determined, yet.
Not even the IEEE 802.17.5 standard for VLC [107] does not specify the
channel’s model to be used for evaluation yet, thus a universal channel model that
can be applied to a wide range of indoor or underground scenarios has not been
published in the present literature.
Although a growing interest in the wireless VLC technology has been recently
noticed, the channel models for visible light are still not entirely characterized, yet.
This is a challenging issue since the visible light channel model is one of the most
important studies to be done when a reliable, efficient, and robust VLC system is
intended to be designed [108].
Between IR and VLC wireless communication, there are significant differences,
therefore, many specific characteristics of VLC have to be taken into consideration,
when the channel model has to be accurately described.
The broadband nature of visible light (between 380 and 780 nm) makes the
channel models for well-known narrow-band IR wireless methods unsuitable for a
direct application of them in VLC [109].
So far, the studies presented for indoor OWC (both VLC and IR) channel models,
can be classified as they can be seen in Fig. 2.28, in deterministic and stochastic
models.
The deterministic optical channel models developed so far are typically based on
the detailed description of specific propagation environments such as the optical
channel topology with exhaustive explanation of the scenario (the objects indoor and
their characteristics), as well as the position and orientation of both oTx and oRx.
The CIR h(t) of the OWC system is obtained using rigorous simulations that
incorporate most of the details of the indoor propagation environment. All these
models are site-specific, being physically meaningful and potentially accurate.
The deterministic approaches investigated till now, such as the recursive [46],
iterative [110], ceiling bounce [111], DUSTIN [112], and ray tracing GBDM [88],
[102], [113] are examples of geometry based deterministic models [114–116].
The recursive approach is used to solve a given problem by breaking it up into
smaller pieces, solve it, and then combine the results. The first investigation evalu-
ated the CIR h(t) scaled by time domain, taking into consideration multiple bounces
(more than two reflections) in wireless IR channels.
This approach, investigated by Barry et al. [41] followed the single reflection
cavity model previously proposed by Gfeller and Bapst [40]. In this model, the
radiation intensity pattern R(φ) for a particular oTx can be modeled using a gener-
alized Lambertian radiation pattern as shown in Eq. 2.6. Therefore, the received
optical signal is proportional to the active area of the PD multiplied by cos(ωi), where
ωi is the incident angle of the oRx. Only rays that are incident within the FoV of the
oRx are going to be captured, hence being the carriers of the useful optical signal. In
this case, the CIR is the superposition of the LoS topology where an infinite sum of
multiple-bounce components is added. The LoS response is approximately a scaled
88 2 Conventional and Advanced Technologies for Wireless Transmission in Underground. . .

GBDM
GEOMETRY BASED
DETERMINISTIC Recursive
MODELS lterative
Ceiling Bounce
DUSTIN
GBDM Ray Tracing

OWC
CHANNEL
MODEL

Spherical model
GBSM RS-GBCM
Carruthers
model
STOCHASTIC
MODELS

Monte Carlo
MCBM
NON GBSM
MMCA
HAYASAKA-ITO

Fig. 2.28 Optical wireless communication models. GBDM geometry-based deterministic models,
GBSM geometry-based stochastic model, NON GBSM non geometry-based stochastic model, RS
GBSM regular-shaped GBSM, MCBM Modified Ceiling-Bounce Model (CBM), MMCA Modified
Monte Carlo Algorithm

and delayed Dirac delta function (δ(.)) expressed as in Eq. 2.14. The implementation
of this algorithm is done by breaking all the considered reflecting surfaces of the
objects inside the environment indoor, into numerous small Lambertian reflecting
elements, called cells. These cells, individually considered with their own area, play
the role of both an elemental receiver and an elemental emitter. The recursive
approach accuracy increases with the number of the reflections considered but the
computing time increases exponentially, as well. The downside here leans on the
constant overestimation of the optical path loss and the bandwidth when too few
reflections are taken into account [113].
In the paper [110], the CIRs are generated based on geometrical modeling of
indoor environments together with an iterative technique for calculating multiple
reflections. In this work, the authors follow the basic methodology described in [45]
and additionally split the environment into many boxes. They showed in this way,
that when three bounces of the reflected rays are considered, the iterative method is
about 92 times faster compared with recursive method [110].
The first ceiling bounce model proposed was dedicated to the diffuse indoor IR
communication, being distinguished by simplicity and the close accuracy between
simulation and the data measured. The model is more realistic with multiple
2.2 Wireless Transmission Based on Visible Light. A Detailed Blueprint 89

reflections and considers both the vertical separation between oTx and oRx and the
distance between the oTx and the ceiling when the oTx, fixed on the ceiling, points
down to the oRx.
DUSTIN algorithm, developed for IR, is based on a discretization of the reflecting
surfaces into cells and is similar to the iterative and recursive models [112]. Unlike
the previous approach described here, this algorithm developed by authors aims to
reduce de computational complexity, by splitting the reflections into time steps
rather than the number of reflections, allowing to perform simulations with any
number of reflections. DUSTIN algorithm, although not tested on VLC yet, is
considered faster compared with traditional iterative and recursive models.
The geometry-based deterministic models based on ray-tracing algorithm mainly
rely on the theory of geometrical optics and the uniform theory of diffraction. Since
it considers individually all rays for each receiving point and computes them, is the
uppermost time-consuming prediction method. With the support of a ray-tracing
dedicated application, the entire environment can be created considering different
geometries of the furniture with particular materials (wood, glass, plastic, or metal)
and their own reflection characteristics as well as the specifications of the oTx and
oRx. These features of CAD integration are all included into the Zemax®
OpticStudio software, for example. For all the objects incorporated, the reflection
coefficients can be defined as a function of the wavelength according to each
material on the objects’ surface. Zemax® is a nonsequential ray-tracing tool that
uses also the Monte Carlo algorithm, and allows to generate an output file, which
includes useful data about rays such as the detected optical power as well as the path
lengths for each ray. Due to its interoperability to MATLAB®, the output file can be
imported to this software, where, using the information gained, the CIR value can be
obtained, according to Eq. 2.42.

X
Nr
H ðt Þ ¼ Pi δðt  τi Þ ð2:42Þ
i¼1

where:
Pi ¼ the power of the ith ray.
τi ¼ the propagation time of the ith ray.
δ(t) ¼ the Dirac delta function.
Nr ¼ the number of rays received at PD.
Studies indicated that, when furniture is considered in an indoor VLC topology,
both the root mean square (RMS) delay spread (DS) and the DC channel gain H
(0) decrease. Moreover, for the same site setup, in the case of the VLC, RMS DS and
the DC channel gain values are poorer than with IR transmission.
The geometry-based deterministic model based on ray-tracing algorithm cannot
be taken into consideration to be generalized to a wider class of scenarios for the
optical channel model, since the propagation environment where the VLC setup is
installed is potentially different for each indoor particular situation. On the other
hand, the advanced tools offered by complex applications available on market, allow
90 2 Conventional and Advanced Technologies for Wireless Transmission in Underground. . .

a careful design of a VLC setup for an accurate, and performant optical transmission
in any particular case considered.
The stochastic optical channel models are based on the random behavior of the
light waves propagation, resulting in the CIR applied into specific oTx and oRx,
being predefined in a random approach according to certain probability distribution.
These methods offer high flexibility, being non-site-specific and less complex
computational methods, however, with relatively low accuracy.
The stochastic methods are split into geometry-based (spherical, regular-shaped,
and Carruthers model) and non-geometry-based methods (Monte Carlo algorithm,
modified ceiling-bounce, modified Monte Carlo algorithm, and Hayasaka-Ito model)
as in Fig. 2.28 [104].
The spherical model is inspired by the traditional approach of the integrating
sphere photometry. The most important outcome of using this method is that a
highly reflective geometry drives to a high DS, thus a low channel bandwidth. On the
other hand, a low reflectivity of the geometry leads to a low DS with a high channel
bandwidth. The spherical model has been demonstrated to be reliable for IR com-
munication in case of high order reflections, confirmed as well, by the ray-tracing
simulations that take the diffuse reflections into account [114]. However, results
obtained after simulation for a VLC transmission, showed that the CIR values of the
diffused part were overestimated when this spherical model is considered since these
diffused portions do not have an important influence on 3 dB bandwidth [115].
The regular-shaped channel model applied on optical channel has been inspired
from the RF channel model where the effective scatterers are positioned on regular
2D shapes (ring, ellipse) or 3D shapes (sphere or ellipsoid). However, real scatterers
can impose different delay due to various angles. For a VLC model, following
two-rings and an ellipse model investigation [104], results showed that the values
are comparable with RF studies for up to three reflections.
The Monte Carlo algorithm [116] follows three steps: first, the rays are generated,
then, the walls’ feedbacks are processed and last, the PD response is considered,
allowing to determine the CIR not only for the Lambertian source, but for the
specular reflections, as well. The computation complexity of this method is lower
than in case of the DUSTIN model, however, in case of a regular-sized room, since
not all the rays sent will hit the active area of the PD, the number of rays emitted by
oTx must be high.
The modified ceiling-bounce algorithm applied also for IR communication
includes additionally the contribution of the walls to the total value of the CIR.
The modified Monte Carlo algorithm, on the other hand, although first developed
for IR transmission, has been applied based on the Lambert–Phong pattern for both
single and multiple sources, and the simulations showed that the calculations
become linear to the number of reflections and the computational complexity
decreases.
A different taxonomy regarding the indoor optical wireless communication
model techniques, exclusively for the VLC has been more recently defined by
Ramirez-Aguilera et al. [108]. Here, VLC channel models are classified as analyt-
ical, iterative, and statistical.
2.2 Wireless Transmission Based on Visible Light. A Detailed Blueprint 91

The analytical methods investigated that describe the visible light channel model,
are simple, and, although they offer an accurate value of the CIR, most of the
scenarios investigated are ideal environments with unrealistic scenarios.
Unlike analytical models, the recursive or iterative channel models describe better
the channel behavior, in different conditions where is realistic considered that the
optical signal captured by the active area of the PD experiences time dispersion due
to reflections from ceiling, floor, walls, and other objects, the most reflections being
naturally diffuse.
The iterative methods refer to the propagation environment considered in small
cells or a combination of the Monte Carlo simulations with the ray-tracing technique.
All the statistical techniques, that aim to estimate the optical CIR, are built on the
different scenarios (without reflections or with one/two bounces of the light rays
from walls or obstacles indoor) and various VLC topologies (LoS, NLoS, etc.).
These statistical models, although they raise the computational complexity and
require advanced and expensive applications for simulation, or, an extensive amount
of data collected during experimental tests are the closest to actual situations and
therefore the most reliable ones.
Besides a very clear and accurate description of the challenges that have to be
overcome to define an accurate description of a general channel model for VLC, the
authors in [108] propose a generalized simulation model of CIR for indoor VLC
channels with the property of capturing reflection phenomena with changes on
wavelength such as fluorescence, phosphorescence, or iridescence. They also pro-
pose a multiwavelength matrix-modified Monte Carlo model that allows to obtain
data about the mechanism of surface reflections that can better capture the visible
light channel characteristics.
According to Dimitrov and Haas, the visible light wireless channel is linear,
memoryless, time invariant (exception being situations when light beam obstruction
and shadowing occurs), with an impulse response of a finite duration [39, 117].
RMS DS and optical path loss (PL) are two characteristics that define the optical
wireless channel. DS measures the multipath density of a channel of communication.
It is the difference between the time of arrival (ToA) of the earliest significant
component (usually LoS component) and ToA of the latest multipath components.
The most used metrics for spread delay is RMS DS. The power delay profile (PDP)
describes the intensity of a signal received (through a multipath channel) as a
function of time. The abscissa is usually in units of time and the ordinate is in
decibels (dB) [118].
For the modeling of the channel, the PDP of a channel is obtained taking into
consideration the spatial average of the channel’s baseband impulse response (CbIR)
|hb(t, τ)|2 in a specific room.
RMS value of a signal (x(t)) is calculated as the square root of average of squared
value of the optical signal, mathematically represented as:
92 2 Conventional and Advanced Technologies for Wireless Transmission in Underground. . .

sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Z
1 T
ERMS ¼ xðt Þ2 dt ð2:43Þ
T 0

For a signal represented as N discrete sampled values—[x0, x1,⋯, xN  1] the

RMS value is given as:
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
x20 þ x21 þ ⋯x2N1
E RMS ¼ ð2:44Þ
N

When the signal is represented in frequency domain as X( f ), then, the RMS value
can be calculated as:
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
X Xð f Þ 2
E RMS ¼ ð2:45Þ
N

The temporal dispersion of the optical CIR h(t) can be defined by the channel
RMS DS which is calculated based on the impulse response [47] as follows:
vffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
uR þ1
u ðt  μÞ2 h2 ðt Þdt
D ¼ t 1R þ1 2 ½ns ð2:46Þ
1 h ðt Þdt

where:
μ—mean delay spread (DS) [47] is given by:
R þ1
t  h2 ðt Þdt
μ ¼ 1
R þ1 2 ð2:47Þ
1 h ðt Þdt

The value of channel RMS DS is used to compare the CIR width and its effect on
the transmission system for different configurations, therefore, both h(t) and RMS
DS are fixed for a certain VLC setup configuration. Measurements showed that the
RMS DS’s value has significant importance in the power penalty due to inter-symbol
interference (ISI) [47].
In case that the symbol duration is long enough relative to the DS, an equivalent
inter-symbol interference (ISI)—free channel is expected. The larger the coherence
bandwidth (CB), the shorter DS and therefore, CB is related to the inverse of the
DS. Equivalent, the shorter DS, the larger CB. DS has a substantial impact on the ISI,
too [119]. The multipath dispersion can cause ISI at oRx. ISI can be measured by the
RMS DS. RMD DS is a measure of the temporal dispersion of the signal at oRx due
to multipath propagation that causes ISI [120].
An important characteristic of a wireless optical multipath channel is that the
channel stretches the transmitted signal in time, phenomena being known as
2.2 Wireless Transmission Based on Visible Light. A Detailed Blueprint 93

temporal dispersion. All delays measured longer than the delay corresponding to the
arrival of the first transmitted signal at the receiver is called excess delay (ED) (τi).
Temporal dispersion (στ) can be quantified by the channel RMS DS [121].
Optical path loss is defined as the ratio of the transmitted to received power,
expressed in decibels (dB). The ratio of RMS DS and symbol time duration
quantifies the strength of ISI. This ratio defines the complexity of the equalizer
necessary at the receiver. Normally, when the symbol time period is greater than
10 times the RMS DS, there is not necessarily an ISI equalizer at the receiver [122].
For indoor VLC setups (empty room of about 5 5 3 m), frequent values of
RMS DS reported are between 1.3 and 12 ns for LoS links, between 7 and 13 ns for
NLoS links, and the entire DS up to 100 ns for a channel optical path losses up to
80 dB [39].
For example, unlike an IR emitter, where the signal is considered monochromatic,
the signal generated by VLC emitters can also be polychromatic. Moreover, IR
communications assume that the reflectance of materials is typically modeled as a
constant, but the wideband nature of VLC yields a wavelength dependency in the
reflectance of materials.
The main reason why the VLC channel model is not determined yet is related to
the high level of complexity that light’s properties experience when traveling in
different, complex environments.
Light has many intrinsic properties and when it travels through open spaces
indoors, different phenomena can be observed such as refraction, reflection, disper-
sion, absorption, scattering, interference, diffraction, or polarization. Some of the
scientific works that treat the VLC channel model subject focus mainly on the
reflection phenomenon and ignore all the other relevant phenomena. Even when
considering reflection, it is assumed that all the surfaces of the objects indoor have
the same diffused reflection. This is far from an accurate description of the real
behavior of light and the resulting evaluation of communication when light travels
from an oTx to an oRx in a specific VLC setup.
Light, being an electromagnetic radiation, has the properties of waves. This
intrinsic wavelength dependence in several phenomena is an important property.
When light “hits” an object’ surface, its reflectance properties depend on many
factors, such as the material of the object and its surface, the chemical composition
and physical state of the object’s surface, the texture (its roughness or smoothness) of
the surface, the geometry of the object (important to calculate the incidence angle of
light’s beam), the color of the object’s surface, and the structure of object’s surface.
There are many studies defining different features of the objects’ surfaces or
materials by analyzing their spectral reflectance patterns specifically expressed in a
form of curve as a function of light’s wavelengths.
Since the refractive index of all kinds of materials depends on the wavelength of
light, different wavelengths are interfered, to different extents, by the atoms into the
material composition. Regarding the refractive index, as a broad conclusion due to
many observations, has been established that the refractive index linearly varies with
the light’s wavelength. Because the refractive indices are different for each wave-
length of light, the effect of light dispersion occurs. Since dispersion and absorption
94 2 Conventional and Advanced Technologies for Wireless Transmission in Underground. . .

are closely related, a dispersive surface, with wavelength-dependent refractive index,

must also be absorptive and, therefore, the absorption coefficient must be wave-
length dependent.
Even though the optical signal may experience specular reflections when it hits
smooth objects as a mirror, for example. For this reason, most of the reflections
underground have to be considered as diffused reflections when the VLC channel
model is described.
Hence, VLC channel models for the light propagation can be improved by, on one
hand, incorporating all the physical phenomena that the light beam experiences
when traveling underground from emitter to receiver and, on the other hand, the
pattern of the power distribution has to be considered, in the entire spectrum of the
visible light.
The light beam that propagates in polluted environments, as underground mine
environments are, upon interaction with the tiny solid particles in suspension suffer
from low to high attenuation because of both absorption and scattering phenomena.
Absorption refers to the energy transfer from the wave to the tiny solid particles of
the underground polluted environment. Following this interaction, the energy trans-
ferred to the particles results in vibrations or rotations. The wavelengths of light in
this case depend on the energy-level structures and therefore on the type of particles
(molecules and atoms) present in the polluted environment. The spectrum of the light
after passing through a polluted environment has certain wavelengths removed
because they have been absorbed. It is possible that absorption would lead to a
permanent loss of optical power as long as light propagates in high polluted
environments. This occurs due to the photons’ interaction with suspended molecules
and particles found in the light’s way from the oTx to the oRx. Absorption depends
on the variation of the environment refraction index (n) and wavelength of the light
(λ). Selective absorption has also to be considered underground due to black and
grey dominant colors.
Scattering, defined as the deflection of light from its original path, is the light’s
property most evaluated into a polluted industrial environment. On the microscopic
level, scattering relates to the interaction between a light photon and a molecule or an
atom. Moreover, particles of different types of material with different shapes,
concentrations, and humidity effectively determine the scattering properties of the
environment.
Since scattering is the redirection of light caused by its interaction with matter,
radiation may have longer or the same wavelength as the incident radiation.
If particles in air are much smaller than the wavelength (λ) of light, they absorb
the incident light and quickly reemit the light in different directions.
In case that the reemitted light has the same wavelength (λ) as the incident light,
the process is termed Rayleigh scattering (Figure 2.29a).
When the reemitted light has a longer wavelength (λ), the molecules are left in an
excited state and the process is termed Raman scattering. In Raman scattering,
secondary photons of longer wavelength are emitted when the molecule returns to
the ground state (Figure 2.29b).
2.2 Wireless Transmission Based on Visible Light. A Detailed Blueprint 95

scattered
light
AFTER
incident
BEFORE AFTER
light
scattered
scattered incident
BEFORE light
light light

scattered
light

incident BEFORE incident

AFTER
light light BEFORE scattered
MOLECULE light
scattered MOLECULE
light AFTER
EXCITED
MOLECULE
Rayleigh
a. scattering Raman
b. scattering

Fig. 2.29 Rayleigh scattering (a) and Raman scattering (b)

According to literature, blue wavelength is scattered more than the yellow one. As
opposed to sound, the speed of light is slower in water than in air. Molecules of air
O2 and N2 are Rayleigh scatterers for visible light and are more effective at scattering
shorter wavelengths (such as blue and violet).
In fact, even in small concentrations, these particles make the scattering highly
peaked in the forward direction, which is one of the major characteristics of the
visible light propagation in a polluted environment.
The performance of an underground VLC (UVLC) system is highly affected by
channel fading as a result of air movement with tiny solid particles in suspension.
This is similar to the atmospheric turbulence in FSO communication when fog
and rain are also considered. Spots of polluted, movement air, with suspended
particles with different shapes and sizes continuously change the propagation direc-
tion of photons due to the variation of refraction index, n [123].
Light properties into underground mining environment can be described as
intrinsic and apparent.
Light’s intrinsic optical properties (IOPs) depend exclusively by the optical
medium when the apparent optical properties (AOPs) are dependent both on the
optical medium and the environment studied. The environment studied refers to the
surrounding within its space particularities: additional natural and/or artificial light
sources, geometrics, type of materials, and color of the objects’ surfaces within the
space where the VLC setup is considered. The IOPs are conservative properties and
hence the magnitude of the absorption coefficient linearly varies with the concen-
tration of the absorbing material. Theoretically, the absorption coefficient can be
expressed as the sum of the absorption coefficients of each component in the
medium [124].
The two intrinsic optical properties in underground mines (IOPUMs) that model
light absorption and scattering are both the function of spectral volume scattering
β(θ,λ) and the coefficient of spectral beam absorption as (λ) in [m1].
96 2 Conventional and Advanced Technologies for Wireless Transmission in Underground. . .

The spectral volume scattering (SVS) refers to the part of incident power scattered
out of the beam with the θ angle. The coefficient of beam spectral scattering bs(λ) in
[m1] results as the integration of the SVS in all directions:
Z π
bs ðλÞ ¼ 2π βðθ, λÞsinθ dθ ð2:48Þ
0

The volume scattering phase function is:

e βðθ, λÞ
βðθ, λÞ ¼ ð2:49Þ
bs ð λ Þ

The spectral beam attenuation coefficient ca(λ) considered also as optical power
annihilation factor is:

ca ðλÞ ¼ as ðλÞ þ bs ðλÞ m1 ð2:50Þ

Fermat’s principle, also called the principle of least time, states that optical rays of
light travel to the path of stationary optical length with respect to variations of the
path, meaning that rays take the path that requires the least travel time. Clean air has
the refraction index n2 ¼ 1 but the air into underground mine environments is usually
filled with tiny suspended solid particles within the air that continuously move [125].
Light beam attenuation or transmission loss indicates that the intensity of the light
emitted by LED increases with distance and the density of the medium.
The attenuation coefficients through the medium (in units of dB/m) are:

I input
A ¼ 10 log 10 ðdBÞ ð2:51Þ
I output

In reality, the underground mining environment has lots of drawbacks when we

analyze it from the optical channel behavior point of view. Therefore, a reliable,
robust, and efficient VLC setup is very difficult to be realized due to a high number
of variables and the complex conditions underground.
Both the position of the LED (embedded into the oTx) related to the position of
the PD (embedded into the oRx), and the distance between them, can be easy
determined for an ideal environment with clean air and a line of sight (LOS)
topology with a short distance between LED and PIN PD for a proper, and robust
VLC setup.
To study and model the optical channel impulse response (CIR), both IOP and
AOP characteristics have to be taken in consideration in underground mine envi-
ronments. Root mean square spread delay (RMS-DS) will not be considered in the
underground mine environment for the CIR since the optical path considered is for a
LoS topology setup with high optical attenuation (due to light’s absorption and
scattering).
2.2 Wireless Transmission Based on Visible Light. A Detailed Blueprint 97

Fig. 2.30 Light’s behavior incident to surfaces and matter into underground spaces

The object’s position (on the path of optical beam—between LED and PD), their
geometry, colors, types of materials they are made of (e.g., wood, steel, fabric, or
painted objects) and the kind of surfaces of the object (matt or glossy, smooth, or
rough) inside the main galleries of working faces are also very important environ-
mental characteristics of the optical channel from the AOPs point of view.
Since all the characteristics of IOP and AOP in industrial environments cannot be
measured or properly calculated based on a general, comprehensive mathematical
model, a proper estimation is possible to be done based on data acquisition during a
wireless transmission based on visible light.
Figure 2.30 shows the light behavior incident to surfaces (walls, ceiling, floor,
objects underground) and suspension particles in the air that describes underground
mining optical channels.
Reflectance in IR is higher than that in visible light bands. The reflectance of
different materials (that changes with the bands) is measured with spectrophotom-
eters. Reflectivity of plastic walls is lower than plaster walls, floor, and ceiling in the
main bands of visible light range. The reflectance of these materials is between 0.1
and 0.8. Reflectivity of the plastic walls is near 550 nm wavelength. From the
beginning of 400 nm, as wavelength increases, reflectance of plaster walls, floor,
and ceiling may grow slowly [109].
As discussed above, when the underground optical channel model is intended to
be accurate described and determined, not only the geometry of the objects indoor,
the material the objects are made of, their color and texture but also their diffuse or
specular response of the light beam on the path between oTx and its pair oRx, have to
be taken into consideration.
Another important aspect when the optical power at the receiver is calculated and
the CIR mathematical model is estimated, the polluted air with different suspended
particles of coal and rocks, has to be carefully taken into consideration, as well.
There are two important subjects from the CIR point of view. Ceiling and walls’
color and their roughness (material composition), different objects inside (conveyors
and other mining equipment and materials) as well as the polluted air with tiny
98 2 Conventional and Advanced Technologies for Wireless Transmission in Underground. . .

suspended solid particles of dust (coal and rocks) in motion, close to the
working face.
Since the underground coal mining environment is predominant black, without
sunlight source and low optical power from other artificial sources of light, the
AWGN has low value and therefore interferences from natural light are absent and
from other artificial sources are almost negligible. One more advantage stands in the
dark shade of walls, floor as well as ceiling that will stop light to have reflections
from multiple surfaces (there is no multipath propagation and ISI can be neglected)
and therefore the diffuse component of the general channel modeling formula can be
neglected.
Close to the working space (where the mining machinery work), the optical
channel is filled with a moving mixture of coal and tiny solid particles of stone
that makes it difficult to identify the CIR model as close as possible to reality. Unlike
the research on free optical space outdoors where the shape of raindrops and fog is
considered, being almost the same with a regular spherical shape, the shape of coal
and rock particles is irregular. Since coal particles cannot be treated simply as
spheres the light ray’s behavior (scattering) is quite difficult to be estimated
[126]. The diameters of the smallest pores in coal are about 0.5–1 nm [127].
Changing the communication distances, evaluation of BER can be done. As long
as the distance between oTx and oRx is decreased, the BER increases, also. The
reason is that, as long as the distance between oTx and oRx increases, the light
intensity becomes weaker, it scatters, the optical signal is attenuated and therefore
the oRx cannot make the difference between high/low level of light, resulting in high
BER. In case of a Rayleigh scattering, the propagation optical loss through environ-
ment is typically high due to the path loss, being proportional to 1 ¼ 1/λ4.

2.2.4 Modulation Techniques for VLC Setup

Data communication in optical wireless transmission is possible through IM/DD of

the incoherent light sources and therefore, the transmitted signals have to be positive
with real values [39].
The oTx driver circuit in a VLC setup controls the current flowing to the LED and
the brightness of the light radiated is modulated, therefore, the signal modulated in
VLC setups consists of light pulses, being limited by the LED. The 3-dB modulation
bandwidth of the currently commercially available LEDs rises to MHz order
(2–20 MHz [39, 128]).
To increase the throughput, beside the improved both LED structure (with a
shorter time of the “rise and fall”) and oTx driver design, the most appropriate
modulation technique has to be correctly embedded in the VLC’s architecture.
In OWC setups, optical power/light intensity is subject to eye safety rules and
design requirements and constraints, therefore, all the modulation techniques devel-
oped have to follow the regulations imposed by BS EN 62471:2008 [129].
2.2 Wireless Transmission Based on Visible Light. A Detailed Blueprint 99

Modulation schemes used in visible light wireless data communication are

classified into two categories:
– single-carrier modulation techniques (SCMT),
– multi-carrier modulation techniques (MCMT).
Modulation schemes applied for wireless data in single carrier communication are
achieved by altering the periodic waveform or the carrier, consisting of frequency,
amplitude, or phase, therefore, there are three basic single carrier techniques to
convert a digital sequence into a pulse one: changing the amplitude, position, or
width of the pulse.
SCMTs such as OOK and PPM are embedded with low complexity circuits, but
the most important drawback is that at high frequencies they cannot overcome the
multipath effects resulting in ISI. More efficient and advanced modulation have been
recently applied in order to overcome the LED’s limited modulation bandwidth and
insufficient data rate transmission.
Both for high data rates and ISI mitigation, though, many advanced modulations
such as OFDM, color shift keying (CSK), CAP, DMT, or Nyquist single carrier
(N-SC) have been proposed [130]. MCMTs such as OFDM, CAP, or DMT [131]
have higher spectral efficiency and are able to overcome multipath effects [132].

Single-Carrier Modulation Techniques (SCMTs)

In 1997, Kahn and Barry were the first who proposed SCMT for IM/DD applied for
IR wireless communication [41].
The general diagram of the IM/DD optical communication system, focused on the
visible light area, is presented in Fig. 2.31.
In the electrical domain (ED), data are processed by the electrical modulator
(EM) and then by the optical intensity modulator (OIM). Signal is represented here
by an electrical voltage or current (s(t)). In either case (voltage or current), the
electrical power is proportional to s(t)2. The OIM generates an optical signal with
intensity of si(t). The optical power is proportional with s(t). The signal s(t) can have
only real and positive values, therefore, the modulation techniques usually applied in

Fig. 2.31 IM/DD general diagram for VLC. ED electrical domain, EM electrical modulator, OIM
optical intensity modulator, AWGN Additive White Gaussian Noise, ODD optical direct detection,
F matched filter
100 2 Conventional and Advanced Technologies for Wireless Transmission in Underground. . .

OOK M-PAM

Single Carrier
Modulation
M-PPM
DFTͬsͬOFDM Techniques

PWM

Fig. 2.32 Single-carrier modulation techniques. OOK On–off keying, M-PAM multilevel pulse
amplitude modulation, M-PPM multilevel pulse position modulation, PWM pulse width modula-
tion, CAP carrierless amplitude modulation, DFT-s-OFDM discrete Fourier transformation
spread OFDM

radio communication have to be modified. On the optical channel with impulse

response h(t), an additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN) will be added and interfere
with the optical signal sent by the LED to the PD. Here, the signal is represented by
the optical intensity.
The optical direct detection (ODD) consists of the active area of the PD,
converting the signal from the optical to electrical form, therefore the signal

rðtÞ ¼ hðtÞ  sðtÞ ð2:52Þ

will become an electrical one again Rr(t) (voltage or current).

In the electrical domain (ED), the PD’s noise signal

zðtÞ ¼ RrðtÞ  nðtÞ ð2:53Þ

where:
n(t)—shot noise and thermal noise.
A matched filter (F) detection is the last stage before the final data out is
completed.
Today, there are commercially available low-cost optical front-end devices,
LEDs, and PDs used in VLC that can be embedded as IM/DD systems. Both the
amplitude and phase of the electromagnetic waves cannot be modulated or detected
by LEDs and PDs, therefore, most classical modulation used in RF transmission
signals can be applied in VLC only with modified/enhanced techniques. Since off-
the-shelf LEDs emit incoherent light, they are able to convey data wirelessly by the
intensity of the light signal [133].
Common single carrier modulation techniques (SCMT) (Fig. 2.32.) used for VLC
setups are OOK, multilevel pulse amplitude modulation (M-PAM), Multilevel pulse
2.2 Wireless Transmission Based on Visible Light. A Detailed Blueprint 101

0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1

s(t) t

carrier

t
ASK

Fig. 2.33 Waveform of ASK modulation signal

position modulation (M-PPM) and PWM, discrete Fourier transformation spread

OFDM (DFT⁃s⁃OFDM), and CAP [134], most of them already used in IR commu-
nications, as well.
At high data rates, RMS DS of the channel becomes similar to or even larger than
the pulse duration, when SCMTs are applied in VLC setups, resulting in severe ISI
and thus low BER performance and SNR penalty [39].
OOK also known as binary amplitude shift keying (ASK), uses an unipolar not
return to zero (NRZ) code sequence to control the opening and closing of a
sinusoidal carrier. This modulation considers the optical pulse that spreads to the
entire part of the 1 bit duration. Hence, the presence of carrier is considered to be the
binary 1 and its absence, the binary 0. Both phase and frequency of the carrier are
constant during ASK modulation. It is the simplest modulation technique for IM/DD
in VLC architectures.
OOK is a good trade-off between performance and complexity, considering that
off-the-shelf hardware can be easily implemented with this modulation technique.
Different more complicated schemes consider different duration in order to transmit
additional data. This technique is an analog to unipolar encoding. Although it is easy
to implement, there are several issues regarding illumination control and data
throughput.
The waveform of the ASK is mathematically represented as:

sðt Þ ¼ mðt Þ  sin ð2π  f c  t Þ ð2:54Þ

where:
s(t)—the ASK output signal.
m(t)—unipolar binary message signal that has to be transmitted.
fc—carrier’s frequency.
t—time.
102 2 Conventional and Advanced Technologies for Wireless Transmission in Underground. . .

Fig. 2.34 PAM, PWM, and PPM modulation

ASK is a narrowband digital modulation scheme where the amplitude of the

sinusoid carrier is modified according to the value of the modulated symbol
(Fig. 2.33).
OOK is considered today the simplest modulation technique that can use the
Manchester encoding for DC balance for data communication in free optical space.
In 2009, both Oxford University and South Korea’s Samsung applied the OOK
NRZ and achieved 100 Mbps data transmission at a low BER. Various practical
implementation have been also presented with different equalization techniques
[38, 41, 135].
Li et al. designed in 2014 a VLC system that achieved 340 Mbps using a post
equalization circuit with OOL NRZ modulation [136].
PAM, PWM, and PPM are modulation methods that encode data transmitted in
the amplitude (PAM), width (PWM), and position (PPM) of the pulse.
PAM consists of varying the amplitude of the waveform pulse corresponding to
the signal variation mode. It can be observed (Fig. 2.34) that each sample of the
strobed signal, modulates the amplitude of a pulse.
PWM uses a constant amplitude pulse train with determined successive time
intervals, varying the width according to the modulator signal samples (Fig. 2.34).
PPM uses a series of pulses of constant duration and amplitude as carrier, while
the position of the pulse relative to the sampling moments is variable (Fig. 2.34).
PPM, compared to OOK, has higher power efficiency and signal bandwidth. In
PPM, m message bits are encoded with one single pulse in one of 2m possible time
shifts. This technique takes t seconds, therefore, the transmitted bit rate is m/t bits per
second. This modulation technique is applicable in VLC setups for environments
with zero or just few multipath interference. PPM is widely used and has high error
performance, good power efficiency, moderate bandwidth efficiency, and the pulse
duration very short.
2.2 Wireless Transmission Based on Visible Light. A Detailed Blueprint 103

Multilevel PPM has been developed in order to increase the PPM’s spectral
efficiency by conveying multiple pulses per symbol time, having the potential to
achieve high spectral efficiency [137].
M-PPM (data encoding in the position of the pulse) has been considered for IR
communication by Audeh et al. [138] due to its robust, low complexity, and low
SNR through indoor channel.
PWM encodes the message into a pulsing signal. Several bits of data can be
carried within each pulse.
M⁃PAM technique is used to modulate the incoming bits according to the
amplitude of the optical pulse. In PPM case, the position of the optical pulse is
modulated into shorter duration with a position that fluctuates, depending on the
incoming bits [134].
OFDM has a higher optical power efficiency than OOK or PPM due to its
resistance to ISI. Classical OFDM is widely used in conventional wired and wireless
broadband communication systems, where signals are bipolar and complex. OFDM
for optical communication, IM/DD, has few constraints and thus, different improved
techniques.
The well-known practical implementation of OFDM consists of using inverse fast
Fourier transform (IFFT) operation applied in oTx on a block of symbols from M-ary
quadrature amplitude modulation (M-QAM), one of the conventional digital mod-
ulation techniques.
This technique relies on the mapping of different M-QAM symbols on the time
domain signal into subcarriers/bands in the frequency domain, which unfortunately
cannot be applied straight in VLC since it generates complex-valued samples, and
IM/DD requires real nonnegative signals.
QAM as a combination of amplitude modulation (AM) and PSK is a system in
which data are transmitted by modulating the amplitude of two separate carriers out
of phase by 90 (cosine and sine). Due to their difference in phase, they are named
quadrature carriers. The original stream of data is split into two sequences that
consist of even and odd symbols.
By imposing a Hermitian symmetry constraint in IFFT operation [139], real but
bipolar samples will result. In order to generate an unipolar OFDM signal, many
techniques have already been developed. One of them, commonly used, is
DCO-OFDM that allows to introduce a positive DC bias level, around which the
bipolar signal can be applied. Since the main disadvantage of this technique relies on
the increased energy dissipation of the oTx, different alternative methods with a
significant energy enhancement have been developed (see Fig. 2.35).
The OFDM’s important features are data transmitted in parallel with different
sinusoidal subcarriers (having different frequencies) and the cyclic prefix (CP).
OFDM is a spectrum efficiency modulation technique being resilient to both ISI
and narrow-band effects.
All the subcarriers are jointly orthogonal over each symbol period. A general
representation of both modulation and demodulation stages is presented in Fig. 2.36.
The serial input data are partitioned in blocks. Each block is mapped in a vector
104 2 Conventional and Advanced Technologies for Wireless Transmission in Underground. . .

Fig. 2.35 PPM and PAM modulations. D/A Digital to Analog conversion, A/D Analog to Digital
conversion

Fig. 2.36 General representation of modulation and demodulation stages for VLC. S/P serial/
parallel, IFFT inverse fast Fourier transform, CP cyclic prefix, D/A digital/analog, A/D analog/
digital, FFT fast Fourier transform, P/S parallel/serial

ðX0,i . . . XN1,i Þ ðin frequency domainÞ

with the length of N complex numbers.

The complex numbers represent the QAM constellation.
The IFFT operations are applied to obtain parallel OFDM symbols and discrete
time representation as follows:
2.2 Wireless Transmission Based on Visible Light. A Detailed Blueprint 105

X
N 1
x½k ¼ Xne j2πnk=N
, k ¼ 0, 1, . . . , N  1 ð2:55Þ
n¼0

where:
Xn—symbol sent at the nth subcarrier.
The vector X0,i. .. XN  1,i is constrained to have Hermitian symmetry meaning
Xn ¼ X*N - n. These complex numbers are constellation points according to modu-
lation technique, being used for each subcarrier, from 4-QAM to 64-QAM, most
frequently 16-QAM. Although PSK is compatible with OFDM, it is rarely used in
VLC systems, because PSK in OFDM (unlike PSK in single carrier systems), does
not have a constant signal envelope. Therefore, in case of large constellations, with
smaller distance between points in constellation, PSK in OFDM is more vulnerable
to noise [140].
The sequence of the complex numbers resulting from the constellation mapping is
S/P converted to the vector X0,i . . . XN  1,i suitable for input into the IFFT
stage [141].
A N-point IFFT of X0,i . . . XN  1,i generates the vector with complex numbers x0,
i. .. xN  1,i (in time domain).
For a large number of subcarriers, x[k] has a Gaussian distribution:
 
N
σ2 ¼ 2 1 ð2:56Þ
2

The OFDM symbol rate Rs, for a given bit rate Rb, is:

2Rb
Rs ¼ ð2:57Þ
log M

Adding the cycle prefix (CP), to eliminate the ISI at oRx, the sampling rate of the
OFDM becomes:

N þ N CP
f s ¼ r os Rs ð2:58Þ
N

where:
ros—oversampling ratio
NCP—length of CP
Oversampling ratio (ros) related with the number of used subcarriers, is expressed
as:

N
r os ¼ ð2:59Þ
Nu

In VLC systems, the CP has to be longer than the delay spread of the optical
channel and the oRx must have an accurate synchronization with oTx. These
106 2 Conventional and Advanced Technologies for Wireless Transmission in Underground. . .

conditions eliminate ISI and guarantee that the received subcarriers are orthogonal
over the useful symbol period. Data are converted from serial to parallel after the
addition of CP, then is converted to analog representation and finally is filtered to
generate a continuous signal x(t) (in time domain) which is real not complex due to
Hermitian symmetry applied. The OFDM symbol has the bandwidth (BW) defined
as fs/(2ros).
After the CP has been added and serial to parallel conversion was final, the signal
x[k] has to be clipped resulting in the clipped signal xc[k].
The clipped signal (1) follows the constraint of IM/DD to be strictly positive,
(2) passes the nonlinearities of the LED, and (3) follows the dynamic range of the
D/A converter as well as the A/D converter.
For the clipping ratio of r1 and r2, the clipped signal becomes xc[k] with the two
levels—σr1 and σr2.
According to Elgala et al., the LED’s behavior into the non-clipping region is
linear [142].
Considering HDAC(f), the frequency response of D/A converter, with the cut-off
frequency being equal to BW of the OFDM’ symbols. According to Perin et al.,
low-pass frequency is modeled by a fifth-order Bessel filter [140].
Following the D/A conversion, the DC bias response is:

2 1
X
N
2
H DC bias ¼ 2r H DA ð f n Þ ð2:60Þ
n¼1

where:
HD/A—digital to analog converter response
fn—the frequency of the nth subcarrier
The LED’s frequency response (HLED( f )) with cut-off frequency fcLED is
modeled by Chen et al. as a low-pass filter with first-order Butterworth filter [142].
The optical signal is sent by LED, over the free channel with the CIR h(t) having a
frequency response of HCIR ( f ). At the oRx, both the PD’s and TIA’s frequency
response of an antialiasing filter in the AC/DC, HA/D( f ). As in the D/A converter,
the A/D cutoff frequency is set equal to the BW of the OFDM’ symbols [143].
This limitation reduces to N/2 from N, the number of independent values per
symbol sent. For a 4-QAM means that per OFDM symbol, 2 bits can be sent.
Most of the stages in the demodulator are the same as in the modulator, except the
single TAP equalizer. The main benefit of multipath transmission in OFDM with CP
is that it has frequency nonselective fading on each individual subcarrier, so the
magnitude and phase of each subcarrier are changed but ISI or inter-carrier interfer-
ence (ICI) are absent. The single TAP equalizer will correct the phase and magnitude
of each subcarrier, carrying out a single complex multiplication per each
subcarrier [144].
CAP modulation consists of two orthogonal signals modulated similar with QAM
and in phase (Fig. 2.37.) without overhead and carrier [145].
2.2 Wireless Transmission Based on Visible Light. A Detailed Blueprint 107

Fig. 2.37 CAP modulation diagram (adapted from [130]). Following up sampling, a(t) and b(t) are
the original bit sequences. Following digital to analog conversion, s(t) are the transmitted bit
sequences. AWGN additive white Gaussian noise, Following analog to digital conversion, r(t) is
the received bit sequence. Following in-phase matching filter, rI(t) is the bit sequence. Following
quadrature matching filter, rQ(t) is the bit sequence

CAP increases the optical wireless communication capacity and has high spectral
efficiency. The input data are mapped by an encoder into two independent multilevel
symbol streams. Each of the two streams passes through in-phase filter and quadra-
ture shaping filter, whose IR forms a Hilbert transform pair, making both streams
orthogonal.
The orthogonal streams are added and passed to a D/A converter, and as in
OFDM technique, a DC bias is added in order to result in an unipolar signal. At
the oRx, the inverse Hilbert filters, and then a decision feedback equalizer (DFE)
extracts the symbol streams [146].
Compared with OFDM, CAP modulation is simpler and has lower PAPR, since
the two orthogonal signals don’t use IFFT and FFT blocks. On the other hand, since
the equalizer is quite complex, it negatively affects the entire system’s
performance [146].
Table 2.5. displays a comparison between some single carrier modulations
presented above.
Using a finite impulse response (FIR) filter, Haigh et al., proposed the CAP
modulation, splitting the CAP spectrum in m-subcarriers [147] (see Fig. 2.36.).
In the case of a DFT⁃s⁃OFDM, the modulated waves were communicated sepa-
rately using multiple LEDs in a single array and have been demonstrated with low
PAPR. Taking into consideration both DFT-s-OFDM and DCO-OFDM, Wu et al.
demonstrated a higher performance, reported to PAPR and BER, of DFT-s-
OFDM [148].
108 2 Conventional and Advanced Technologies for Wireless Transmission in Underground. . .

Table 2.5 Comparison between some single carrier modulations

Modulation Power Spectral Complexity of the VLC Additional

technique Efficiency setup information
OOK Low High Low Flickering possibility
PPM High Low Medium Complex structure
PAM Low Medium Low Nonlinearity of LED
CAP High High Medium Cheaper than OFDM

Many studies [149–153], showed that, although single carrier modulation is a

suitable candidate for LiFi communication, ISI increases proportional with high data
rates, therefore, the communication’s quality decreases.

Multi-Carrier Modulation Techniques (MCMTs)

Islim and Hass [134], in their paper “Modulation Techniques for LiFi” address a
subdivision of MCMT based on OFDM as seen in Fig. 2.38.
Bipolar signals cannot be sent as IM/DD because, as the literature shows, the
intensity of light cannot be negative, the values can be real and positive only,
therefore an adapted OFDM has to be considered.
OFDM modulation technique encodes digital data on multiple carrier frequen-
cies. Its key feature relies on the fact that data are parallel transmitted on a number of
sinusoidal subcarriers of different frequencies, therefore closely signal spaced
orthogonal subcarriers, carry data in parallel channels. The frequencies are chosen
in a way that subcarriers are reciprocally orthogonal over each OFDM symbol
period [154].
With this method, it is possible to modulate each carrier in the same bandwidth
with a conventional modulation technique PSK or QAM at a low symbol rate.
In OFDM adapted for VLC, RMS DS is considerably shorter than the symbol
duration. Using CP and a large number of subcarriers, OFDM technique excludes the
possibility of ISI’s appearance. The highest value of the channel’s excess delay is
smaller than the CP. In this way, the indoor channel becomes from dispersive, flat
fadding over the subcarrier bandwidth [155].
The CP has the main key feature to provide an additional guard interval to
eliminate ISI from the previous symbol. CP repeats the end of the symbol, so, before
each OFDM symbol is a copy of the end part of the same symbol.
Using a sampling rate of 20 MHz, two samples of CP can compensate the ISI of
maximum DS up to 100 ns, thus, for the entire OFDM frame, for BDs up to 20 MHz,
the indoor optical communication channel can be considered flat [41, 155]. A
number of subcarriers equal or higher than 64 showed that the time-domain signal
has a Gaussian distribution [156].
The most applied unipolar OFDM modulation techniques, both in VLC and LiFi
setups, are DCO-OFDM [158] (Fig. 2.39.) and ACO-OFDM [159] (Fig. 2.40).
2.2 Wireless Transmission Based on Visible Light. A Detailed Blueprint 109

Fig. 2.38 The most used OFDM multicarriers modulations (adapted from [134]). DCO⁃OFDM DC
biased OFDM, ACO⁃OFDM Asymmetrically Clipped Optical OFDM, PAM⁃DMT Pulse Amplitude
Modulation—Discrete Multitone, U⁃OFDM Unipolar OFDM, eU⁃OFDM enhanced Unipolar
OFDM, eACO⁃OFDM enhanced Asymmetrically Clipped Optical OFDM, ePAM⁃DMT enhanced
PAM⁃DMT, SEE⁃OFDM Spectrally and Energy Efficient OFDM, LACO⁃OFDM Layered
ACO⁃OFDM, RPO⁃OFDM Reverse Polarity Optical OFDM, P⁃OFDM Polar OFDM,
ASCO⁃OFDM Asymmetrically and Symmetrically Clipped Optical OFDM, SFO⁃OFDM Spectrally
Factorized Optical OFDM, PM⁃OFDM Position Modulation OFDM, HACO⁃OFDM Hybrid Asym-
metrically Clipped Optical OFDM, ADO⁃OFDM Asymmetrically Clipped DC biased
Optical OFDM

In case of ACO-OFDM, Xn ¼ 0 for n even. For a given Rb bit rate, the OFDM
symbol rate (Rs) becomes:

Rb
Rs ¼ 2p ð2:61Þ
log 2 M

where:
M—constellation size (considering that is the same for all subcarriers).
p ¼ 1 for DC-OFDM.
p ¼ 2 for ACO-OFDM.
110 2 Conventional and Advanced Technologies for Wireless Transmission in Underground. . .

Fig. 2.39 Diagram of DCO-OFDM (adapted from [130]). QAM quadrature amplitude modulation,
S/P serial/parallel, IFFT inverse fast Fourier transformation, P/S parallel/serial, CP cyclic prefix, D/
A digital/analog, A/D analog/digital, FFT fast Fourier transformation

Fig. 2.40 Comparation on stages between DCO-OFDM and ACO-OFDM

In order to preserve the bit rate, following CP, the actual sampling rate of the
OFDM ( fs) must be increased:

N þ N CP
fs ¼ r os Rs ð2:62Þ
N

where:
2.2 Wireless Transmission Based on Visible Light. A Detailed Blueprint 111

NCP—length of CP
ros—oversampling ratio
N—number of subcarriers used.
Rs—OFDM symbol rate.
The number of subcarriers used to carry data is:

N
Nu ¼ ð2:63Þ
pr os

In order to reduce the necessary dynamic range of the D/A, after P/S conversion
and insertion of CP, the discrete-time OFDM signal x(k) is clipped at levels—r1σ and
r2σ.
8
<r 1 σ,
> for xðkÞ  r 1 σ
xc ðkÞ ¼ xðk Þ, for r 1 σ < xðkÞ < r 2 σ ð2:64Þ
>
:
r 2 σ, for xðkÞ  r 2 σ

where:
r1 ¼ r2 ¼ r for DC-OFDM.
r1 ¼ 0, and r2 ¼ r for ACO-OFDM.
r1 and r2 are referred to as clipping ratios.
The clipping probability (Pc):

Pc ¼ Qðr1 Þ þ Qðr2 Þ ð2:65Þ

where:
Q(ri) is the Q-function for the tail probability of a Gaussian distribution [140].
D/A converts the clipped signal into analog domain and DC bias is added to make
the signal positive.
In case that both A/D and an electrical to optical conversion have unit DC gain,
the average optical power is equal to electrical signal with the DC bias added.
In case of DC-OFDM, the average optical power is:

P ¼ rσ ð2:66Þ

In case of ACO-OFDM, the average optical power is:

σ
P ¼ pffiffiffiffiffi ð2:67Þ
2π

where:
σ—the variance of the signal samples distribution.
112 2 Conventional and Advanced Technologies for Wireless Transmission in Underground. . .

Fig. 2.41 Diagram of ACO-OFDM (Adapted from [157]). QAM quadrature amplitude modulation,
IFFT inverse fast Fourier transformation, P/S parallel/serial, D/A Digital/Analogue, FFT Fast
Fourier Transformation

In DCO-OFDM modulation technique, all the subcarriers are modulated and a

DC-bias is added to the signal to make it positive. When the DC-bias has a high
value, the PAPR becomes high, leading to a low power efficiency.
Salma D. Mohamed et al. showed that, in case of ACO-OFDM, the even
subcarriers are set to zero and therefore data are mapped to the odd subcarriers
only. Moreover, the output negative parts from IFFT are clipped to zero so, the odd
subcarriers are not affected since the clipping noise falls on even subcarriers. This
technique decreases to half the data rate, hence has half data spectral efficiency
compared to DCO-OFDM. However, ACO-OFDM is more power efficient than
DCO-OFDM since it does not include DC-bias [159].
Inherent unipolar OFDM (Fig. 2.41) refers to asymmetrically clipped optical
OFDM (ACO-OFDM) proposed by Armstrong and Lowery in 2006 [157], pulse
amplitude modulation discrete multitone (PAM⁃DMT) [160], and unipolar OFDM
(U⁃OFDM) [161], such as ACO-OFDM [160].
In LiFi systems, where high illumination level is required, Hadamard coded
modulation (HCM) was proposed for multicarrier modulation. This modulation is
based on fast Walsh–Hadamard transform (FWHT) proposed as an alternative to
the FFT.
Compared to ACO⁃OFDM and DCO⁃OFDM at high illumination levels, HCM
achieves higher performance gains, according to Noshad et al. [162].
DC reduced HCM (DCR⁃HCM) was proposed as an alternative to HCM, both to
support dimmable LiFi applications and reduce its power consumption.
2.2 Wireless Transmission Based on Visible Light. A Detailed Blueprint 113

Fig. 2.42 Constellation of colors from the chromatic CIE 1931

Changing LED’s color is a simple technique comparable to carrier frequency

modulation. RGB⁃LEDs are able to illuminate with different colors depending on the
light intensity applied to each of the LED’s elements.
The IEEE 802.15.7/2011 standard defines CSK as modulation technique for VLC
[107]. CSK uses multi-chip LEDs for VL. The received bits are mapped into
constellation points of colors according to chromatic CIE 1931 color space. CIE
1931 color spaces define the links, in quantitative terms, between the physiologically
perceived colors in human color vision and distributions of wavelengths in the
visible spectrum, as shown in Fig. 2.41.
The CIE1931 is the illumination model for the human eye color perception
(Fig. 2.42). Any color in this model can be represented by its chromaticity dimension
[x, y]. In CSK modulation technique, the general intensity of the output color is
constant, thus the instantaneous color of the RGB LED is modulated. The relative
intensities between the multiple colors used in a model are, however, changed [163].
The CSK modulation technique works by maintaining both a constant illumina-
tion color and optical power while the light intensity of each element of the RGB
LED is constantly changed to match the necessary constellation point. Normally a
constant illumination color avoids LEDs flickering.
The symbol mapping of 6 CSK on the CIE 1931 color model based on IEEE
802.15.7 is presented in Table 2.6.
Even though the center of the CIE 1931 color constellation is kept constant, the
amplitude dimming is possible by controlling the LED’ brightness in CSK
114 2 Conventional and Advanced Technologies for Wireless Transmission in Underground. . .

Table 2.6 CIE1931 color model

Position Code Band (nm) Center (nm) (x,y)
0 000 380–478 429 (0.169, 0.007)
1 001 478–540 509 (0.011, 0.733)
2 010 540–588 564 (0.402, 0.597)
3 110 588–633 611 (0.669, 0.331)
4 100 633–679 656 (0.729, 0.271)
5 101 679–726 703 (0.734, 0.265)
6 110 726–780 753 (0.734, 0.265)

modulation. Still, the color shift is possible to occur due to the presence of any
improper driving current used for dimming control. Constellation sizes up to 16 CSK
were presented in the IEEE 802.15.7 based on RGB LEDs.
The CIE 1931 constellation points design was explored by Drost et al. using
billiard algorithms [163], by Monterio et al. with the interior point method [164], by
Singh et al. using quad LED (QLED) [165], and by Jiang et al. using extrinsic
transfer charts for an iterative CSK transceiver design [166].
Practical implementation of CSK modulation requires a complex circuit structure.
A feedback loop at oRx can be used for color calibration to avoid interference from
other natural or artificial light sources [167].

2.2.5 IEEE Standard for VLC

IEEE approved and published in 2011 the standard 802.15.7 for VLC. It defines the
short range WOC using visible light and supports data rates up to 96 Mbps by fast
modulation of the optical signal received from light sources which are possible to be
dimmed. It also provides dimming adaptable mechanisms to avoid LED’s flickering
at high data rate for visible light data communication purpose [168].
The standard defines also the physical layer (PHY) possible to be applied in
outdoor applications (even though its speed of 267.6 Kbps is quite slow) and
medium access control (MAC) layer.
PHY layer is divided into three types—PHY I, II, and III—each of them describ-
ing a combination of different modulation schemes:
– PHY 1 layer relates to outdoor application and works from 11.67 to 267.6 Kbps.
– PHY 2 layer extents data rates from 1.25 to 96 Mbps.
– PHY 3 is used for many optical sources with the modulation technique CSK
delivering data rates between 12 and 96 Mbps [167].
CSK recommended in IEEE 802.15.7 to improve the data rates that were rather
low in different other modulation schemes. The switching capacity slows down by
generating white light using blue LEDs with yellow phosphor. As a result, an
alternate procedure to obtain the white light is the use of three separate RGB
2.2 Wireless Transmission Based on Visible Light. A Detailed Blueprint 115

Fig. 2.43 PHY layer for VLC

LEDs. Modulation in CSK is accomplished using the RGB LED. CSK depends on
the color space chromaticity diagram (Fig. 2.41.). It charts all colors perceivable by
the human eye related to two chromaticity parameters x and y [169].
The modulation formats recognized for layers PHY I and II are OOK and variable
PPM (VPPM). The Manchester coding used for layers PHY I and II takes into
account the clock representing a logic 0 with an OOK symbol “01” and a logic 1 with
an OOK “10,” all with a DC component that eludes light fading in case of an
extended presence of logic 0’s.
Figure 2.43 presents a typical PHY layer system model of VLC.
MAC layer handles PHY layer management issues related to addressing, collision
avoidance, and data acknowledgment protocols and also supports three multiple
access topologies: peer-to-peer, star configuration, and broadcast.
The MAC layer allows using the link with the other layers as transmission control
protocol/internet protocol (TCP/IP) protocol.
The tasks performed by the MAC layer include mobility, dimming, visibility, and
security support. It also includes schemes for flickering mitigation, color function
support, network beacon generation if the device is a coordinator, variable VPAM
disassociation, and association support, providing a consistent link between MAC
entities.
This standard delivers data rates in order to send video, audio as well as
multimedia services. It concerns optical transmission mobility, its compatibility
with artificial lighting present in already installed infrastructure of lighting fixtures,
as well as the interference generated by the ambient lighting.
116 2 Conventional and Advanced Technologies for Wireless Transmission in Underground. . .

IEEE Task Force works today on the Global LiFi standard for light while 2019
marks the year when LiFi gains international support in order to adopt a Global LiFi
standard. The new guidelines for LiFi are to improve IEEE 802.11 Wi-Fi standard.
IEEE has announced the formation of the 802.11bb Task Force who will develop
and ratify the Global standard for LiFi, ensuring LiFi is integrated into every device
and every light [170].
The project under development is the “IEEE 802.11bb Standard for Information
Technology—Telecommunications and Information Exchange Between Systems
Local and Metropolitan Area Networks—Specific Requirements, Part 11: Wireless
LAN Medium Access Control (MAC) and Physical Layer (PHY) Specifications
Amendment: Light Communications” [128].

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Chapter 3
A Hybrid Communication System
for Mining Industry. From RequirementS’
Analysis to Testing the Product

The major aim of this chapter is to define and develop an integrated, solid, low-cost,
and effective system of local and remote data transmission, based on the visible light
wireless communication technology and conventional Ethernet, for the underground
mining industry.
This chapter guides the reader through a complex process with different stages of
development, from idea to implementation of a functional, and reliable final product.
The stages presented move forward from concept, through design, implementation,
till the testing of a VLC prototype.
When the investigation on the state-of-the-art of the existing functional systems is
completed, the identification of all system’s requirements is compulsory to be done
for a proper development. The main parts of the system, their functional role, and
characteristics, as well as all the rules and restrictions imposed by the special
environment underground, must be clearly identified and considered. The require-
ments and specifications already defined, allow to establish the overall system
architecture, therefore, simulation of the system with the support of different
advanced dedicated software helps to speed up the entire development process and
keeps the costs low. Each unit of the system is developed and tested for its
functionality and then, all units are integrated into the final system and further
tests are performed to evaluate its functionality into the difficult, harsh environments
as the underground mining spaces are.

3.1 State-oF-the-ARt and RequirementS’ Analysis

The working conditions underground are rough to work in, first, because of the harsh
environment (polluted air, high temperatures, restricted visibility with low illumi-
nation level, high noise, confined work spaces, etc.), the high risk of explosion and
the continuous inherent change of the infrastructure due to the coal exploitation. That

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 127

S. M. Riurean et al., Application of Visible Light Wireless Communication in
Underground Mine, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-61408-9_3
128 3 A Hybrid Communication System for Mining Industry. From RequirementS’ Analysis. . .

Table 3.1 Potential RF emitters in a US coal mine [1]

Frequency Application Comments
300– Personal emergency devices Through-the-earth
10,000 Hz communications
70–500 kHz Proximity detection devices Audible and visual warning
300–800 kHz Medium frequency radios Voice, text
150– Leaky feeder systems VHF Voice and low bandwidth data
175 MHz
400– Miner or asset-tracking systems Radio frequency identification
410 MHz (RFID)
450– Leaky feeder systems UHF Voice and low bandwidth data
470 MHz
490 MHz Remote-operated continuous miner Remote control of continuous
miner
900 MHz Active radio frequency identification RFID to track miner’s location
(RFID) tags
900 MHz Line-of-sight radios Voice, text
900 MHz Rescue robots Robot control
2.4 GHz Rescue robots Video
2.4 GHz Line-of-sight radios Voice, text

is why designing a solid and viable data communication network for the under-
ground mining industry, which provides high reliability, is a challenging task.
Before 2006, a very limited number of intentional RF emitters were used under-
ground. Today, following many disasters underground with numerous casualties, the
new policies worldwide in mining occupational healthy and safe requires mine
operators to install wireless, or partially wireless advanced systems with smart
devices to support human life and warn in due time about the environment under-
ground in order to avoid any possible calamity.
Because there is the potential for electromagnetic interference (EMI) when
undesired EM energy from another RF system interferes with the reception or
processing of a desired signal, causing unacceptable performance degradation to
other systems, in Table 3.1, are listed the potential RF emitters with own frequencies
and applications in US coal mines [1].
Another source of EMI is noise, comprising a random electrical voltage can
originate within a radio receiver or can have an external origin. Power lines,
electrical equipment (motors), electronic equipment (remote-control devices), trans-
formers, and electrical/mechanical switching devices can generate EM noise. Elec-
trically powered machinery used in mining also produces strong, low-frequency
noise when starting up or when the power demand switches from low to high (or vice
versa). Lightning is also a source of noise. This EM noise is low frequency, and the
propagation loss is so low that its noise contributions could come from anywhere in
the entire world. Wires that run into the mine can carry lightning and other EM noise
can be generated from outside the mine.
3.1 State-oF-the-ARt and RequirementS’ Analysis 129

Fig. 3.1 A LFS system deployed underground (adapted from [2])

Different types of local and remote communication solutions, such as leaky

feeder system (LFS), through-the-earth (TTE) transmission, Voice over Internet
Protocol (VoIP), Wi-Fi, cellular network with Long Term Evolution (LTE), or
radio system for short-range communication Ultra-Wideband (UWB), are now
worldwide available for underground spaces in mines.
LFS—is a distributed antenna system using radiating coaxial cable installed along
underground spaces that emits and receives radio waves (from 150 to 175 MHz for
VHF and from 450 to 470 MHz for UHF). The cable has hollows or space shield on
its outer conductor to allow the radio signal to leak out of the cable along its entire
length and works as a very long antenna. Therefore, due to this signal leakage, line
amplifiers are inserted at regular intervals (every 350–500 m), to increase the
radiated signal to the optimal level. The signal is normally captured by portable
radios worn on by workers. The transmissions of these portable devices are received
by the radiating coaxial cable and are transported both to the surface and other parts
of the tunnel, allowing a bidirectional communication [1].
An example of a LFS system deployed underground is presented in Fig. 3.1.
TTE transmissions are systems that use low-frequency electromagnetic waves to
create a link between the surface and the underground mine. Communication is
usually done by magnetic induction, with frequencies below 30 kHz. It has narrow
bandwidth and large propagation loss. TTE systems are also susceptible to atmo-
spheric noise and alternate-current harmonics from power lines and electrical equip-
ment, which also represent deficiencies to a high-quality communication link,
especially in the uplink connection [3].
130 3 A Hybrid Communication System for Mining Industry. From RequirementS’ Analysis. . .

VoIP is a technology that enables traditional telephony services to operate over

computer networks, therefore transfer of voice communications and multimedia
sessions over Internet Protocol (IP) networks is possible. VoIP technology enables
traditional telephony services to operate over computer networks using packet-
switched protocols. Packet-switched VoIP puts voice signals into packets that can
be transmitted over any VoIP-compatible network, such as LAN. Some of the
benefits of using VoIP underground are: it uses the existing IT network equipment
and unshielded twisted pair (UTP) cabling to connect phone sets; it can be integrated
with the traditional (digital or analogue) copper cable solutions with the use of voice
gateways or analogue telephone adapter (ATA) devices; an integrated system for
both voice and data to be managed. Nevertheless, the entire system is rather complex
because it requires power over Ethernet (PoE) network equipment to provide power
to devices such as phone sets. PoE (standardized by IEEE 802.3af—around 13 W of
electrical power and 802.3 at—25.5 W) describes several standards or ad hoc
systems that pass electric power along with data on twisted pair Ethernet cabling.
This allows a single cable to provide both data connection and electric power to
devices such as wireless access points, IP cameras, and VoIP phones.
The Wi-Fi wireless network (standardized by IEEE 802.11) has the main advan-
tage to provide mobility for users but also a series of drawbacks: has limited
coverage in the underground; requires site survey and planning prior to setting up;
needs complex hardware to be configured; limited range resulting in high number of
access points necessary to work properly; support a limited number of users since
latency increases along with traffic; subject to interference; not applicable in sites
with a high risk of explosion.
Cellular networking with LTE empowered. LTE refers to the fourth generation
(4G) and beyond of cellular network. It is a high-speed wireless communication
technology for mobile devices and data terminals based on IPs that provides transfer
of voice, data, and video content with a better signal propagation compared to 2.4/
5.0 GHz Wi-Fi in underground sites. Although it offers many benefits, such as high
end to end Quality of Service (QoS) capabilities natively implemented in the
standard, it also has important drawbacks, because it requires RF licensing for use
in surface and underground installations or special protection in order to be approved
to be used in mines with potentially explosive gases.
UWB (IEEE 802.15.4a standard, with a security extension specified in IEEE
802.15.4z) is a local wireless communication technology that uses radio waves with
a wide spectrum of several GHz. It operates in LoS for a short range (up to 200 m) at
a very high frequency. A UWB Tx works by sending billions of pulses across the
wide spectrum frequency and a corresponding Rx translates the pulses into data by
listening to a familiar pulse sequence that is sent by the Tx. UWB has high accuracy
in real time since one pulse is sent every two nanoseconds. UWB is extremely low
power, but its high bandwidth (500 MHz) is ideal to communicate data, from a host
to other devices. To increase UWB’s range and reception reliability, a system of
MIMO antennas can be used to enable a reliable short-range network. The antennas
can be embedded into any smart devices such a smartphone, a wristband, a belt, or a
3.1 State-oF-the-ARt and RequirementS’ Analysis 131

helmet. As important drawbacks, the UWB is solely a local communication tech-

nology, and has no capability of sending accurate remote data through walls.
A reliable and robust network system for local (in underground spaces) and
remote (from underground to the surface) communication, consists mainly of two
parts: the transceivers and the communication network. Both wireless and the wired
(cable-based) communication systems for data transmissions and voice must be
adjustable according to specific characteristics of the site especially because of the
constant change of the infrastructure during exploitation.
Older technologies that supported voice communication, required separate net-
works. New technologies have integrated in many mines most of the old voice
communication systems into the new data communication systems.
To keep the cost low, and simplify the entire communication system (both
deployment and operations), one of the major objectives is to standardize trans-
missions and run multiple services along a single cabled backbone. To deploy a solid
integrated communication system, even in case of a short-term planning of an
optimal or at least near-optimal solutions for long-term exploitation, all technical
and environmental conditions have to be taken into consideration.
The many types of communication systems can be classified due to the purpose of
the network, into:
– tracking system of personnel and/or machinery,
– network for the emergency response in case of fatality,
– daily basis ventilation and ventilation on demand (VoD) in case of necessity,
– nonstop environmental monitoring and notification in case of emergency
situation,
– a combination of the above.
Integrating all the above into a single communication system (simplex, duplex, or
full-duplex) is a difficult task especially because of their different priority level of
importance and speed of development.
Depending on the purpose of the network and the application(s) required, the
proper communication system and its infrastructure, wireless (in RF or optical
spectrum), or cabled (wired or optical fiber) or a hybrid system applies.
There are many requirements both for hardware and software parts of the entire
system, especially when a full duplex communication architecture is planned to be
designed. The more complex the requirements are, the more complex the commu-
nication system and its design, implementation, maintenance, and its expansion are.
All the characteristics of the sites and the various technologies must be considered
in designing the network for all the spaces into the underground mine and from
underground to surface when the proper applications, technologies, and communi-
cation infrastructure are selected.
The use of any of these solutions in underground spaces depends on several
factors, the most important of all being the miners’ safety due to the potentially
dangerous situations during operation, mine’s infrastructure, and its level of hazard
risk both for workers and machinery.
132 3 A Hybrid Communication System for Mining Industry. From RequirementS’ Analysis. . .

A communication system for underground has to be designed, installed, and used

taking into consideration the mine’s topology. The mine’s topology itself is also
influenced by the type of mining, such as mineralization in the exploitation area and
the surrounding areas; temperature and level of humidity underground; and the
presence of various gasses.
These factors powerfully influence the mine structure, the topology of the com-
munications network chosen, as well as the hardware used for communication (such
as cables, enclosures, and dedicated network equipment).
Depending on the type of the rock exploited, hard rock (extraction of minerals
such as gold, copper, or nickel) or soft rock (extraction of coal), the mine exploita-
tions differentiate in distinct categories. With soft rock extraction, means of mechan-
ical excavation can conduct mining with or without the use of explosives.
The network topologies have to be designed and developed to cover all open-
spaces underground with many various and particular shapes with multilevel
horizons.
The well-known communication network physical topologies (line, bus, tree,
ring, star, extended star, partial mesh, or mesh) used as Ethernet networks indoor
or outdoor, can be applied underground according to the specificity of the mine’
topology.
Methods of exploitation (mainly differentiated by the walls and roof composition
underground) can also influence the network solution to be implemented. The walls
and roof can be supported when soft rock is exploited, or unsupported when no
pillars are necessary. The access from surface to the underground workings can be
done via a ramp, a vertical shaft (from the surface to multiple levels underground), or
a combination of them (shaft(s) and underground ramps that connect two or more
levels.
Each mining method outcomes different patterns of tunnels, resulting in specific
topology for each mine. Regular mines comprise a series of shafts, ramps, drifts, and
slopes across multiple levels designed to access the working faces where the
minerals are. Given the hazardous and potentially destructive nature of mining
(such as blasting and drilling), sensitive networking equipment, and cables are
difficult to be installed and protected.
The shafts, ramps, drifts, and slopes across multiple levels in mine are the main
paths used to transport personnel, minerals, materials, and equipment in and out of
the mine. Along with this permanent infrastructure in these areas, pervasive trans-
mission networks can be installed. Besides the illumination, ventilation, air quality
monitoring, and electrical energy supply networks already installed underground, we
can design the communication network along these paths using fiber optic cable,
coaxial cable, copper wire, or wireless mesh nodes.
Although there is a high potential to damage the network infrastructure, the
placement and mounting of cabling and hardware along the permanent transport
paths should be clearly considered due to the benefits of an integrated network of
communication that brings higher security and safety of personnel underground
along with higher profit for the mining companies.
3.1 State-oF-the-ARt and RequirementS’ Analysis 133

The underground coal mines commonly have coal dust and methane gas present
in suspension. This is the reason that all electrical and electronic devices (from
illumination, ventilation equipment, transport means, and exploitation machinery)
must be designed for intrinsic safety to minimize the risk of sparks. Sparks (e.g., that
can rise from this improper-protected equipment) are the origin of methane gas or
coal dust ignition in the mine, conducting to fire hazards with lethal accidents and
important material and time loss.
Regardless of the local or remote communications solution, legislation must be
adhered to, and only sanctioned “intrinsically safe” devices must be used under-
ground. Prior to selecting a communication solution, the intrinsically safe network
devices must be used in any mine (not only coal mines) that contains fire hazards.
Audio, video, and data communication systems are used underground in addition
to or as a part of the dedicated network system. Gas and air quality monitoring and
notification, geotechnical monitoring, blasting control, fire detection and alert, and
emergency communication systems are installed underground according to the
regulatory codes and vendor’s requirements.
The existing communication systems underground should integrate a personnel
positioning and monitoring system to enhance the mining company value. Both
assets and personnel tracking underground require detailed planning to best achieve
the objectives for a solid, reliable network.
Although such a system does not seem to have many benefits or high value in
terms of productivity, it is worth to be implemented as a reliable live-saving system,
for the security and personnel safety underground.
Each mine has its own topology and, therefore, requires a custom solution when
we refer to a tracking system. Most of the positioning systems track the movement of
personnel throughout spaces into the underground mine where the coverage infra-
structure is mounted and notify on the personnel location. The tracking system
should be tailored to cover all the spaces into the mine infrastructure
underground [4].
Situational awareness, especially when supported by novel technologies
(as virtual reality, augmented reality, or robots), is often associated with the tracking
systems, and may assist personnel situated in the underground spaces to evaluate
very quickly a potentially problematic situation and take in due time the best
decision for her/his own safety and security [5–7].
In case of a duplex communication (e.g., tracking and warning system) the
position of each miner in the underground spaces can be known by the integrated
system and warn the individual or group of workers in due time about possible
dangerous situations or areas under restrictions. Any integrated, personnel monitor-
ing system digitally recorded, implemented in mines has many incontestable advan-
tages over any classical manual record.
Such a real-time personnel monitoring/tracking system can instantly output a list
with all workers and the identity of each worker situated underground, along with
their locations. For instance, during an emergency, if an explosion with walls and
roof collapse inside the mine takes place, the emergency response teams will focus
134 3 A Hybrid Communication System for Mining Industry. From RequirementS’ Analysis. . .

Fig. 3.2 A general view of a networking backbone of fiber optic

on affected areas where workers are located, considerably limiting the area of search
and decreasing the rescue response times.
Unlike the open spaces outdoor, where public cellular networks or private
satellite networks can be used for fast and accurate localization, in underground
spaces, because of the lack of signal coming from satellites or cellular towers, most
of the tracking systems developed so far, rely on low-frequency tags (BLE, ZigBee,
6LowPan, iBeacon, Eddystone, etc.) for real-time location, proximity location, or
checkpoint positioning methods. These systems require a dedicated infrastructure in
these cases and maps play an important role in any tracking strategy; therefore, the
area of the site shown on a level map will need to be determined.
Most of the modern mines have an underground widely deployed communication
infrastructure with optical fiber as networking backbone (Fig. 3.2), to support Wi-Fi
or UWB technologies [8].
The coal mining industry has special conditions that impose very strict regulation
regarding the use of any kind of electrical equipment. The lighting fixtures (as well
as any electrical or electronic equipment), both on the main galleries underground
and in all working spaces, are compulsory to be explosion proof, certified ATEX in
order to meet the highest safety standards.
Explosion hazard involves the use of special lighting to avoid accidents because
in coal mines, due to high firedamp or high level of methane concentration, atmo-
sphere is favorable to explosion. Dusts, gases, vapors, and/or mists in air can form
explosive atmospheres. Hazardous area classification is used to identify places
where, because of the potential for an explosive atmosphere, special precautions
over sources of ignition are needed to prevent fires and explosions.
3.2 System DesIGN 135

Therefore, explosions can be caused by any mechanical or electrical spark. With

the aim of preventing or minimizing the effect of explosions, beside mine ventila-
tion, both electrical equipment used underground and illumination have to be
specially designed to be safely used in the explosive atmosphere.
Any type of lighting and electrical equipment used underground must be able to
withstand any possible internal explosion in order to prevent any risk of spreading an
explosion, which is called explosion proof. So, workers’ safety has to be in the first
place when any type of VLC system prototyping is considered.
All types of lights (lighting fixture, miner’s lamps, or machinery LEDs) used in
coal mines have to comply with ATEX directive to avoid any risk of explosion or its
propagation.
The ATEX normative for potential explosive atmosphere results according to
European Directives: 1994/9/EC and ATEX 137 for any equipment intended for use
in ATEX zones; 100A ATEX 1999/92/EC or safety of workers.
The most important condition when designing a VLC system is miners’ safety,
then, also essential, its efficiency, durability, low energy consumer, and long life
since elements of both oTx and oRx have to proper operate in harsh environments of
the mining industry [9].
Although the main purpose for this chapter is to describe the steps necessary for
development of a local underground VLC wireless system, the remote communica-
tion—to the mine’s surface, of the data acquired, has to be also considered since the
continuous surveillance of the activity underground, and most important, the fast
reply in case of emergency, is the final purpose of the entire communication network
presented here.

3.2 System DesIGN

3.2.1 General Description

The designed system is an Underground Positioning & Monitoring System

(UP&MS), based on the visible light wireless data communication, that can be
used to individually identify each worker situated underground, as well as to monitor
on a map, in real time, their position. The entire system refers to a real-time
monitoring of the personnel located underground and also a surveillance mapping
of the personnel situated onto the main galleries. The wireless optical medium of
transmission relies on the visible light.
At present, in most of the traditional mines, the evidence of personnel to be found
in underground mining spaces is a difficult one, based on hand-writing evidence, not
that reliable. Data registered in this way can only attest personnel situated under-
ground with certain identification but without any possibility to locate them. Data
written on paper do not allow real-time monitoring and a certain identification of the
position of personnel in horizontal underground mining spaces (galleries and rooms)
vertical (mineshafts) and inclined (inclined planes, suitors, mineshafts), and so on.
136 3 A Hybrid Communication System for Mining Industry. From RequirementS’ Analysis. . .

Although today, identification of personnel situated underground is done due to a

strict correlation between the protective equipment to be worn and personnel
identification before they go underground, their localization in real time is not
possible.
The specific conditions of mines that have a major risk of serious incidents, such
as methane or pit-gas (fire-dump gas) explosions, shocks, fires, or accidents,
endorsed rigorous internal rules. Underground access is only allowed with specific
equipment authorized and approved by the competent mining national institutions.
The Mining Health and Safety (MHS) rules regarding the evidence of personnel
situated underground states that, when entering underground, both staff and visitors
are obligated to register themselves at the time of check-in at the “lamp office” of the
mine where they receive the necessary equipment to be compulsory worn
underground.
Here they will be registered, and if they remain underground from one shift to
another, the shift supervisor will announce the workers who are underground to be
registered in the Underground Personal Records Register, then forward the same
information to the MHR responsible employee. This scripted monitoring and
highlighting system is a difficult one that does not provide a real-time reporting of
the number and position of people underground at a given time.
The number of people situated underground is in direct correlation with the
authorized equipment mandatory to be worn underground, that staff receive before
they go in mine, namely clothing, footwear, personal protective equipment, and
individual lighting equipment.
The protection equipment considered for the system implementation consists of
the miner’s helmet cap-lamp. This has a unique identification number which is
correlated, each time, with the person that is wearing it in the underground mine.
The designed system introduces a simple identification of the miner’s helmet
cap-lamp based on the EAN-8 code bars, and therefore of the person that uses that
specific lamp, underground.
A general view of the entire positioning and monitoring system with the VLC
local wireless communication and remote transmission to the surveillance room is
presented in Fig. 3.3.
The system has as the main goal, to identify in real-time, of each person in the
underground mine spaces, based on the miner’s helmet cap-lamp as the main “actor”
of the system.
Since both lamps and helmets are compulsory to be used underground, they are
nonstop worn by personnel during movements from one place to another. Commu-
nication of the position of worker’s underground is done by a transmitting system
that uses, in its first stage of data acquisition, the technology of the visible light, as
local wireless data communication means.
The oTx device is embedded into the miners’ helmet cap-lamp (Fig. 3.4); the
lighting device of the lamp has to be most of the time positioned on the worker’s
helmet. The lighting device of the lamp can be easily tilted and therefore changed, to
fit a precise light beam needed at any time. Moreover, the lamp has lenses embedded
that can focus and direct the light as the worker wishes.
3.2 System DesIGN 137

Fig. 3.3 General view of the UP&MS installed into the underground spaces. (1) Miner’s helmet
cap-lamp as oTx with the VLC driver system embedded. (2) Access Point as oRx with the VLC
driver embedded. (3) VLC location controllers. (4) Master controller board—Communication head
node. (5) Router. (6) Server. (7) PC. (a) Main galleries with the illumination network/optical fiber
already setup. (b) Coal/waste seam. (c) Vertical mine shaft. (d) Operating cage room. (e) Surface
main monitoring and surveilance room

The beam of light from the miners’ helmet cap-lamp sends, piggybacked by
illumination, the information (using IM/DD method) related to the lamp’s ID,
namely its own unique EAN-8 code bar. This code bar—converted in bits and sent
by beam light due to the light shifting from ON (bit 1) to OFF (bit 0) and vice versa at
high speed—is received by the Access Points (APs aka oRxs). Each AP consists of
an electronic driver device with a microcontroller and a PIN PD with optics attached,
all of them embedded into the lighting network on the main galleries underground or
into the optical fiber network backbone.
Data regarding the lamp ID are piggybacked by light to the APs (with the VLC
embedded) that act as visible light communication receivers (oRx) (Fig. 3.5).
138 3 A Hybrid Communication System for Mining Industry. From RequirementS’ Analysis. . .

Fig. 3.4 Both VLC transmitter (oTx) and receiver (oRx) on the main gallery underground. oTx—
on the miner’s helmet cap-lamp. oRx—embedded into the illumination network/optical fibre

Fig. 3.5 The light beam of the miner’s helmet cap-lamp, piggybacks data to AP
3.2 System DesIGN 139

Fig. 3.6 The miners’ identity and her/his location displayed on a digital map

The oRxs can be incorporated either into the illumination network already set up
on the ceiling of the main galleries in the underground spaces, or connected by the
optical fiber network, that acts as the backbone for multiple remote communication
systems.
The lamps’ ID/code received here is automatically checked having the last digit
that as checksum (CS). CS, as an error-detecting element, will check the code to
detect the correct received data.
During the next stage, each AP adds its own identification data (its own position
on the gallery, embedded in the system, the date and time of received information
from the oTx) into an Ethernet frame type II that is going to be sent (through the
lighting network or the optical fiber network), to the surface, at a dedicated PC
situated into the main monitoring room of the mining company.
Data are collected in the location controllers (positioned at the same, optimum
distance), and are forwarded to the master controller board which is the communi-
cation head node.
All these devices can be situated on the illumination network or on to optical fiber
networks, which act as the backbone for multiple remote communication systems.
Data acquired in the main galleries and working spaces, by the oRx are sent from
the APs through the illumination system/optical fiber to the main shaft (C) (see
Fig. 3.3) where the controllers are situated and then to the surface, at the operating
cage room. From the operating cage room, it is networked to the main monitoring
and surveillance room. Data are finally collected and stored into the mining company
server, and the personnel position in the underground can be seen by the supervisor,
in real time, both as records lists and on a digital map (Fig. 3.6).
This system is useful not only because the position of each worker situated in the
underground is known, being recorded and displayed on a wide screen in the
surveillance room, but the identity of each worker is also known.
140 3 A Hybrid Communication System for Mining Industry. From RequirementS’ Analysis. . .

Fig. 3.7 The functional representation of the VLC system

The UP&MS system described here is a hybrid communication network,

consisting of a local wireless communication, where data are sent through light
and a remote cabled transmission network that sends data in real time to the
surveillance room. Most of the emergency communication networks are designed
as to resist into the hazardous mine environment since the impact of mine hazards
such as rock falls, floods, fires, and explosions can cause catastrophic failures of the
system underground. An emergency system is required to maintain service in spite of
component failures, which is unlikely in most of the real situations. The system we
propose allows a continuous surveillance (both in real time and digitally stored) of
the workers underground and keeps valuable information about their identity and
position in underground spaces prior to any possible disaster to occur, making
therefore the rescuers’ mission more accurate.
The Ethernet technology as cabled (cooper or optical fibre) network has already
been deployed in major mining companies worldwide, therefore, the system descrip-
tion is going to be focused on the local wireless data transmission through visible
light.
A functional representation of the local wireless VLC is presented in Fig. 3.7.
Data regarding the lamp’s ID (x(t)) are able to be sent due to a digital to analog
(D/A) signal converter circuit and the LED with the default optics embedded
resulting a signal (x’(t)), ready to be send through free space to the oRx.
The channel allows the optical signal to be sent to the oRx. The oRx module, with
a PIN PD and optics (filter and lens) embedded, as the receiver, converts the signal
3.2 System DesIGN 141

from analog to digital (A/D) form, due to the circuit that drives and converts data
received (y’(t)) from the oTx.
The electronic circuit with microcontroller checks the digital information
received (the lamp’s ID) and then builds the Ethernet frame (adding few more
information, as its own AP’s position, time, and date of data received) to be sent
to the main surveillance room in the surface area, on the path settled as an under-
ground and surface local area network LAN.
The most important function of the miner’s cap-lamp is illumination, as under-
ground lighting is a very important, fundamental factor. Therefore, designing the
VLC system for personnel positioning and real-time monitoring has to take primary
in consideration illumination as a key aspect, since in underground mines, it is vital
to have safe and efficient lighting.
The IM/DD technique is the suitable method to communicate optical data under-
ground in a VLC system, due to its low cost and simplicity. The proposed system
implements the EAN‑8 code bar as it has a low cost, and is a simple one, being
therefore, a proper choice for a viable underground positioning and monitoring
system.
The EAN-8 code bar is visible printed on a label as a sticker on the lamp and
protected with a transparent layer to be easily scanned. The same code it is also
digitally stored into the VLC oTx driver. A dedicated database stores on the server
(no 6—see Fig. 3.3) all EAN-8 codes available for all lamps in the company,
therefore each lamp has its own ID.
When the personnel (staff, workers, visitors, etc.) receive the lamp, his/her
identity is directly linked to the lamp’s ID from this moment till he/she returns the
lamp at the mine’s surface. The database will update this link and therefore personnel
underground will be not only monitored, but all the time identified, and their position
in a certain moment known, as well.
The LED on the cap-lamp is ON all the time, both on the way to and from
destination when employees, staff and/or visitors walk underground on the main
galleries to the working spaces. During all this time, the oTx with VLC driver
embedded will continuously send its own data consisting in the identification
number (ID), aka its EAN-8.
The system is considered to be the best possible choice at this moment in order to
be reliable in case of accidents underground, being extremely useful to identify the
actual or latest location where the personnel have been right before or during the
accidents.
The EAN-8 code consists of seven usable decimal digits and a check digit as
presented in Table 3.2.
An example of EAN-8 code is presented in Fig. 3.8.
The first digit will identify the level of responsibility in company, according to
each employee function or profession (staff, workers) as well as visitors.
There are ten possible levels of classification (digits from 0 to 9) according to the
internal rules of each company or any specific identification requirements, therefore,
the first decimal will be assigned as default ID.
142 3 A Hybrid Communication System for Mining Industry. From RequirementS’ Analysis. . .

Table 3.2 EAN-8

Character Check
set Length digit Size, Module Width X, Print ratio
numeric 7 usable 1 check Font size SC2 (SC0–SC9); H ¼ 21.64 mm (17.7–43.28);
[0..9] digits digit B ¼ 26.73 mm (21.87–53.46);
X ¼ 0.33 mm (0.27–0.66); variable size between 80% and
200%
Notes EAN8 data consist of 2–3 digits of country code and 4–5 digits of article code
(limited numbers)

Fig. 3.8 EAN 8 bar code,

an example

Table 3.3 Electrical and photometric characteristics of lamps used by miners

Electrical Photometric
Characteristics
Supply
Miner’s helmet cap Voltage Current Power Wavelength Correlated color
lamp (VDC) (A) (W) (nm) temperature (CCT) (K)
Lamps with incan- 6.1 0.63 3.84 780 2880
descent bulbs
Regular LEDs 6.1 0.42 2.56 448 5855
Prototype LED 12.0 0.113 1.36 444 6844

The other six digits (any decimal from 0 to 9) consist of the lamp’s ID. The last
digit is the checksum (CS) digit.
LEDs are the most used artificial lighting means recently due to technical
advantages of this technology such as efficiency, increased longevity, and energy
savings.
The designed LED cap-lamp prototype must also allow, an improved visual
performance since the miners are more sensitive to glare. According to the NIOSH
and MSHA, new LED lamp prototypes recently used in mines are robust, safe (they
do not have a filament that can break or a glass envelope), have a long life
(50,000 hours of operation) and “improve the ability of older miners to detect
moving hazards, by 15 percent, and trip hazards by nearly 24 percent” [10].
According to Sammarco et al. [11], LEDs with shorter wavelengths are able to
offer improved peripheral motion detection, reduce glare for elder workers, and
avoid floor hazard early detection.
Table 3.3 presents electrical and photometric characteristics of few types of lamps
used by miners underground for the study, according to Sammarco et al.:
3.2 System DesIGN 143

Fig. 3.9 Type of miner’s cap lamp and its position on miner’s helmet in the VLC system design
considered

– Lamps with Incandescent bulbs.

– Lamps with Regular LEDs.
– Prototype LED.
Following all considerations above, modeling and simulation results obtained and
presented in the previous chapter, regarding the general and particular requirements
for a proper development of the underground positioning and monitoring system
based on VLC, both hardware and software optimum choice for the special condition
in a potential explosives atmosphere and dense polluted medium as the underground
coal mine environment is, are presented here.
The type of miner’s cap lamp with LEDs (and portable battery attached), intended
to have the oTx embedded, is presented in Fig. 3.9.

3.2.2 System Simulation

The Optical System

LEDs are recently the most used artificial lighting in the modern underground mines
(for the miners’ cap-lamp, as lighting fixtures into the illumination infrastructure or
for machinery) due to their technical and economic advantages, as high efficiency,
increased longevity, low cost, and energy savings.
There are two possible approaches regarding the type of diode used for such a
VLC system. Either LEDs or SLDs can be used in both semiconductors.
LEDs and SLDs are based on the SSL technology that converts the electrical
signals into light waves. Starting with the basics, diodes are the simplest form of a
semiconductor.
The light beam produced by a LED has a wider FoV than the one produced by an
SLD which has its light beam directed and highly collimated. Therefore, because the
optical signal sent by LED is broader and is spreading, its optical output power is low
and travels a shorter distance than the light beam produced by SLD which has a
higher optical power.
144 3 A Hybrid Communication System for Mining Industry. From RequirementS’ Analysis. . .

In case that the infrastructure has narrow access paths in spaces underground,
where only one worker can walk to the path, the SLD is a good choice and the system
with SLD in an LoS setup can be a good solution, especially for the advanced optics
embedded that minimize the blindness of workers because of the focused and high
intensity of light beam emitted by SLD. On the other hand, when the access path is
wider, and the worker is not forced by the type of infrastructure to walk under the
backbone of the network where access points are situated, LEDs with a wider light
beam should be used. On the oTx side, the collimating lens will reduce the beam’s
divergence to a level that allows the optical beam to maintain its integrity as it
reaches the active area of the PD of the oRx.
When considering a VLC setup, there are several physical limiting factors that
have to be overcome to improve the overall effectiveness of the system. The key idea
is to collect a valuable incident light beam on the oRx and provide a more concen-
trated spot on the active area of the PD.
When the system of optics in front of the oTx is designed, it is very important not
to forget that the main functionality of the miners’ helmet cap-lamp still has to be
lightening his/her own walking path with a proper light beam that has to comply with
all the safety standards. Therefore, bearing in mind this, we also have to choose the
diode and design the optics as not to raise the oTx system costs, weight, volume or
light efficiency, and keep the system energy still efficient.
To comply with the LEDs and SLDs’ safety standards, the entire oTx module
used in a VLC system for wireless data transmission has to be designed accordingly.
From the point of view of the system, solely, it would be easy to use an SLD that has
a high output, which would take a lot of strain off the PD, and would increase the
working distance considerably. However, to comply with the safety regulations,
SLDs have to be relatively low in power, and then, to improve the distance and keep
the optical power high, focusing on the elements that can be used as compensation.
When the system is designed as a duplex communication system, the two
photodiodes on either end serve as the receiver for their respective devices assisting
them in the collection of photons that improves their efficiency.
The LD beam can only have typical irradiance distributions due to the restriction
of laser cavity and gain distribution. However, in practical application, the LD beams
with desired irradiance distributions are often required to improve the efficiency. The
basic principle of the aspheric lens (Fig. 3.10), in a refractive beam shaping system,
is to allow the first aspheric lens (the one in front of LED) to redistribute the
irradiance of the input beam to the desired distribution at the second aspheric lens
plane (in front of PD) that re-collimates the output beam [12].
In Fig. 3.10, the LED’s light beam diverges by an angle θ over the length d. A
lens is placed in front of the LED and another one is placed at the length d, in front of
the PD to intercept the beam and focus it onto the active area of the PD.
For the oTx side, in front of the LED, a simple aspheric plano-convex lens
collimates the light beam. An aspheric lens, as the name suggests, is shaped in
such a way that the surface is not one single radius, nor is it continuous.
Prior to selecting the proper lenses for an efficient light beam in a VLC design, we
must investigate the off-the-shelf, available low cost refracting lens and systems.
3.2 System DesIGN 145

Fig. 3.10 A VLC system with lens in front of LED and PD

R r
r b
R

a a

cn
n n n

a) b)
r

R
a

n n

c) d)

Fig. 3.11 Refractive light beam shaping systems with aspheric lens. (a) Configuration of a Galilean
magnifying beam shaping system. (b) Configuration of Galilean demagnifying beam shaping
system consisted of one magnifying and one demagnifying system. (c) Configuration of a Galilean
demagnifying beam shaping system consisted of only one demagnifying system. (d) Configuration
of a Keplerian plano-convex lens as refractive beam shaping system

Lenses used must improve both the light beam efficiency and the distance
between oTx and oRx on its traveled path. Both the light beam ray tracing and its
efficiency on a long distance have to be well established with the help of correct
selected types of refractive shaping lens (or system of lenses) at the oTx and oRx
sides.
According to the working principle, the refractive shaping system can be divided
into two categories: Galilean (Figure 3.11a, b, c) and Keplerian (Figure 3.11d) light
beam shaping systems [13].
146 3 A Hybrid Communication System for Mining Industry. From RequirementS’ Analysis. . .

A h1 A
n1
n1 B
x q1
n1 n2 q2
q1
x 1-x
ô
q2 z l
1-x

ô
B
x h2

a. Ray passes through two b. Medium with refractive

different mediums with different index n1 with reflected ray
refractive indexes n1 and n2

Fig. 3.12 Fermat’s law setup

All the shaping systems above give us a clear perspective of the kind of the lenses
necessary to be used in order to obtain a long distance, beam light that has to be
spotted on the active area of the PD.
In order to calculate the most suitable lenses to be used in the final VLC system
for the UP&MS described here, the Fermat’s principle and Snell’s laws are
considered.
Fermat’s principle, also called the principle of least time, states that the optical
rays of light traverse the path of stationary optical length with respect to variations of
the path, meaning that rays take the path that requires the least travel time.
Figure 3.12 shows the case when raw travels through two mediums with different
indices of refraction, n1 and n2. This is the case (Fig. 3.12a) when ray goes out of the
lens (lens is of plastic with n1 of about 1.6) and enters into the air.
Clean air has the refraction index n2 ¼ 1 but the underground environment, the
authors consider in this work, is filled with tiny suspended particles of coal and rock
within the air that continuously moves due to the air cleaning procedures that have to
be strictly applied underground to follow rules for human safe and secure work.
The refractive index for coal is 1.85 (for anthracite) [14]. Different measurements,
more accurate, show that the index of coal spreads within the range 1.68–2.02
(58–96% carbon coal) [15].
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
SABðaÞ ¼ n1 x2 þ h21 þ n2 ð1  xÞ2 þ h22 ð3:1Þ
3.2 System DesIGN 147

Fig. 3.13 Incident and refracted ray through glass

The light ray in the Fig. 3.12(b) starts from point A and reflects off the surface
before arriving at point B. Let’s consider l as the horizontal distance from point A
to B.
In order to find out the time required for the light to travel between the two points,
the length of each path is calculated and divide the length is divided the speed of light
(Eq. 3.5). Therefore, refraction is due to the speed of light through two different
mediums (Fig. 3.13).
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
n1 x2 þ h21 n2 ð1  xÞ2 þ h22
t¼ þ ð3:2Þ
c c

When air is highly polluted nearby the working spaces, the atmosphere becomes
almost opaque and therefore the light beam rays hit the tiny particle of coal in the air
and reflect from their surface. The most important properties of light in this type of
polluted medium are absorption and scattering.
Attenuation (or transmission loss) refers to the intensity of the light beam that
decreases with respect to distance traveled through a communication medium,
therefore an extinction coefficient has to be taken into consideration when the
polluted environment is measured.
Attenuation (A) coefficients use units of dB/m through the medium:

I input
A ¼ 10  log 10 ðdBÞ ð3:3Þ
I output

Optical attenuation is caused both by scattering and absorption. Attenuation is an

important factor limiting the transmission of an optical signal across long distances.
Thus, worldwide research efforts are concentrated on both increasing the efficiency
148 3 A Hybrid Communication System for Mining Industry. From RequirementS’ Analysis. . .

of the emitted light beam and limiting the attenuation of the optical signal on its path
between the oTx and oRx.
The medium considered here starts from a clean air in most of the parts of the
main gallery (due to the air cleaner procedures imposed underground with dedicated
equipment) to highly dense air polluted with fine particles of coal and rock closer to
the working space.
According to Snell’s law of refraction, when a light ray passes from one medium
(e.g., glass) to another one (e.g., air), as the angle of incidence increases, the reflected
ray becomes stronger and the refracted ray becomes weaker and eventually
disappears.
The relation between the incident and refracted ray through glass is as in Eq. 3.4.

sin θair nglass

¼ ð3:4Þ
sin θglass nair

where:
nglass—refractive index of glass
nair—refractive index of air
Biconvex lenses (Fig. 3.14) have a positive focal length and converge the incident
light. They have symmetrical form, with equal radii on both sides. These are used for
the purpose of virtual imaging in case of real objects and also for a positive conjugate
ratios ranging between 0.2 and 5.
The optical path length S, according to Fermat’s law, is presented in Eq. 3.5:
 
r 22 r2 r2 1 1
S ¼ S1 þ S2 ¼   10 ¼  þ 0 ð3:5Þ
2f 2 f 2 f f
1 1 1
¼ þ 0 ð3:6Þ
F f f

Power of lenses adds as:

d 1 1 d 1
∅ ¼ ∅1 þ ∅2  ∅1 ∅2 ¼ ðn  1Þ þ ð1  nÞ þ ð n  1Þ 2 ¼
n r1 r2 n r1 ∙ r2
d
¼ c1 ðn  1Þ þ c2 ð1  nÞ þ c1 c2 ðn  1Þ2 ð3:7Þ
n

Three scenarios of simulation done with support of geometric-optics module on

Phet [16] are shown in Figs. 3.15–3.18.
As general conclusions, the shape of a lens, its curvature radius, the material of its
composition (glass, or plastic), the distance between LED and lens, the focal length,
the diameter of the lens as well as the alignment between LED and lens are just few
of the key characteristics that have to be considered and fine-tuned to obtain the
optimum optical setup for a reliable wireless VLC system.
3.2 System DesIGN 149

Fig. 3.14 Biconvex lens

Fig. 3.15 Biconvex lenses in front of LED, case A

1. When the LED and LENS are perfectly aligned, for LENS with a curvature radius
of 0.3 m, a refractive index of 1.2 and diameter of the biconvex LENS of 0.58 m,
rays converge at a distance (away from the LED) of about 540 cm on the PD’s
surface. The distance between the LED and lens is about 85 cm (Fig. 3.15).
2. With the same scenario, when the LED and LENS are perfectly aligned, with the
same LENS curvature radius of 0.3 m and refractive index of 1.2 with diameter of
150 3 A Hybrid Communication System for Mining Industry. From RequirementS’ Analysis. . .

Fig. 3.16 Biconvex lenses in front of LED, case B

Fig. 3.17 Biconvex lenses in front of LED, case C

Fig. 3.18 Ray tracing according to Phet simulation

3.2 System DesIGN 151

Fig. 3.19 Schematic representation of LED, biconvex lens (LEN) and PD

the biconvex LENS of 0.58 m, moving the biconvex LENS, to the left, closer to
the LED, rays become all parallel (Fig. 3.16) and at the backside to the LED,
image is forming (green rays).
On the other hand, when the refractive index becomes 1.84, with the same
curvature radius of 0.3 m and the diameter of the biconvex LENS 0.3 m, with the
distance between LED and the biconvex LENS of 0.18 m, rays converge on the PD
surface at a distance of 358 cm (Fig. 3.17). This time LED and LENS are not more
perfectly aligned. The image is formed on the PD only when it is placed in the
direction of the rays (with an elevation angle >0 ) formed in this way.
Simulations in Figs. 3.15–3.17 give us insight about the distribution and path of
the rays of light in different scenarios with a biconvex LENS in front of the LED.
In fact, the LED’s aria is much smaller; therefore, the lens diameter has to be
accordingly smaller. Using mathematical models and simulation, taking into account
values closer to the reality, optimum position of LENS related to the LED can be
found.
In Fig. 3.18, a curvature radius 1.37 m, lens refractive index 1.87, diameter of
biconvex LENS 0.76 m and 3.19, a LED, biconvex LENS, and a PD are considered.
Based both on the mathematical model and Fermat’s principle and Snell’s law,
according to the following Fig. 3.19 and demonstration, as well as simulation, the
optimum distance between LED and lens (LEN) can be established with a high level
of accuracy.
a—LED’s semidiameter,
b—PD’s semidiameter,
d—semidiameter (marginal ray) of lens,
f—focal distance of lens,
152 3 A Hybrid Communication System for Mining Industry. From RequirementS’ Analysis. . .

R—radius of curvature (biconvex lens).

d1—distance from LED to lens center (LEN),
d2—distance lens to PD,
c—semi-length of ray in lens,
e—distance from Ob to LED,
g—distance from PD to Im.
Next, will be considered:

cd ð3:8Þ

Since any of the light rays should not be lost, most, or even all the optical power
from LED has to be used.
 
1 1 1 2
¼ ðn  1Þ  ¼ ðn  1Þ ð3:9Þ
f R2 R1 R
R
f ¼ ð3:10Þ
ðn  1Þ2

x1—the left side from the LED, according to convention, has negative value <0

x1 ¼ e þ d 1 ð3:11Þ

Taking into account the similarity of the triangles in Fig. 3.18 results Eq. 3.12.

e a
¼ ð3:12Þ
d1 c  a

For:

a a
tgα ¼ ¼> e¼ ð3:13Þ
e tgα

In case that c ¼ d

e a e ∙ ð d  aÞ a da da
¼ ¼> d1 ¼ ¼ ∙ ¼ ð3:14Þ
d1 d  a a tgα a tgα

From Eq. (3.14)

a da d
¼> x1 ¼ e þ d1 ¼ þ ¼ ð3:15Þ
tgα tgα tgα

As it can be seen in Fig. 3.20, x1 > f.

Taking into account the similarity of the triangles in Fig. 3.21 results Eq. 3.16.
3.2 System DesIGN 153

Fig. 3.20 The two triangles

alike behind lens e

d1

Fig. 3.21 The two triangle

alike in front of lens g
d
b
d2

d  b d2
¼ ð3:16Þ
b g
d2 b
g¼ ð3:17Þ
g
 
d2 b b
x2 ¼ d 2 þ g ¼ d 2 þ ¼ d2 1 þ ð3:18Þ
db db
d
x2 ¼ d 2 ð3:19Þ
db

According to Eq. 3.18

1 1 1
 ¼ ð3:20Þ
x2 x1 f
d  b tgα 1
þ ¼ ð3:21Þ
d2 d d f
f ðd  bÞ
d2 ¼ ð3:22Þ
d  ftanα

Figure 3.22 shows a simulation made with the aim to find the optimum distances
d1 and d2 according to LEDs, LENS’, and PD’s characteristics, positions of LED,
LENS, and PD related to each other, and Snell’s law.
Taking into consideration convention, results d1 ¼ 99 and d2 ¼ 128.6. The
results obtained here based on the mathematical models and simulation constructed
with the support of Simulink are similar with the results simulated with the support
154 3 A Hybrid Communication System for Mining Industry. From RequirementS’ Analysis. . .

Fig. 3.22 Simulation for distances d1 and d2 in case of a biconvex lens placed in front of LED

Fig. 3.23 A plano-

convex lens

of Phet app; therefore, the geometry, dimension, position, and type of lens in front of
LED can be clearly determined for a clean air optical channel.
Depending on the system designed, a proper choice for focusing the light beam
that hits the PD into the oRx is a short focal length plano-convex lens (Fig. 3.23)
which is designed for the peak laser wavelength. The reason is that a well-collimated
beam can be used and neatly readjust the beam into a smaller spot size, reducing the
stray light and improving optical radiation incident onto the oRx.
The plano-convex lens in Fig. 3.22 is designed for 587 nm wavelength with
diameter D ¼ 6 mm, the focal length F ¼ 10 mm, the curvature radius R ¼ 5.2 mm,
and the back focal length is f ¼ 8.3 mm.
Prior to purchasing and testing distinct types of lenses with various characteris-
tics, a very useful tool is the OpticStudio [17] application where the proper optical
system can be simulated. This is one of the most advanced, dedicated optical design
software which allows the user to make an infinite sum of an optical train lenses and
see the results. For example, the OpticStudio Sequential Mode allows a basic process
3.2 System DesIGN 155

of designing a lens, building a dedicated system, analyzing its performance, and

optimizing it for the required prescription and design constraints.
There are a series of specifications (focal length, semi FoV, wavelength, center
thickness of the lens, edge thickness of the lens, and object location) and constraints
of the application when designing and optimizing a single lens made of glass.
The simulator is a calculator that performs the commands given, however,
intrinsic in the design of the program is an optimizer which can pick the best criteria
of selection such as spherical, coma, or astigmatic aberrations. The RMS spot size is
a metric for visually understanding the effects of stray light or aberrations on
detection quality. The smaller the spot size, the more control of the light to focus.
Important features of the OpticStudio packages are the CAD integration, pro-
gramming interface, lighting and illumination design, or data libraries (lenses,
materials, coatings, radiant sources, scatter, or spectrum data files).

The Electrical Drivers

The oTx Electrical Circuit and Simulation with Microcontroller

The first step to be taken into consideration when designing a circuit with LEDs is
that too much current and voltage may damage the LED. The simplest way to protect
a LED is to include a current limiting resistor in series. LEDs have recommended
operating voltage and current, based on which resistance can be calculated using
both Ohm’s and Kirchhoff’s laws.
A very useful and powerful tool, the online EveryCircuit [18] application offers
visual support in order to see, in real time, the LED’s voltage and current displayed
on the oscilloscope, therefore data can be easily plotted and optimum values
identified.
The current can be seen as represented in the circuit simulation with green dots,
since it is a flow of electric charge, such as electrons moving through a wire. Its
amount measured in amperes (A), as well as its direction (defined to be the direction
of the flow of positive charges) is represented on the circuit. A current source of five
amperes, for example, transports five coulombs of charge per second. The online
application EveryCircuit displays, by default, the conventional current and the
moving green dots representing positive charges. Since electrons carry negative
charge, they move in the opposite direction. On the application, the speed and
brightness of the dots represent the amount of current.
The circuits are built using 2 N3904 NPN Silicon transistors and 2SC5200 NPN
Silicon transistors.
The important characteristics of the 2 N3904 NPN Silicon transistor that have to
be taken into consideration for system design are VCC ¼ 3.0 Vdc, VBE ¼ 0.5 Vdc,
IC ¼ 10 mAdc, IB1 ¼ 1.0 mAdc, the – 35 ns).
Its rise time (tr ¼ 35 ns), the storage time (ts ¼ 200 ns), and its fall time (tf ¼ 50 ns)
are also important features to consider.
The diagram and the equivalent test circuits are presented in Fig. 3.24.
156 3 A Hybrid Communication System for Mining Industry. From RequirementS’ Analysis. . .

Fig. 3.24 Diagram and equivalent test circuits for 2 N3094 transistor

Table 3.4 Characteristics of DC Current Gain Min Max

NPN transistor 2N3904
IC ¼ 0.1 mAdc, VCE ¼ 1.0 Vdc hFE 40 –
IC ¼ 1.0 mAdc, VCE ¼ 1.0 Vdc 70 –
IC ¼ 10 mAdc, VCE ¼ 1.0 Vdc 100 300
IC ¼ 50 mAdc, VCE ¼ 1.0 Vdc 60 –
IC ¼ 100 mAdc, VCE ¼ 1.0 Vdc 30 –
Collector–emitter
Saturation voltage
IC ¼ 10 mAdc, IB ¼ 1.0 mAdc VCE – 0.2
IC ¼ 50 mAdc, IB ¼ 5.0 mAdc – 0.3
Base–emitter
Saturation voltage
IC ¼ 10 mAdc, IB ¼ 1.0 mAdc VBE 0.65 0.85
IC ¼ 50 mAdc, IB ¼ 5.0 mAdc – 0.95

Main features, the electrical characteristics, of Q1 2N3904 NPN Silicon transistor

(first on the left in Fig. 3.24) that are important for simulation’s result, are presented
in Table 3.4:
The 2SC5200 NPN epitaxial silicon transistor is a general-purpose amplifier,
manufactured by Toshiba company, with high transition frequency of fT ¼ 30 MHz,
large current IC ¼ 15 A, being ideal for use as complementary transistors in a
Darlington pair configuration for amplifier applications also in applications as
amplifier audio output high fidelity powered 100 W RMS.
The difference between collector and base or emitter can reach up to 230 V,
between base with emitter 5 V, power gain (hFE) between 55 and 160 at VCE ¼ 5 V
and IC ¼ 1 A.
The main electrical characteristics of SC5200N BJT transistor are presented in
Table 3.5:
The electronic circuit uses a Darlington transistor configuration of two NPN
bipolar transistors 2 N3904 and 2SC5200 in order to increase current switching
for a given base current.
3.2 System DesIGN 157

Table 3.5 Characteristics of NPN transistor SC5200N

Characteristics Symbol Unit Max
Collector–emitter breakdown voltage ICBO μA 230
Collector–emitter saturation voltage VCE (sat) V 3
Base emitter voltage VBE V 1.5
Transition frequency fT MHz 30
Collector output capacitance Cob pF 200

The first scenario simulates the use of three cold white LEDs (1 W each) with a
10 KΩ potentiometer in a circuit, in order to determine the LEDs’ highest brightness
and lowest dimming values levels as seen in Figs. 3.25 and 3.26.
Simulation of the electronic circuit of the oTx in this first scenario (with three cold
LEDs of 1 W) is presented in Fig. 3.25.
This first simulation has the main aim to establish the LEDs’ maximum brightness
as well as their dimming, according to the maximum current possible on each LED
(350 mA). All these data are important to identify the cut-off frequency in the
developed VLC system.
On the application screen, all the passive and active elements (potentiometers,
resistances, transistors LEDs, etc.) can be tuned until LED’s both voltage and current
are ideal. On the screen, LED lights up till it has enough current and also indicates
when the current exceeds the nominal by over 2 (Fig. 3.25).
The 10 KΩ potentiometer used into the circuits (Figs. 3.25 and 3.26) is used to
control LEDs’ brightness/dimming level.
Here, the variable resistor (also called potentiometer or pot) has the effect of
reducing/increasing the optical signal; therefore, it acts like a signal’s attenuator/
amplifier.
Beside values already seen on the circuit, data are plotted on each part, as follows:
LED—cold white 1 W (maximum 3.3 V and 350 mA).
R1—potentiometer of 10 KΩ (resistance plotted of 100 Ω).
Q1—NPN transistor with forward beta 32.2 with a 29.6 mA.
Q2—NPN transistor with forward beta 60 with a 1.8 A.
LED 1, 2, and 3—601 mA is higher than 350 mA, the maximum tolerated by our
type of LED
When testing the highest brightness of the three LEDs, at a 12 V supply, the
values above elements are higher than the limit supported by the three LEDs and thus
LEDs are completely damaged, as it can be seen on Fig. 3.25.
At 12 V charge the current is 919 mA for an NPN transistor (Q1) with forward
beta of 12.6 (15.1 mA) and an NPN transistor (Q2) of forward beta of 60 (919 mA),
the current on each of the three LEDs is 306 mA at 2 V.
The circuits above, however, do not use the OOK modulation technique in order
to send wireless data piggybacked by light.
A different design enforces LEDs to flicker at the highest frequency allowed by
their technical characteristics established by the manufacturer.
158 3 A Hybrid Communication System for Mining Industry. From RequirementS’ Analysis. . .

12 V

9.25 V

1.8 A
2.91 V
918 μA

29.6 mA
9.9 kΩ 100 Ω
Q1
918 μA R1

1.8 A

12 V
LED 1 LED 3
2.08 V 0V
601 mA

601 mA

601 mA

LED 2

Fig. 3.25 Simulation of circuit with three LEDs dimming/brightness with overloaded current
on LEDs

Therefore, Fig. 3.26 presents the proper design of the circuit for the purpose
mentioned above.
Designing a proper circuit enforces, first of all, to meet the constraints imposed by
the environment where the system will work.
Since most of the miner’s cap lamp models tested (with the oTx embedded) are
charged at 5 or 3.3 V, the circuit has to be modified accordingly. On the other hand,
there is one cold white LED (1 W) with illumination purpose (positioned into the
3.2 System DesIGN 159

12 V

919 mA
10.2 V
251 A 2.81 V

15.1 mA
36.6 k 370 
251 µA

919 mA

12 V
2V 0V
306 mA
306 mA

306 mA

Fig. 3.26 Simulation of circuit with three LEDs dimming/brightness

center of the illumination box) and four other different LEDs with different other
purposes.
Besides the elements used in Figs. 3.25 and 3.26, different other resistors and
capacitors will be included to reach the goal proposed. Figure 3.27 presents the final
design of the oTx with one white cold LED of 1 W.
Since the main “actor” of the oTx circuit is the LED, according to its character-
istics the entire electronic circuit has to be designed. It is plotted first, as can be seen
in Fig. 3.28.
As the optical receiver, the PIN PD is a blue-enhanced silicon PIN photodiode
with a filter which removes sensitivity to unwanted infrared and a spectral range
between 330 and 720 nm, the LED’s wavelength is settled at 588 mm. Its maximum
voltage is 3.3 V and maximum current is 350 mA. During operation, its current
varies from 100 to 200 mA at 100 Ω R1.
The loading effect is compensated using an R1. This passive device also com-
pensates the potential divider for varying tolerances in the resistors’ construction.
160 3 A Hybrid Communication System for Mining Industry. From RequirementS’ Analysis. . .

Fig. 3.27 Electronic circuits designed and simulated for the oTx driver

Fig. 3.28 LED’s characteristics plotted

The current-limiting resistor (R5) is positioned in the circuit, in series with the
cold white 1 W LED and the transistor’s collector.
The base resistor has a large value relative to the current limiting resistor because
this transistor amplifies base current by a factor of 45 (Fig. 3.29).
Since the simulation application does not allow changing the settings regarding
the resistors’ symbol according to the European one (the rectangle), the resistors’
symbol displayed is the default one in the software Fig. 3.30.
The list of all the passive and active elements used in the electronic circuit
(Fig. 3.31) are:
LED—1 W, max 350 mA, and 3.3 V.
R1—10 KΩ variable resistor.
R2—resistor of 100 KΩ.
3.2 System DesIGN 161

Fig. 3.29 Plotting Q2, the NPN transistor

Fig. 3.30 Plotting Q1, the NPN transistor

R3—200 Ω.
R4—1 KΩ (103 Ω).
R5—4.7 Ω.
C1—polarized 1 nF (109 F).
Q1—2N3904 NPN transistor.
Q2—2SC5200 NPN transistor.
Vin—signal.
Vcc—5 V.
As noted in the 2 N3904 datasheet, the DC current gain hFE may be at least
30 when IC ¼ 100 mA.
To ensure the transistor 2 N3904 saturation, the results from relation 3.24 have to
exceed desired collector current IC Pulse test for 2N3904 is as in.

tp  300 μs and δ  0:02 ð3:23Þ

162 3 A Hybrid Communication System for Mining Industry. From RequirementS’ Analysis. . .

Fig. 3.31 Simulation of the electronic circuit of the oTx with EveryCircuit application

V CC  V BE
hFE  > IC ð3:24Þ
RB

where:
Vcc—5 V.
VBE—Base-emitter saturation voltage.
In Fig. 3.31, the final circuit with the waveform seen on the oscilloscope (at top of
the window) is presented.
The waveform into specific points in the circuit is displayed as in Figs. 3.32–
3.34).
1. the input signal (Vin) colored yellow,
2. the input voltage (Vin) colored blue,
3. the output of LED, colored orange.
Prior to purchasing hardware, when possible, designing, testing, and simulating
the system is preferable to be done using one of many available useful applications.
In order to do this, Proteus ISIS application can be used that has some powerful
tools, including more than 800 types of microcontroller, support many processor
families along with lots of embedded peripherals being a reliable solution for circuit
simulation and PCB professional design allowing to create a proper PCB for the
VLC system.
Arduino programs can be written in Proteus Visual Designer using handy flow-
charting methods and schematic Arduino shields that can be easily placed on
schematic capture design space, then the entire Arduino system can be simulated,
tested, and debugged in this software.
3.2 System DesIGN 163

Fig. 3.32 The yellow waveform of the input signal highlighted

Fig. 3.33 The blue waveform of the input voltage highlighted

The Arduino Uno R3 is a board based on microcontroller ATmega328.

The board has:
1. 14 digital input/output pins:
(a) of which 3, 5, 6, 9, 10, and 11 can be used as PWM outputs,
2. 6 analog inputs
3. power jack,
164 3 A Hybrid Communication System for Mining Industry. From RequirementS’ Analysis. . .

Fig. 3.34 The orange waveform of the LED highlighted

Table 3.6 Arduino Uno’s main characteristics

Microcontroller ATmega328
Operating voltage 5V
Input voltage (recommended) 7–12 V
Input voltage (limits) 6–20 V
DC current per I/O pin 40 mA
DC current for 3.3 V pin 50 mA
Digital I/O pins 14 (where pin 6 provides PWM output)
Analog input pins 6
Clock speed 16 MHz
Flash memory 32 kB (ATmega328) of which 0.5 kB used by bootloader
SRAM 2 kB (ATmega328)
EEPROM 1 kB (ATmega328)

4. 16 MHz crystal oscillator

5. USB connection.
6. ICSP header.
7. reset button.
The technical characteristics (Table 3.6.) of Arduino Uno are essential for the
entire oTx driver:
The oTx of the VLC system can be seen in Fig. 3.35.
When two different software are used for simulation, a Hex file is needed to
program the microcontroller. First, the hex file has to be obtained in Arduino IDE.
Therefore, prior to running the final oTx circuit in application, the code has been
3.2 System DesIGN 165

Fig. 3.35 oTx circuit with Arduino Uno (Proteus ISIS app)

written in Arduino software (authors used 1.8.5 version of Arduino) and prior to
compilation, settings in Preference command are established (Fig. 3.35).
The file has to be saved, and then, in Arduino Preferences (File > > Preferences
or Shortcut key: Ctrl + Comma), the verbose mode for compilation is enabled by
ticking option as shown in Fig. 3.36.
Compiling the code, the HEX file path you will be displayed on the bottom of the
window (Fig. 3.37).
After compilation, the hex file:

Send_EAN_8.ino.hex

will be added into the Proteus Arduino UNO board, as it can be seen in Fig. 3.37 and
then, the oTx module can be tested by simulation (Fig. 3.38).
166 3 A Hybrid Communication System for Mining Industry. From RequirementS’ Analysis. . .

Fig. 3.36 Options in preference

Fig. 3.37 Setting the compilation procedure in Preference (Arduino 1.8.5 app)
3.2 System DesIGN 167

Fig. 3.38 Arduino Uno component edited in ISIS

The oRx Electrical Circuit and Simulation with Microcontroller

Data transmitted by light emitted by LED will be received by the PIN photodetector.
The PIN PD has a specific output current that is converted into voltage. The level of
output current is, generally, directly proportional with the level of illumination.
Right after the PD, on the designed circuit, a Trans Impedance Amplifier (TIA) is
required in order to overcome possible weak photocurrent signals. The longer the
distance between the LED and PD, the weaker is the signal received by the PD.
When the current output of the PD is high, the high noise is also obtained, and
therefore the signal received is proportionally damaged, hence an amplifier circuit is
a suitable approach, even though the oRx will become more complex.
When choosing the suitable PD for the oRx design, both APD and PIN are taken
into consideration since both photoconductive (APD) and photovoltaic (PIN) PDs
have advantages and disadvantages.
The photoconductive PD has a reverse bias, high noise, is nonlinear, and gener-
ates dark current while the photovoltaic PD is linear, without bias, has low noise, and
does not generate dark current.
As PIN PD has low-noise and precision characteristics, it is the preferable type of
PD in the oRx circuit of the VLC system simulated aiming that the data signal
emitted by LED to be received with low-level noise by PD.
Since the oTx module will send data through LED’s light while the cap-lamp user
moves on the main gallery under the oRx with the PIN PD embedded, the relative
radiant sensitivity versus angular displacement is important to be taken into consid-
eration in the proposed VLC positioning and monitoring system.
In this way, it is avoided designing any additional, expensive circuit to minimize
noise and focus on the next stage of the oRx, the amplifier (Op Amp).
168 3 A Hybrid Communication System for Mining Industry. From RequirementS’ Analysis. . .

Fig. 3.39 Basic configuration of Op Amp

An Op Amp detects the difference between two voltage signals (applied to its two
input terminals) and multiplies the signal with a Gain (A) (Eq. 3.25), often referred
as “Open loop gain.” The Op Amp can be controlled by connecting a resistive or
reactive component, between one input and the output terminals.
Op Amps can have one of the two basic configurations, non-inverting and
inverting, as seen in Fig. 3.39.
In case of the non-inverting Op Amp, the Gain is:

V out Rf
A¼ ¼1þ ð3:25Þ
V in Ri

In case of the inverting Op Amp, the Gain is:

V out Rf
A¼ ¼ ð3:26Þ
V in Rin

The first circuit designed for the oRx aims to test accurate sound communication
in order to gain high distance and volume of the sound wave received by the
speakers. This will act as a “witness” receiver during wireless communication
accuracy tests.
The PIN PD used in the first electronic circuit simulation is a BPW20R produced
by Osram company, with the characteristics specified in Table 3.7 and relative
radiant sensitivity versus angular displacement as seen in Fig. 3.40.
The Op Amp-type TL072 used in this design and simulation is manufactured by
Texas Instrument (TI) Inc. Authors use the Multisim application since this software
has many specific tools for simulation before prototyping and the circuit files are also
available.
3.2 System DesIGN 169

Table 3.7 Characteristics of Parameters Values

BPW20R PIN PD
BPW20R
Wavelength (λ0.5) 550–1040 nm
Forward voltage for IF ¼ 50 mA 1.3 V
Short current (ISC) 7.4 μA (1000 lux)
Radiant sensitive area (mm2) 7.5 mm2
Rise time (tr) 3.4 μs
Fall time (tf) 3.7 μs
Reverse voltage 10 VDC (max.)
Half angle (ɸ)
50
Dark current (IR) 2 nA
Capacitance (C) VR ¼ 0 V, f ¼ 1 MHz 1.2 nF
Capacitance (C) VR ¼ 5 V, f ¼ 1 MHz 400 pF

Fig. 3.40 Relative radiant sensitivity versus angular displacement

TL072 is a JFET-input Op Amp that has low input bias and offset currents and
fast slew rate, with low harmonic distortion and low noise.
The most important features of the Op Amp taken into consideration for the first
circuit are the Gain bandwidth product (GBWP) (3 MHz), maximum power supply
(18 VDC), the number of channels (Ch.) (2), and the maximum output voltage
(VoutMax.) (VDC ¼ 12), for high band with a cutoff frequency fc ¼ 3 MHz.
Main characteristics of TL072 amplifier (that we considered in case of this project
to reach our goal) are presented in Table 3.8.
Limiting the key factors, as high data rate and high distance between oTx and oRx
in the setup, also limit the bandwidths of the PIN PD and the use of a simple
operational amplifier and therefore a low-cost circuit. Simulation of the oRx with
Op-Amp TL072 is presented in Fig. 3.41.
170 3 A Hybrid Communication System for Mining Industry. From RequirementS’ Analysis. . .

Table 3.8 TL072 parameters Parameters Values

OP-AMP type TL072
Large signal voltage amplification 50–200 V/mV
Rise and fall time 1.5 ns
Gain bandwidth product (GBWP) 140 kHz (Vout ¼ 10)
Voltage noise density (en) 8 nV/√Hz (30 Hz)
Current noise density (in) 2.7 fA/√Hz (30 Hz)
Slew rate 290 V/us
OP-AMP saturation (RL ¼ 100 Ω)
10 V
Supply current (ICC) 2.5 mA
Input offset current 5–100 pA
Input bias current 65–200 pA

Fig. 3.41 Simulation of the oRx with Op-Amp TL072

We have tested the second circuit of the oRx (Fig. 3.42) to gain high accuracy of
data transmitted at the highest distance (between oTx and oRx) with the best
attainable BER.
The PIN PD used into the electronic circuit simulation is a planar silicon
photodiode into a recessed ceramic package that incorporates an infrared rejection
filter. The diode has very high shunt resistance and a good blue response.
The electro-optical characteristics of the VTB8440B PIN PD are specified in
Table 3.9.
The Op Amp type NE5532P is used in this second design and simulation. It is
also used Multisim application, to simulate the electronic circuit.
NE5532P is a dual Op Amp with low noise and high performance. NE5532P has
improved output drive capability and small signal with power bandwidths.
The most important features of the NE5532P Op-Amp are presented in
Table 3.10.
3.2 System DesIGN 171

Fig. 3.42 Simulation of the oRx electronic circuit in Multisim with Op-Amp NE5532P

Table 3.9 PIN PD VTB8440B

Parameters Symbol Values
VTB8440B
Spectral application range λrange 330–720 nm
Open circuit voltage H ¼ 100 fC, 2850 K Voc 420 mV
Peak of spectral response λp 580 nm
Dark current ID 2000 pA
Radiant sensitive area A 5.16 mm2
Junction capacitance CJ 1 nF
Angular response (degrees) Θ1/2
50
Breakdown voltage VBR 10 VDC (max.)
Specific detectivity D* 2.2  1012 cm √Hz/W
Noise equivalent power NEP 1.1  1013 W/√Hz

Table 3.10 Op Amp NE5532 Features Values

Large signal voltage range
3 to 20 V
DC voltage gain 50,000
Large signal voltage gain 50–100 V/mV
Power bandwidth 140 kHz
Input noise voltage 5.0 nV/√Hz
Slew rate 9 V/μs
Supply current (ICC) 2.5 mA
Small signal bandwidth 10 MHz
172 3 A Hybrid Communication System for Mining Industry. From RequirementS’ Analysis. . .

Table 3.11 Arduino Mega’s characteristics

Microcontroller ATmega2560
Operating voltage 5V
DC current per I/O pin 40 mA
DC current for 3.3 V pin 50 mA
Input voltage (recommended) 7–12 V
Input voltage (limits) 6–20 V
Digital I/O pins 54 (of which 14 provide PWM output)
Analog input pins 16
Clock speed 16 MHz
Flash memory 256 kB of which 8 kB used by bootloader
SRAM 8 kB
EEPROM 4 kB

The voltage operational amplifier circuit is placed between the PIN PD and the
microcontroller embedded on the Arduino board.
For simulation the Arduino Mega board based on microcontroller ATmega 2560
is used.
The board has:
1. 54 digital input/output pins
1. of which 14 can be used as PWM outputs,
2. 16 analog inputs
3. a power jack,
4. a 16 MHz crystal oscillator,
5. 4 UARTs (hardware serial ports)
6. USB connection.
7. an ICSP header.
Universal Asynchronous Reception and Transmission (UART)—communication
protocol permits Arduino board to serially communicate with other devices. UART
system communicates with digital pin 0 (RX), digital pin 1 (TX), and with another
computer via the Universal Serial Bus (USB) port.
The In-Circuit Serial Programming (ICSP) is a protocol used to programme
microcontrollers and pins are used to update the firmware or reinstall a bootloader.
Technical characteristics (Table 3.11) of Arduino Mega are essential for the entire
oTx driver:
More performant microcontrollers with more advanced functions can be used in
order to upgrade the system performance that is simulated here [19].
With the same two different software used for simulation, the Hex file is also
needed to program the microcontroller. First, the hex file is obtained in Arduino IDE.
Therefore, prior to running the final oTx circuit in application, the code has been
written in Arduino software and prior to compilation, settings in Preference
3.2 System DesIGN 173

Fig. 3.43 Verbose output during compilation display

command are established. The file is saved, and then, in Arduino the verbose mode
for compilation is enabled by ticking option as shown in Fig. 3.43. Simulation in
Proteus ISIS app of oRx with Arduino Mega and TL072 are presented in Figs. 3.44
and 3.45, and settings with simulation of the oRx circuit with Arduino Mega and
NE5532P is presented in Fig. 3.46.

Channel Model and its Optical Impulse Response

The effort of designing the complete VLC system for local wireless communication
in an underground mine is a challenging one. Not only the oTx and oRx have to be
properly designed but the environmental conditions and the optical medium have to
be carefully considered. Therefore, the effects of lights’ dispersion, the optical signal
attenuation, and scattering due to polluted environment, have to be all taken into
consideration to avoid a significant limitation of the system’s performance. An
appropriate oTx driver setup with proper optics, as well as proper optics in front of
PD can significantly mitigate the effects of optical beam dispersion and optical signal
loss.
An accurate visible light communication channel model applied to the under-
ground mine, or at least as close as possible to a real model of the optical channel
174 3 A Hybrid Communication System for Mining Industry. From RequirementS’ Analysis. . .

Fig. 3.44 Arduino Mega and oTx (Proteus ISIS app)

with all its particular characteristics is also critical to be well defined and developed
when we design a wireless transmission system based on VLC.
The optical channel for visible light is a time-invariant, linear, and memoryless
system and its impulse response has a finite duration [20].
When high data rates have to be achieved, in case that the signal bandwidth goes
outside of the channel coherence high and low bandwidth limits, the optical signal
suffers from slow fading. In this case, the optical channel can be modeled as
frequency selective due to light’s dispersion.
The light distribution indoor has been already simulated on computer for different
topologies (LoS or NLoS) and many ray tracing algorithms (such as Monte Carlo
Ray Tracing—MTRC, modified MCRT, or deterministic algorithms, such as Barry’s
3.2 System DesIGN 175

Fig. 3.45 Settings for simulation the oRx circuit with TL072

Fig. 3.46 VLC setup for a LoS topology underground

algorithm, etc.) have been tested and demonstrated. Some of the most important
findings when investigating the visible-light wireless communication channel are the
RMS DS, Path Loss (PL), BER/SNR. Using MCRT algorithm for a clear demon-
stration of the ray distribution (both in LoS and NLoS topologies) the results showed
that the PL (in dB) is linear over logarithmic distance and (in both LoS and NLoS
topologies) its range starts at 27 dB and ends at 80 dB. RMS DS has been proved
to be between 1.3 and 12 ns for LoS links and between 7 and 13 ns for NLoS
links [20].
176 3 A Hybrid Communication System for Mining Industry. From RequirementS’ Analysis. . .

Fig. 3.47 Settings for simulation the oRx circuit with NE5532P

Monte Carlo ray-tracing algorithm allows an accurate evaluation of CIR for

environments with complex geometries and indoors where high numbers of reflec-
tions are necessary to be considered. IR and visible light wireless channel and its
impulse response have been already investigated indoor for isotropic (clean air
without any particles in suspension) indoor environments. Many attempts for CIR
evaluation under noisy (bright sun) and harsh meteorological conditions outdoors
(fog, rain, snow) have also been investigated and the remote optical wireless
communication has been demonstrated with promising results [21, 22].
Computer numerical simulations, in spite of high time and resources consumed,
have been presented and mathematical models have been established, taking into
account one, two, or a finite number of straight light rays, or rays that bounce from
the obstacles indoor, such as ceiling, floor, or different static or moving obstacle
inside a room with furniture with different geometries, colors, and type of surfaces.
In Fig. 3.47, the geometry of an LoS topology with light propagation model in a
local wireless communication system in visible light is represented (with incident
and refracted rays), between the miner’s helmet cap-lamp and the illumination
infrastructure.
According to the second chapter of this book, where the mathematical model for
the indoor visible light channel model has been presented, the key characteristics
considered for the optical channel model simulated in case of the underground VLC
setup proposed, are presented in Table 3.12.
3.2 System DesIGN 177

Table 3.12 Characteristics considered for the optical channel [23]

Nr. Characteristic Symbol M.U. Value
1 Semi-angle of half power (see Fig. 2.12) φ 0
45
3 Transmitted optical power by LED Ptot Lm 80
4 Active area of PD APD mm2 5.15
5 Refractive index of a lens at PD Index – 1.55
6 FoV of the PD FoV Degrees 45
7 Dimensions of the underground considered Lxlxh m 2.2  2  3
(see Fig. 3.47)
8 Distance between LED and PD d m 1.470
9 Position of PD related to LED XT, YT m 2, 1.25

Fig. 3.48 Results of the first scenario simulated

First Scenario of Simulation

In this first scenario, neither gain of an optical filter nor gain of an optical
concentrator in front of PD is taken into consideration (see Fig. 3.48).
The Lambertian order of emission is:

m ¼  log 10ð2Þ= log 10ðcosdðfiÞÞ ð3:27Þ

Channel DC gain from source (according to equation in chap. 2), in this first
scenario considered, is:
 
H LoS ¼ ðm þ 1Þ  APD:cosphi LoS:ðmþ1Þ = 2  pi:  d1:2 ð3:28Þ

Power received from source, according to Eq. 2.38, in this first scenario, is:
178 3 A Hybrid Communication System for Mining Industry. From RequirementS’ Analysis. . .

P rec ¼ P total:  H LoS ð3:29Þ

The Second Scenario of Simulation

In this second scenario gain of an optical filter is taken into consideration but gain of
an optical concentrator in front of PD is not taken into consideration (see Fig. 3.49).
Ts—optical transmission of the band-pass filter.
Channel DC gain from source, for this second scenario considered is:
 
H LoS ¼ Ts  ðm þ 1Þ  APD:cosphi LoS:ðmþ1Þ := 2  pi:  d1:2 ð3:30Þ

Power received from source, according to Eq. 2.38 in this first scenario, is:

P rec ¼ P total:  H LoS  Ts ð3:31Þ

The Third Scenario of Simulation

In this third scenario both gain of an optical filter and gain of an optical concen-
trator in front of PD are taken into consideration (Fig. 3.50).
Gain of the optical concentrator is:

Fig. 3.49 Results of the second scenario simulated

3.2 System DesIGN 179

Fig. 3.50 Results of the third scenario simulated in Octave

 
G Con ¼ index:2 = sin ðFoVÞ ð3:32Þ

Channel DC gain from source, for this second scenario considered is:

H LoS ¼ G con  Ts  ðm þ 1Þ
 
 APD:cosphi LoS:ðmþ1Þ := 2  pi:  d1:2 ð3:33Þ

Power received from source is:

P rec ¼ P total:  H LoS  Ts:  G Con ð3:34Þ

As can be seen, after the three scenarios simulated in Octave, according to

mathematical models presented in Chap. 2, the optical power is first improved due
to the lens in front of LED (Fig. 3.49) and then with optical filter and optical
concentrator added in front of PD, as can be seen in Fig. 3.50.
All figures above, from 3.27–3.34, are presented as written in Octave editor.
Following simulation in three different scenarios, the channel gain is as follows:

First Scenario of Simulation (Fig. 3.46)

Power received by PD from LED is about: 32 dBm

180 3 A Hybrid Communication System for Mining Industry. From RequirementS’ Analysis. . .

Second Scenario of Simulation (Fig. 3.48)

Power received by PD from LED is about: 27 dBm

Third Scenario of Simulation (Fig. 3.49)

Power received by PD from LED is about: 22 dBm

In order to simulate, in three different situations, the optical power distribution
and CIR, we used GNU Octave, a high-level language, for numerical computations
that provide a convenient command line interface for solving linear and nonlinear
problems numerically. Octave has extensive tools for solving common numerical
linear algebra problems, finding the roots of nonlinear equations, integrating ordi-
nary functions, manipulating polynomials, and integrating ordinary differential and
differential-algebraic equations. It is easily extensible and customizable via user-
defined functions written in Octave’s own language, or using dynamically loaded
modules written in C++, C, Fortran, or other languages [24].
As a first conclusion, for the same LoS topology in a similar FoV scenario,
considering the same environment and also unchanged position of both LED and
PD, with optical filter and lens added in front of the PD, the optical power gained is
definitely improved.
A complex analysis from the channel’s optical behavior point of view has to be
done prior to deploying a VLC system for local wireless data transmission since the
underground environment has some benefits as well as drawbacks.

Benefits

The lack of natural light and a tiny level of artificial light from different other sources
(as lighting fixtures from the illumination infrastructure or the mining equipment) is
an advantage underground, since the AWGN that has to be considered, is very low.
The underground link length is relatively short because the distance between the
miners’ helmet cap-lamp and the illumination network is also short.
Position and inclination of the oTx relative to oRx can be clearly determined to
set up an LoS topology with the shortest distance between LED and PD with a well-
known elevation angle.
The predominant color underground is black and gray, the light absorption being
very high, the NLoS ray acquisition is negligible and the few ray bounces and their
low energy do not influence the signal strength of the main optical beam light.
Most of the materials underground are metal, wood, or rock with top roughness
surfaces, therefore just a few light’ bounces can be considered and tested for an
NLoS optical gain with the specific refractive indexes [25].
3.2 System DesIGN 181

Drawbacks

The primary restraint of this VLC system for UO&M is to keep the scattered light
beam from LED, wide enough to illuminate the worker’s path and as much as narrow
to focus the ray of light onto the oRx and preserve as much as possible from the data
stream sent. The optimal LEDs’ inclination has to be determined as to illuminate the
workers’ path and send useful data to the roof of the gallery where the oRxs are
placed, embedded into the illumination network or into the optical fiber that acts like
the backbone of the communication system already installed into the underground of
most of the modern mining companies.
Another important drawback, difficult to be proper estimated in this moment, is
the velocity, density, individual configuration (geometrical irregular shape), and
composition (mixture of dust, coal, moisture) of the suspended particles in the
optical path of the light beam that scatter and absorb the light wave and decrease
the optical beam energy.
The optical path medium is highly influenced by this polluted environment with
tiny suspended particles of coal and rock with different dimensions, shape, and grade
of humidity; therefore, light scattering and absorption, as well as extinction coeffi-
cient, are difficult to be calculated based on present mathematical models [25],
difficult to estimate or simulate with numerical methods and powerful machines.
While simple analytic expressions exist for the absorption and scattering proper-
ties of dust grains which are either very small or very large compared to the
wavelength of the incident radiation, however, suspended and mixt particles of
coal and rock produced by machinery underground during operation, have
nonspherical, irregular shapes.
The relation between incident light intensity and transmission light intensity can
be expressed as follows [26]:
  1:5 CDK e
I ¼ I φ, I ω e d ð3:35Þ

where:
C—concentration of the suspended particles in the unit volume (/cm3)
D—light path/distance between oTx and oRx (cm)
φ—incidence angle
ω—refracted angle
Ke—the light extinction coefficient

total energy scattered and absorbed per unit time

k e ¼ Qsca þ Qabs ¼ ð3:36Þ
incident energy per unit area per unit time

where:
Qsca—light-scattering coefficient
Qabs—light absorption coefficient
182 3 A Hybrid Communication System for Mining Industry. From RequirementS’ Analysis. . .

The extinction coefficient (ke), due to many variable underground, cannot be

accurately calculated according to Eq. 3.37:

ln IIri
ke ¼ λ ð3:37Þ
4πmt

where:
λ—wavelength
Ir—intensity of light at destination
Ii—intensity of light at source
mt—medium thickness
Therefore, numerical simulations and practical tests have to be conducted to
determine the extinction coefficient for different scenarios in the underground
polluted environment both far and in the proximity of the working spaces where
machinery operates, in order to estimate the proper work of the VLC system design
and develop an adaptive system. The proper design of the optics, both in front of
LED and in front of the PIN PD, is clearly very important, from this point of view,
as well.

3.3 System Implementation

3.3.1 Hardware Implementation

We have established a general frame with a specific set of the system requirements at
the beginning of the project. We also completed the simulation of both transmission
module and the reception one. The oTx module consisting of the electrical board, the
electronic PCB with microcontroller, the light emitter, and its optical system as well
as the oRx module with the electrical board with TIA, the electronic PCB with
microcontroller, the photodetector and the appropriate filter and optics have been
also completed. The necessary key characteristics for a solid, reliable local wireless
VLC transmission for the UP&MS proposed have been also highlighted. We have
also analyzed the underground characteristics with the polluted environment and
optical medium with their key properties as well as the multiple effects of the
suspended particles on the optical signal in an LoS topology.

oTx Module

The miner’s cap lamp is projected to have two functions: illumination and data
communication. The primary functionality that has to be considered is illumination.
Wireless data communication is the secondary function of the miner’s cap lamp;
3.3 System Implementation 183

therefore, design and prototyping have to take into consideration these both func-
tions, each with a proper, balanced importance.
According to records and conclusions of the Mine Safety and Health Responsible
Bodies worldwide, because the quality of the illumination is low, many accidents
happen underground during shifts. Lighting, especially from the miners’ helmet
cap-lamp, plays a critical role for miners as they visually inspect the mine roof, ribs,
back, and floor on their moving path to avoid hazards. Objects on this path
associated with these hazards are typically of very low contrast and reflectivity.
There are also age-related factors that require a better quality of light. The night
vision of the elder workers is also reduced because there are changes in the eye that
include decreased pupil size, cloudier lens, and fewer rod photoreceptors that are
very sensitive to light [27].
When the proper optical source for the system designed has to be selected, a
comparison between most of the off-the-shelf LEDs, and semiconductor LDs
(SLDs), with their key characteristics, is not only useful but necessary.
The optical spectral width of a LED is between 25 and 100 nm and the one of an
SLD is situated between 0.01 and 5 nm. As for the electrical to optical conversion,
the LED’s efficiency is not more than 20% when the SLD’s efficiency is between
30 and 70%.
LEDs are low temperature-dependent while SLD is high temperature-dependent.
The drive and control circuitry for LED are simple to use and control while SLDs
need a threshold and temperature compensation circuitry. LEDs experience higher
harmonic distortions than SLDs. When LEDs are used as emitters, at the oRx filter is
wide, increasing the noise and in case of SLDs, the filter is narrow, thus the additive
noise is low. Finally, the most off-the-shelf LEDs have low cost while SLDs are
more expensive [23].
There are few key characteristics of LEDs as benefits but there are also some
drawbacks that have to be taken into consideration in order to select the most suitable
LED. So, evaluating all these key characteristics, trade-offs are necessary to be done,
here also.
LEDs have to flicker (blink—ON/OFF) with a frequency not visible by eye
(preferable higher than 1 kHz).
The frequency response of the off-the-shelf white LEDs is not listed by manu-
facturers thus making the selection and verification hard to implement. And, further
amplification on the oTx is certainly possible for the brightness with a correct
electrical design [28].
White LEDs with a yellow phosphor layer usually have a slow response and the
cut-off frequency between 1 and 5 MHz.
Off-the-shelf standard LEDs (red, blue, green, white, IR, UV) have cutoff
frequency between 10 and 50 MHz (sine wave). The cutoff frequency is the
maximum frequency at which LED drops at half level from its initial light intensity.
The rise time of LED is highly affected by its maximum intensity. On the other
hand, low intensity increases the rise time but a low intensity shortens the link length
and therefore the VLC setup efficiency. Then again, high intensity needs more
power. More power is not allowed in lighting systems underground.
184 3 A Hybrid Communication System for Mining Industry. From RequirementS’ Analysis. . .

Fig. 3.51 LEDs panel

Fig. 3.52 Different types of LEDs tested

The ability to use a white LED as a modulating RF transmitter is from the fact that
the LEDs modulation bandwidth is capable of a few MHz and after some equaliza-
tion techniques over 30 MHz [29].
The LED in a VLC system is a major source of nonlinearity that is important
when analog OFDM modulating signal is used because it degrades the bipolar time
domain DCO-OFDM signal through amplitude distortion, clipping of the lower
peaks, and clipping of the upper peaks. Selecting an LED with high AC/pulsed
current level enhances the performance. Considering an LED with low voltage-
current slope characteristics, the error performance is improved [30].
Before the setup of the oTx presented here is final, many types of LEDs, array of
LEDs, PIN PDs, and solar panels have been first tested with a prototype designed
and manufactured with the aim to send sound. This was the “witness” prototype for
the final designed prototype, the one for wireless data communication.
Some LED arrays (as, e.g., the one in Fig. 3.51) have been tested with the sound
transmission system, used as the “witness” prototype of the wireless communication
through visible light.
There have been tested may types of LEDs. Some of them, presented in Fig. 3.52
such as VLHW4100 from VISHAY (a), LL-HP60MW1L-S (b) from LUCKY
LIGHT, P001L4Z11 from TDS (with three LEDs embedded), and VLHW4100
(d) from VISHAY and array of LEDs.
The LED used in the wireless VLC prototype is an SMD one placed on a cooler
(VLHW4100) (see Figure 3.52d and 3.53).
3.3 System Implementation 185

Fig. 3.53 LED’s dimensions

The circuit of the oTx with the 1 W white cold LED and component track lead
capacitance and inductance have to be kept to a minimum, to be able to drive the
LED up to 1 MHz.
This LED used with such circuit can be a feasible choice without other complex
pulse-shaping oTx drive circuits or with very short lead lengths.
The LED has 4.5 mm diameter and its transparent cover is 4.6 mm high. These
dimensions are important when determining the optimum distance between the LED
and lens in front of the LED.
The LED’s key characteristics embedded in the present VLC prototype are
presented below.
1. VF: min 3.0 V max 3.6 V.
2. Luminous Intensity: 90–110 lumen.
3. Max current 350 mA.
4. CCT (color temperature): between 3200 and 3500 K.
Beside LED, many other parts of the designed system have to be taken into
consideration, together with the performance and limitation of the designed elec-
tronic circuit as well as the microcontroller used that is embedded in the Arduino
Uno board. The board has a maximum allowable voltage of 5 V, maximum current
output of 1 A, and can send a square wave with the maximum frequency of 50 kHz.
ATmega328p type of microcontroller has been used for prototyping and testing the
oTx setup designed for the UP&MS.
Transistors used for designing and prototyping the oTx of the VLC system are
2 N3904 and 2SC5200 as presented in Fig. 3.54.
The electronic circuit of oTx temporary fixed on breadboards can be seen in
Figure 3.55a, b.
The same oTx circuit tested with LED is presented in Fig. 3.56.
186 3 A Hybrid Communication System for Mining Industry. From RequirementS’ Analysis. . .

COLLECTOR C COLLECTOR
3
B
2
BASE
BASE
E
EMITTER
1
EMITTER
MARKING DIAGRAM

MARKING DIAGRAMS

2N
3903
1 YWW
2
3 2SC5200
2N3904
Y = Year Base (1)
WW = Work Week Emitter (3)
Collector (2)

Fig. 3.54 Transistors 2 N3904 and 2SC5200

Fig. 3.55 oTx with LED array panel

The oTx circuit on board tested with LED is presented in Fig. 3.57.
To keep the systems’ cost low, the Arduino Uno R3 board with microcontroller
ATmega328 is also used for the oTx for testing purpose.
3.3 System Implementation 187

Fig. 3.56 oTx breadboard

with LED

Fig. 3.57 oTx board

oRx Module

One of the most important components of the entire design is the PD. Unlike the
LED, a PIN photodiode must be reversed biased in order to function properly. Most
PDs require a significant amount of voltage. In this scenario, there are several
approaches, the first involves testing a number of solar panels and then PDs that
have a very broad acceptance range, making it suitable for any kind of LED emitter.
The second step was to test a number of PDs and pick a PD that is very narrow in its
range with low cost and acceptable performance.
A number of panels with photocells (solar panels) were under test to check the
distance and accuracy of the sound in the first designed system. However, for a high
accurate VLC system for data transmission, they are not suitable since they are not
high-frequency light sensing. Both the rise and fall time are too long (order of tens to
hundreds of milliseconds).
188 3 A Hybrid Communication System for Mining Industry. From RequirementS’ Analysis. . .

Fig. 3.58 Types of photocell panels tested

A diode is a two-terminal component that has low resistance to current flowing in

one direction and high resistance to current in the opposite direction. A silicon diode
starts to conduct current when the forward voltage across it exceeds the threshold of
about 0.6–0.7 V.
Most of the off-the-shelf photocells spreadsheets indicate 60 ms rise time and
25 ms fall time, therefore, the highest frequency they can handle is below 11 H,
meaning these values for high data rates necessary for the VLC system designed are
not the targeted ones.
Datasheets of the PIN PDs indicate the rise and fall times. For example, most of
the regular PDs, for 100 ns rise/fall times (each) would tolerate maximum of 5 MHz
signaling. So, keeping the value into a safety path, 1 MHz would be adequate for a—
not very performant, but a functional, reliable, and low cost—VLC system.
On the other hand, both photodiodes and phototransistors are favorite options for
sensing high-speed light pulses at low to moderate intensity (when we consider a
short or medium–long distance from the LED source).
For high signaling speeds and lower signal intensity, from cheap to quite expen-
sive high-speed Silicon Avalanche Photodiodes (Si APD) are available on the
market (as, e.g., APD C30902—about 50$ or PDA36A—above 900$).
Si APD C30902 series (Silicon and InGaAs APD Preamplifier Modules) have fall
time and rise time of 0.5 ns, allowing a 1 GHz signal and with a light entry angle of
130 .
Although way beyond the PIN PD’s key characteristics, the APD additively
needs a high voltage power supply to compensate the large temperature variations
that would greatly impose on its constant responsivity over temperature.
PDA15A–Si is a switchable Gain Detector with wavelength from 350 to
1100 nm, 10 MHz BW, the active area of 0.018 mm2, impulse response of 1 ns
(FWHM—full width at half maximum). Such improved values of fall and rise time,
though, are not useful since they are way beyond the LED can support.
The optical power of the signal sent does not affect the dimension of the PD’s
sensitive area. The noise, on the other hand, is inversely proportional to the square
root of the PD’s sensitive area. The ratio between signal and noise is proportional to
the square root of the PD’s photosensitive area.
3.3 System Implementation 189

Fig. 3.59 Different types of PD tested

PACKAGE DIMENSIONS mm
1.78 7.87
3.60NOM.
1.52 MINIMUM
CATHODE

8.00 5.00 NOM

5.00 NOM.
7.75

6.00 0.25 0.46

MAX. DIA. NOM.
5.74
FILTER PROJECTION

CASE 21F 8 mm CERAMIC

CHIP ACTIVE AREA: 5.16 mm2)

Fig. 3.60 PIN PD used for the oRx in the VLC system

As a conclusion, when the emitted signal intensity from LED is high enough,
using suitable lenses, with a signal bandwidth not very high, then an acceptable VLC
system can be designed and manufactured with signaling frequencies of hundreds of
kilohertz, or even up to megahertz depending on the specific LED’s characteristics
used as emitter.
Many types of photocell panels have been tested, two of them as seen in Fig. 3.58.
There have also been tested many types of PIN PDs and APDs, some of them
presented in Fig. 3.59 (BPW34 (a), VEMD5510C (b) from VISHAY, VTB8440BH
(c) and VTB8440BH PHOTODIODE, IR FILTERED 85414090 (d).
Since the optimum choice of LEDs are those with short wavelengths due to their
advantages (improved peripheral motion detection, reduce disability glare for older
workers, and avoid easily any floor hazard due to early detection), PDs have to be
able to detect light with this wavelength.
The most suitable choice from all the alternatives presented above is PIN PD
VTB8440BH Photodiode, IR Filtered 85,414,090 as can be seen in Fig. 3.60.
An operational amplifier (Op-Amp), used mostly in analog electronics, is an
integrated circuit that amplifies the difference between two input voltages and pro-
duces a single output. Fundamentally is a voltage amplifying device designed to be
used with external components (such as resistors and capacitors) between its output
and input terminals. These feedback components determine the resulting function or
190 3 A Hybrid Communication System for Mining Industry. From RequirementS’ Analysis. . .

Fig. 3.61 Op Amps tested and used in VLC system

Fig. 3.62 oRx circuit on

breadboard tested with solar
panel

“operation” of the amplifier and by virtue of the different feedback configurations

whether resistive, capacitive, or both, the amplifier can perform a variety of different
operations [31].
The proposed oRx circuit uses a TIA, which converts current (from the photodi-
ode) into voltage, and then amplifies the signal.
There are many amplifiers on the market and also a broad literature that compares
the available amplifiers on the market taking into account their key characteristics
applicable for a functional VLC system [32].
The key characteristics of an amplifier to consider for a suitable VLC system are:
1. the input capacitance (Cin) from (Cdiff + Ccomm) [pF],
2. rise and fall time [ns],
3. gain bandwidth product (GBWP) [MHz],
4. voltage noise density (en) [nV/√Hz] (>100 kHz),
5. current noise density (in) [fA/√Hz] (>100 kHz),
6. slew rate [V/us];
7. saturation (RL ¼ 100 Ω)  [V].
The GBWP must be at least 50–60% of the value specified on the op amp’s
datasheet [33].
Op Amps tested for the first circuits are LM386 and TL072 and the one finally
choose for the VLC system in the oRx module is NE5532 (Fig. 3.61).
3.3 System Implementation 191

Fig. 3.63 Both oRx circuits on breadboards

Fig. 3.64 Both oRx circuits on boards

The first two (LM 386 and TL072) were used for the sound communication and
the third one (NE5532) has been used for the oRx in the VLC prototype.
The system designed aims to send data to a distance between 1200 and 1450 mm
in underground spaces with clean as well as polluted environment (particles of coal
and rock suspended in the air) that is to be found close to the working room due to
material cutting. The string of data to be sent is quite short and simple (EAN 8 code)
embedded into the miner’s cap lamp as its own ID.
The first circuit with solar panel for the oRx is presented in Fig. 3.62.
The second circuit with PIN PD for the oRx is presented in Fig. 3.63.
The final circuit on board with PIN PD for the oRx is presented in Fig. 3.64.
The Arduino Mega board based on microcontroller ATmega 2560 is used for
the oRx.
The LED of the lamp continuously sends its own code (ID lamp) when the
personnel that wear the cap-lamp on her/his helmet is moving through the main
gallery. Therefore, the final prototype that aims to test and prove the concept has the
oTx on wheels to be able to be moved during tests.
The entire prototype realized for data communication is presented in Fig. 3.65.
The oTx module (left in Fig. 3.65) has the LED-type VLHW4100 from Vishay and
oRx module (right in Fig. 3.65) has the PIN PD type VTB8440BH with IR filtered.
192 3 A Hybrid Communication System for Mining Industry. From RequirementS’ Analysis. . .

Fig. 3.65 The final prototype (left oTx and right oRx) under test

Both modules are aligned in an LoS topology, positioned at about 500 mm apart
and the oTx is moved further during the test to determine the longest distance
possible achieved for data accuracy communication.
Data sent/received during tests is displayed on the laptop’s screen.
During tests, with this raw, low-cost manufactured prototype, the greatest dis-
tance achieved between the oTx and oRx, while communication is still possible, is
400 mm.
The next step for the prototyped system is to realize both circuits (oTx and oRx)
on PCBs. This phase must be carefully developed since any designing that is
incorrect can make circuits unstable because of the parasitic inductance and capac-
itance generated at high frequency by the PCB traces [32].

3.3.2 Software Implementation

The UP&MS consists of a hybrid communication network where the local wireless
transmission is based on visible light and the remote transmission relies on a cabled
network.
In this section, the focus is on the wireless local transmission through visible
light. The algorithm used with flowcharts, frames, and packets is going to be
presented in this work from now on.
3.3 System Implementation 193

Fig. 3.66 Odd, even, and

CRC positions of the digits
on the bar code, an example

The EAN-8 barcode that is stored into the oTx is continuously sent by the miners’
helmet cap-lamp while the workers are underground and the lamp is ON. Although
the checksum (CS) algorithm does not verify the authenticity of data received, the
checksum used here as the EAN-8 barcode, aims to verify the data integrity.
This is the best choice considered in order to keep the system simple and efficient.
In order to verify the correct barcode, the algorithm to check data integrity,
therefore any error (presented in the Fig. 3.66 as example), is the following:
STEP 1—All digits situated on odd (O) positions are added together:
2 + 4 + 6 + 8 ¼ 20
STEP 2—The result is multiplied by 3:
20  3 ¼ 60
STEP 3—All digits situated on even (E) positions are added together:
3 + 5 + 7 ¼ 15
STEP 4—Digits resulted in steps 2 and 3 are added together:
60 + 15 ¼ 75.

Since the control digit is a result of a modulo 10 calculations, CS obtained is the

difference between step 4 and the next tenth number:
75 + CS ¼ 80
therefore
CS ¼ 80  75 ¼ 5.
The CS algorithms, as the one in EAN-8 is used, are techniques that handle errors
with feedback. A CS is a many-to-one mapping of a large amount of data into a sum,
as for 8, 16, or 32 bits.
Usually, in most systems, the transmitter (T ) and receiver (R) calculate CS of the
data in the packet. The T calculates the CS before sending a packet and appends the
CS at the end of the packet and the R also computes CS over the packet data and
194 3 A Hybrid Communication System for Mining Industry. From RequirementS’ Analysis. . .

Fig. 3.67 Flowchart of

the oTx START

INPUT DEFAULT
ID EAN-8 CODE

CONVERT ID FROM
DECIMAL TO
BINARY FORMAT

SEND START BITS

READ COTINUOSLY
ALL BITS ONE BY
ONE

NO IF YES
LED OFF LED ON
BIT =1

DELAY 1 DELAY 1
second second

NO BITS ARE
ALL SEND

YES
SEND STOP BITS

STOP

compares it to the CS appended to the transmitted packet. When the CS matched, the
R sends an acknowledgment to the T. In case that CS doesn’t match, means that
errors during transmission occurred and no acknowledgment is sent. In this case, the
T resends the packet.
However, there is a limitation of the CS. Since CS is a many-to-one mapping,
there are several versions of the same string with the same CS, misleading the R.
CS algorithms are therefore designed to decrease as much as possible the
probability of happening, not to eliminate it. When data (lamp ID) are stored, the
EAN-8 code of each lamp is converted in binary as can be seen in the code written in
C++ programming language presented in Appendix.
A logic representation of the algorithm, as flowchart, is presented in Fig. 3.67.
3.3 System Implementation 195

Fig. 3.68 Data stored into oTx driver with the VLC embedded. An example

The string of bits resulted and therefore data transmitted are (without spaces) the
following:
23,456,785(10) ¼ 00000010 00000011 00000100 00000101 00000110 00000111
00001000 00001001(2)
In order to send a packet that is easily recognizable by the oRx, a START string of
bits (one byte) is additionally sent before data. The START string of 8 bits (one
Byte) will be the cyclic prefix (CP) that is proposed in this book.
Since conversion from decimal to binary of any digital figures in EAN-8 code will
have all the first four digits with value zero (from i ¼ 7 to i ¼ 4, where i—index) the
START string of 8 bits will be:

CP ¼ 255ð10Þ $ 11111111ð2Þ , ð3:38Þ

Therefore, the string ID of the lamp with the example above will be constantly
sent as seen in Fig. 3.68.
Assigning one byte to the ID default and the last one to CRC checksum, the rest of
6 bytes are left to the lamp ID. So the total number of possible lamps and therefore
valuable IDs for lamps calculate according to:

n!
C kn ¼ ð3:39Þ
k!ðn  k Þ!

where:
n  10 digits from 0 to 9
k6

10!
C 610 ¼ ¼ 210 ð3:40Þ
6!ð10  6Þ!

So, the total number of available lamp IDs in this case is 210.
196 3 A Hybrid Communication System for Mining Industry. From RequirementS’ Analysis. . .

0%

10%

25%

50%

80%

100%

duty cycle duty cycle duty cycle duty cycle duty cycle

Fig. 3.69 Different duty cycles for the same frequency

This number can be increased up to 252 in case that only five digits (of the EAN
8 code) are considered for each lamp ID (k ¼ 5), and the one left can have a different
destination, for a more detailed description, as the company decides, therefore,
finally 504 possible IDs can be used.

Encoding Data

A simple technique to send data by intensity modulation direct detection is using

OOK, where the logic 1 corresponds to HIGH (LED is ON) and logic 0 corresponds
to LOW (LED is OFF).
Encoding data with Manchester are one of the easiest and most reliable ways to
send data since 1 is encoded as 10 and 0 as 01. However, the main drawback of this
encoding technique is that long sequence of ones or zeros would result in errors of
communication.
The intensity modulation direct detection is used for the VLC system with the
OOK modulation and the signal encoding is done through PWM with a digital
square wave. The frequency is constant and the duty cycle (the fraction of the time
when the signal is on) can vary from 0% to 100% as it can be seen in Fig. 3.69.
PWM with Arduino can be done using de function:

analogWrite(pin, dutyCycle)

where:
1. Arduino board pin for PWM can be any of 3, 5, 6, 9, 10, or 11.
2. dutyCycle—a value from 0 to 255.
3.3 System Implementation 197

Fig. 3.70 Flowchart of the

oRx driver embedded in AP START

RECEIVE BITS

NO
IF START BITS ARE
RECEIVED

YES

READ CONTINUOSLY
ALL BITS ONE BY
ONE

NO
IF STOP BITS ARE
RECEIVED

YES
SEND BITS
FORWARD

STOP

The main advantage of this method stands in the possibility of using any of the
digital out pins of Arduino having, at the same time, under control both de duty cycle
and the frequency.
On the other hand, as a drawback, any disconnection affects timings resulting in
signal jitter. Codes written for wireless data communication of the VLC system are
presented in Appendix A.
The oRx driver has to be carefully designed to make a proper trade-off between
the distance between oTx and oRx for a proper communication and Bit Error Ratio
(BER).
A logic representation of the algorithm, as flowchart, is presented in Fig. 3.70.
198 3 A Hybrid Communication System for Mining Industry. From RequirementS’ Analysis. . .

The AP with the oRx driver incorporated will receive, when in LoS and the
proper distance, the string of bits sent by the oTx driver.
First, the start bits are received, being followed by the string of bits associated
with the lamp’s ID.
The starts bits considered here are a string of 1 Byte of ones. That means the oTx
keeps the light ON for the time necessary to send 8 bits of ones.
Following the START byte, the oRx reads continuously the bits received till the
entire EAN-8 code is received, sends the code forward to be checked, and then
embedded in the Ethernet frame II together with the AP’s ID (according to its
location), date and time.

Ethernet Type II

The next step is the integration of the data received by oRx into an Ethernet frame
type II consisting of the following bytes as in Fig. 3.71:
1. PRE—preamble—2 Bytes.
2. Destination MAC address—6 Bytes.
3. Source MAC address—6 Bytes.
4. Ethernet type—2 Bytes.
5. VLC data payload, that consists of:
(a) Lamp’s ID—8 Bytes.
(b) AP’s location—20 Bytes.
(c) Date of signal received ID—10 Bytes.
(d) Time of signal received ID—10 Bytes.
6. CRC checksum—4 Bytes.

Fig. 3.71 Ethernet frame embedded in AP

3.4 Integration and Testing 199

Preamble—8 Bytes

The first string of bits in Ethernet frame with a predefined lengths and sequence aims
to notify the controller that a packet is about to be sent, therefore, the controller is
looking continuously while not already receiving a packet.
The oRx AP uses a preamble into the Ethernet frame that consists of two square
waves with different period in sequence as follows:

01010101 01010101

Source MAC Address

Source MAC address consists, also of 48 bits in order to identify the specific AP
underground.

Destination MAC Address

Destination MAC address is a unique string of 48 bits corresponding to the controller

hardware in order to be easy identified by sender.

VLC Data

VLC data are the actual data that are going to be sent at the surface by each AP. This
data are handed to the controller (its size is 48 Bytes but can be up to 12,000 bits).
Data consist of information received from the oTx (EAN-8 code aka miner’s cap
lamp ID), and those added by the AP itself (its own ID describing its location on the
main gallery, time, and date of the received information from the oTx).

3.4 Integration and Testing

Tests in the laboratory have been done using a prototype of a main gallery profile as
it is constructed underground precisely as its shape and reduced dimensions in the
main galleries in Jiu Valley mines, with the same standardized shape. Dimensions of
the prototype gallery are 1:6.25 according to original dimensions and shape.
The inside walls have been also painted (irregular black) in order to simulate the
walls underground color black and gray covered with dust and tiny particles of rock
(see Figs. 3.72 and 3.73).
200 3 A Hybrid Communication System for Mining Industry. From RequirementS’ Analysis. . .

Fig. 3.72 Data acquired are stored on laptop

Fig. 3.73 LoS topology

setup inside the gallery
prototype (dimensions in
mm)

The LED and PD have been positioned with 45 tilt in order to have an FoV and
LoS topology as it is when the worker moves on the main gallery underground.
The oRx module (board with microcontrollers) is connected to the laptop. Data
acquired during communication are displayed on laptop and stored on the system
memory (Fig. 3.72).
In the prototype of the main gallery (that is with VLC prototype designed, the
distance between LED and PD is 750 mm (x) and the distance between LED and
bottom is 70 mm (y) (see Fig. 3.73).
The entire oTx is positioned into the prototype of the main gallery underground
(see Fig. 3.74.), the PIN PD (with regular optics) is positioned at the top of the
3.4 Integration and Testing 201

Fig. 3.74 The VLC setup inside the prototype of the gallery. Front view

gallery (see Fig. 3.75.) and the electrical setup with microcontroller of the oRx is
placed outside the gallery in order to make it possible to test the system in a polluted
environment (Fig. 3.76).
The UPO2104CS oscilloscope has been used to display data sent from the oTx
with Arduino Uno and Lenovo Laptop (see Figs. 3.72 and 3.77).
In Fig. 3.77, the application Arduino is displayed with code written for sending
data (the EAN-8 barcode embedded in the miner’s cap-lamp) and the sent signal’s
shape is also seen on the display.
Figure 3.78 proves the signal received (the string of bits according to the lamp ID
sent) at oTx on PD pins, without electronic circuit of TIA and microcontroller.
The low-cost VLC system designed and tested with a single optical Lambertian
source (1 W cold white LED), without any optics in front of LED (biconvex lens),
without a non-imaging concentrator or an optical band-pass filter in front of PD, the
communication distance (tested into the main gallery prototype) reached 400 mm at
a 4 kHz data rate.
202 3 A Hybrid Communication System for Mining Industry. From RequirementS’ Analysis. . .

Fig. 3.75 Setups for simulation with the real situation. (1) Distance between LED and PD on x axis
is 1000 mm; (2) PD tilt with angle 45 degrees on y axys; (3) c. LED positioned at 70 mm high from
bottom; d. LED tilt with angle 45 degrees on y axis

The moving oTx module with LED (see Fig. 3.79) sends data by the optical signal
to the fixed oRx module with a PIN PD. The equipment used during tests to generate,
display, and acquire data consists of a function generator type MFG–8216A and an
oscilloscope type UPO2104CS.
At the oTx side, the input electrical signal (channel 1/blue) is acquired with the
oscilloscope connectors from the LEDs’ terminals and at the oRx side (channel
2/yellow), the connectors are placed, first on the PIN PD terminals and then at the
output of the TIA.
As it can be seen on the oscilloscope’s display, the two signals (sent by LED
embedded into the oTx and received by the PIN PD embedded into the oRx of the
VLC system) are with different amplitudes but in phase. The output signal decreases
in amplitude with the increased distance.
Data acquired are analyzed in order to determine the oRx’ optimal key charac-
teristics necessary for then AP positioned close to the working space underground.
An adaptive system has to be developed to keep working the VLC local wireless
transmission even in proximity of the working face where the polluted environment
will decrease the optical energy sent by LED.
3.4 Integration and Testing 203

Fig. 3.76 Light beam spread in front of LED (without lens) 10 mm from LED (left) and 20 mm in
front of LED (right). The optical distribution of LED used is checked at 10 and 20 mm in front of
LED

Fig. 3.77 Arduino app. Display with code data (EAN 8) and signal sent
204 3 A Hybrid Communication System for Mining Industry. From RequirementS’ Analysis. . .

Fig. 3.78 Data (Lamp ID 23456785) received at PD’s terminals seen on oscilloscope display

Fig. 3.79 Setup inside the gallery to complete tests

For this reason, data have been acquired during VLC data transmission and stored
as *.csv files on the stick inserted into the USB port of the oscilloscope. All the *.csv
files obtained during many tests have been then converted in order to be used as base
information for an extended simulation and analyses done with the Eviews 10 soft-
ware support.
EViews is an econometric, statistics, and forecasting application that offers
powerful analytical tools within a flexible interface. It allows an efficient data
managing, econometric, and statistical analysis. It also generates forecasts or simu-
lates models, and produces high-quality graphs and tables for publication or inclu-
sion in other applications.
3.4 Integration and Testing 205

Fig. 3.80 Signals sent (channel 1 blue/up) and received (channel 2—yellow/down) displayed on
the oscilloscope screen

They were used the sine wave signals to identify the system. This method has a
number of advantages since it allows the direct determination of the frequency
response of the system, ensures uniform accuracy over the whole frequency band
of the studied system, and the internal noise is easily assimilated (Fig. 3.80).
Data acquired and analyzed are presented in Table 3.13.
As part of the system identification, the least squares method (LSM) is used to
define the deterministic part model of a disrupted system using the mean square
modeling error [34] (Fig. 3.81).
The model autoregressive controlled or with exogenous values (ARX) that are
considered here, is defined by the following equations:

A ð qÞ ∙ y ð t Þ ¼ B ð qÞ ∙ uð t  k Þ þ e ð t Þ ð3:41Þ

where:

AðqÞ ¼ 1 þ a1 ∙ q1 þ a2 ∙ q2 þ . . . þ ana ∙ qna ð3:42Þ

BðqÞ ¼ b1 ∙ q1 þ ab2 ∙ q2 þ . . . þ bna ∙ qna ð3:43Þ

where:
k—the dead time expressed in a number of sampling periods
e(t)—the prediction error
t—the normalized time (real time divided by the sampling period), the values
from the set of integers
u(t) the Input value at the time t
206 3 A Hybrid Communication System for Mining Industry. From RequirementS’ Analysis. . .

Table 3.13 Data analyzed with EViews software

Dependent variable: YA
Method: Least squares
Date: 04/20/20 time: 12:01
Sample (adjusted): 26,100
Included observations: 75 after adjustments
Variable Coefficient SE t-statistic Prob.
UA 0.409548 0.080228 5.104817 0.0000
UA(1) 0.155415 0.110339 1.408518 0.1718
UA(2) 0.067525 0.113482 0.595023 0.5574
UA(3) 0.358969 0.113949 3.150255 0.0043
UA(4) 0.098018 0.130212 0.752755 0.4589
UA(5) 0.017442 0.127617 0.136675 0.8924
UA(6) 0.059017 0.131389 0.449178 0.6573
UA(7) 0.023159 0.132004 0.175443 0.8622
UA(8) 0.046535 0.123530 0.376710 0.7097
UA(9) 0.087375 0.120678 0.724033 0.4760
UA(10) 0.158562 0.120953 1.310938 0.2023
UA(11) 0.094388 0.116117 0.812866 0.4243
UA(12) 0.014529 0.113338 0.128194 0.8991
UA(13) 0.041022 0.112011 0.366233 0.7174
UA(14) 0.189087 0.111766 1.691811 0.1036
UA(15) 0.217951 0.127073 1.715167 0.0992
UA(16) 0.130822 0.128326 1.019451 0.3182
UA(17) 0.077746 0.130366 0.596367 0.5565
UA(18) 0.181451 0.119279 1.521229 0.1413
UA(19) 0.083728 0.116857 0.716500 0.4806
UA(20) 0.031608 0.112567 0.280791 0.7813
UA(21) 0.066835 0.108730 0.614692 0.5445
UA(22) 0.238185 0.108630 2.192636 0.0383
UA(23) 0.063933 0.107087 0.597021 0.5561
UA(24) 0.131968 0.102794 1.283820 0.2115
UA(25) 0.173111 0.096742 1.789415 0.0862
YA(1) 0.191010 0.170834 1.118103 0.2746
YA(2) 0.125182 0.160318 0.780840 0.4425
YA(3) 0.515259 0.168918 3.050356 0.0055
YA(4) 0.443199 0.197946 2.238984 0.0347
YA(5) 0.026109 0.194786 0.134039 0.8945
YA(6) 0.404687 0.196726 2.057109 0.0507
YA(7) 0.098673 0.202161 0.488091 0.6299
YA(8) 0.068035 0.190939 0.356321 0.7247
YA(9) 0.084199 0.188856 0.445837 0.6597
YA(10) 0.310659 0.188079 1.651743 0.1116
YA(11) 0.226928 0.188214 1.205688 0.2397
(continued)
3.4 Integration and Testing 207

Table 3.13 (continued)

YA(12) 0.023842 0.166739 0.142991 0.8875
YA(13) 0.043527 0.173909 0.250286 0.8045
YA(14) 0.020433 0.175039 0.116732 0.9080
YA(15) 0.069437 0.170073 0.408277 0.6867
YA(16) 0.163556 0.172398 0.948715 0.3522
YA(17) 0.031781 0.174303 0.182334 0.8569
YA(18) 0.393100 0.168653 2.330821 0.0285
YA(19) 0.052877 0.174632 0.302790 0.7647
Variable Coefficient SE t-statistic Prob.
Variable Coefficient Std. error t-statistic Prob.
YA(20) 0.097136 0.167498 0.579923 0.5674
YA(21) 0.187870 0.171863 1.093138 0.2852
YA(22) 0.174134 0.167252 1.041150 0.3082
YA(23) 0.032103 0.161902 0.198286 0.8445
YA(24) 0.308557 0.175433 1.758834 0.0914
YA(25) 0.507815 0.166249 3.054537 0.0054
R2 0.926315 Mean dependent var 0.008320
Adjusted R2 0.772806 S.D. dependent var 0.136124
S.E. of regression 0.064883 Akaike info criterion 2.411893
Sum squared resid 0.101036 Schwarz criterion 0.836001
Log likelihood 141.4460 Hannan–Quinn criter. 1.782657
Durbin–Watson stat 2.117332

Fig. 3.81 Data processed with EViews support

208 3 A Hybrid Communication System for Mining Industry. From RequirementS’ Analysis. . .

Fig. 3.82 Simulation results (red—real data acquired, green—estimated data, blue—error)

y(t) the Output value at the time t

One-step delay operator

q1 ∙ uðt Þ ¼ uðt  1Þ ð3:44Þ

and accordingly:

qk ∙ uðt Þ ¼ uðt  kÞ ð3:45Þ

ai ; i ¼ 1, na and bi ; i ¼ 1, nb parameters to be identified for the ARX model

In this specific case, the degree polynomials of A and B are na ¼ nb ¼ 25 and

coefficients are according to Table 3.12.
The ARX model given by the relationship (5) is a single-variable model valid for
SISO (single input single output) systems.
When the parameters determination is finished due to the entire measurements
series processing, both for the input and output data of the system considered, the
identification is an off-line parametric one.
The simulation results are presented in Fig. 3.82.
Up till now, due to a complex multipath CIR difficult evaluation and estimation,
there are just a limited number of theoretical research in VLC technology applied in
polluted industrial environments [35–40].
3.4 Integration and Testing 209

In this work, we take into consideration both intrinsic optical properties (IOPs)
and apparent optical properties (AOPs) in industrial environments. The VLC setup
complexity industrial environments increase with the polluted air since the optical
path suffers from high loss because of both scattering and absorption optical
properties. Since all these data are not persistent during a certain period of time
and cannot be properly estimated, a VLC prototype has been developed and tests in
laboratory have been done in order to acquire specific data both from oTx and oRx to
simulate the entire VLC system.
According to data acquired and time series studied for both input and output data
for the VLC system with LOS topology, based on EViews software, an ARX
mathematical model results.
The determination coefficient (R2) is higher than 0.9 as can be seen in Table 3.12,
therefore, a high-quality ARX mathematical model results.
This ARX mathematical model gives an accurate design regarding the VLC setup
for an LoS topology in places with polluted environment, as the industrial
facilities are.
The UP&MS based on the VLC system has the following advantages:
– allows the transmission of data identification through the visible light without
affecting in any way the safety and/or personnel health in the potentially explo-
sive underground environment,
– provide real-time information on the underground location of staff and visitors
with the possibility of viewing on a digital map their position with a known
margin of error in the underground lighting system dimensioning,
– allows the storage in a centralized database of all data relating to the position of
the underground person at a given time; the database identifies the LED lamps
based on the bar codes together with the date, time, and location at which they
were identified,
– allows easy integration into any centralized system for staff data management,
– allows easy adaptation to other areas of activity such as other underground
environments with more/less environmentally friendly conditions than those in
the potentially explosive environment for which it is designed:
1. is possible to be used for any type of underground lighting with fixed,
networked lighting system,
2. is possible to be used also in underground public transport systems
(underground),
3. is possible to be used also for underground mining spaces transformed into
museums,
4. is possible to be used in landscaped caves, integrated into the tourist circuit.

– each AP must periodically send (1–2 h) a state of its own status in order to check
if the signal is correct. This feature identifies possible incidents, accidents, or
malfunctions that are possible to occur underground.
210 3 A Hybrid Communication System for Mining Industry. From RequirementS’ Analysis. . .

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Notations

Convolution
A Attenuation of optical signal [dB/m]
a LED’s semi diameter
Acol PD Collection area of PD
Aj The junction area
APD Photodetector’s active area
B Bandwidth
b PD’s semi-diameter
Semi-length of ray in lens
c Speed of the light in free space (3 * 108 m/s)
CbIR channel’s baseband impulse response
Cd LED’s capacitance
Cd Sum of the junction capacitance
Cj Distributed capacitance
d Distance between oTx and oRx on the direct path
d Semi-diameter (marginal ray) of lens
d1 Distance between oTx and the reflecting object
d1 Distance from LED to lens’ centre (LEN)
d2 Distance between the reflecting object and oRx
ℯ Distance from Ob to LED
e Elementary electron charge e = 1.60210 19 [C] (coulombs)
E Photons’ energy
ERMS RMS value of a signal (x(t))
f Focal distance of lens
f Frequency corresponding to the photon wavelength
fc Carrier’s frequency
fcLED LED’s cut-off frequency
fn The frequency of the nth subcarrier
FoV Field of View

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 213

S. M. Riurean et al., Application of Visible Light Wireless Communication in
Underground Mine, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-61408-9
214 Notations

fs Sampling rate
g Distance from PD to Im
g(ω) Optical gain of an ideal non-imaging concentrator
GAPD Gain of the APD PD
Goc Optical concentrator’s gain
GTIA TIA’s gain
h Planck’s constant (6.626  10 34 Js)
h Planck’s constant (6.62 10-34 J or 4.135 10-16 eV s/rad)
h(t) Optical CIR
HCIR (f) Channel’s frequency response
HD/A Digital to analog converter response
HDAC(f) The frequency response of D/A converter
Hdif The transfer function in environments with diffused link
hFE DC current gain
HLoS DC gain of oRx
HVLC(f) Transfer function for VLC transmission
HLED(f) LED’s frequency response
HLoS The transfer function in Line of Sight (LoS) scenario
Id Dark current
IF Forward biased LED current
IG Value of the output current, amplified due to avalanche effect
Ip Current without amplification
IPD Generated photocurrent by PD
k The Boltzmann’s constant (1.38  10 23 [J/K) [146]
m(t) Unipolar binary message signal that has to be transmitted
ml Lambert’s mode number expressing directivity of the oTx beam related
to the LED’s semi-angle at half-power φ1/2
n Internal refractive index
N Number of subbcariers used
n The refractive index of the concentrator
n(t) Total noise (ambient noise in optical channel, shot noise and thermal
noise)
nair Refractive index of air
NCP Length of cycle prefix CP
nglass Refractive index of glass
ns Shot noise
nt Thermal noise
Nu Number of subcarriers used to carry data
oRx Optical receiver
oRx Optical transmitter
P(φ) Radiant power intensity
Pc Clipping probability
P Average optical power
PLoS_dp Optical power received from LoS direct path topology
Notations 215

PNLoS_sr Optical power received from a single reflection coming from the
reflecting surface
Po Optical power emitted by a light source
PPD_LOS Optical intensity of signal received by PD in LoS scenario
Psd(λ) Radiation power spectrum of the LED
Q(ri) Q-function for the tail probability of a Gaussian distribution
R Radius of curvature (biconvex lens)
ℛ The photodetector’s responsivity
RMS nd Root-mean-square of dark current noise
RMS nt Root-mean-square of thermal noise
R(θi) Bidirectional reflectance distribution function
r1 and r2 Clipping ratios
ℛAPD The PD APD’s spectral responsivity
Rb Bit rate
Rc Sum of the series resistance and the load resistance of the PD
ros Oversampling ratio
ℛPIN The PD PIN’s spectral responsivity
Rr Parallel result of the load resistor and the amplifier input resistor
Rs OFDM symbol rate
Rs Series resistor
RSD(on) Total resistance in the path from source to drain
S Optical path length
S Photosensitivity
s(t) The ASK output signal
sr Steradian
T Equivalent noise temperature
t Time
t0 The minimum time delay
td Delay time
tf Fall time
tr Rise time
Ts(ω) Optical transmission of the band-pass filter
V(λ) Relative eye sensitivity (is normalized to unity at the peak wavelength
of 555 nm)
VBE Base-Emitter Saturation Voltage
VCE Collector-Emitter Saturation Voltage
VF Forward voltage drop
w Thickness of the I-layer
x(t) Transmitted optical signal
xc[k] Clipped signal
Xn Symbol sent at the nth subcarrier
y(t) Signal received by photodetector
α(λ) The absorption coefficient
δ(.) Dirac function
216 Notations

δ(t d/c) Signal propagation delay

ε Dielectric constant
η Luminous/quantum efficiency
θi Incident angle of the outgoing light
θo Observation angle of the incoming light
λ Wavelength of the absorbed/emitted light
μ Mean delay spread (DS)
ρ Reflexion coefficient of the reflecting object according to its material’s
surface
σ The variance of the signal samples distribution
σAWGN Electrical gain
στ Signal’s temporal dispersion
τi Signal’s excess delay
φ Half-angle FoV
φFoV,oTx. Radiation pattern FoV of oTx
ΦV Luminous flux
ω Angular frequency
ω Radiation incident at angle
ωc  π/2 FoV
φ Angle of irradiance with respect to the axis normal to the transmitter
surface for maximum radiated power
Appendix

Program that calculates the checksum digit for EAN 8

public static String generateEAN(String barcode) {

int first = 0;
int second = 0;

if(barcode.length() == 7 || barcode.length() == 12) {

for (int counter = 0; counter < barcode.length() - 1; counter++) {

first = (first + Integer.valueOf(barcode.substring(counter, counter
+ 1)));
counter++;
second = (second + Integer.valueOf(barcode.substring(counter,
counter + 1)));
}
second = second * 3;
int total = second + first;
int roundedNum = Math.round((total + 9) / 10 * 10);

barcode = barcode + String.valueOf(roundedNum - total);

}
return barcode;
}

Program (written in C++ programming language) that converts decimal

(10) into binary (2) - Version 1

// C++ program that converts decimal (10) into binary (2)

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

// function for decimal to binary conversion

void DecToBin(int n)

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 217

S. M. Riurean et al., Application of Visible Light Wireless Communication in
Underground Mine, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-61408-9
218 Appendix

{
// array for binary storage
int binaryNum[1000];

// counter for binary array

int i = 0;
while (n > 0)
{

// storing remainder in binary array

binaryNum[i] = n % 2;
n = n / 2;
i++;
}

// binary array is printed in reverse order

for (int j = i - 1; j >= 0; j–)
cout << binaryNum[j];
}

// driver program used to test the function above

int main()
{
int n = 7;
DecToBin(n);
return 0;
}

Program (written in C++ programming language) that converts decimal

(10)into binary (2) - Version 2 - using the bitwise operator

// // C++ program that converts decimal to binary using bitwise

operator
// Size of an integer is 8 bits
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

// function for decimal to binary conversion

int DecToBin(int n)
{
// Size of an integer is 8 bits
for (int i = 7; i >= 0; i–) {
int k = n >> i;
if (k & 1)
cout << "1";
else
cout << "0";
}
}

// driver code
int main()
Appendix 219

{
int n = 8;
DecToBin(n);
}

Code for ID communication:

void setup(){
pinMode(5, OUTPUT);
}
void loop(){
digitalWrite(5, HIGH);
delayMicroseconds(100); // A 10% duty cycle is about 1KHz
digitalWrite(5, LOW);
delayMicroseconds(1000 - 100);
}

Code for sending digital 6 (for example), from oTx to oRx (version 1)
Serial.print("Insert digit:");
Serial.println(" ");
}

void loop() {
digitalWrite(LEDTrans,HIGH); //turns the LED on
delay(timeWaitOn); //delay in milliseconds (1 sec)
digitalWrite(LEDTrans,LOW); //turns the LED off
delay(timeWaitOff); //wait a second
/*checks if data has been sent from the computer: */
if (Serial.available()) {
byteRead = Serial.read();
//will print the binary representation of 'byteRead' as 8 characters
of '1's and '0's, Most Significant Bit first.
for (uint8_t bitMask = 128; bitMask != 0; bitMask = bitMask >> 1) {
if (byteRead & bitMask) {
Serial.write('1');
} else
{
Serial.write('0');
}
}
Serial.write(" ");
Serial.println(byteRead); //send back the actual ASCII code
}
}
Code for sending digital 6 (for example), from oTx to oRx (version 2)
const int LEDTrans = 13;
const int timeWaitOn = 1000; // millisec (1 sec)
const int timeWaitOff = 1000; // millisec (1 sec)

void setup() {
// Turn ON the Serial Protocol
Serial.begin(9600);
Serial.println("Send digit:");
pinMode (LEDTrans, OUTPUT);
220 Appendix

}
void loop() {
/*check if data has been sent from the computer: */
if (Serial.available()) {
byte byteRead = Serial.read();
// will print the binary representation of 'byteRead' as
8 characters of '1's and '0's, Most Significant Bit first.
for (uint8_t bitMask = 128; bitMask != 0; bitMask >>= 1 ) {
if (byteRead & bitMask) {
digitalWrite(LEDTrans, HIGH); //turns the LED on
delay(timeWaitOn); //delay in milliseconds as for example 1 second
digitalWrite(LEDTrans, LOW); //turns the LED off
} else {
delay(timeWaitOff); //wait 1 second
} // end of if
} // end of for loop
} // end of if something available
} // end of loop
SEND EAN 8
void setup() {
Serial.begin(300);
}

void loop() {

Serial.println("23456785");
delay(100);

Receive EAN 8
void setup()
{
Serial.begin(300);
pinMode(8,OUTPUT);
}
void loop() {
// digitalWrite(8,HIGH)
Index

A C
Additive White Gaussian Noise Cable-based communication, 43
(AWGN), 10, 48 Ceiling bounce model, 88
Amplifier circuit, 81 Cellular networking, 130
Amplitude modulation (AM), 103 Channel DC gain, 177
Amplitude shift keying (ASK), 101 Channel impulse response (CIR), 10, 44, 45,
Analog oTx drivers, 82 48, 96
Analog to digital converter (ADC), 48 Channel model, 86
Analogue telephone adapter (ATA) light distribution indoor, 174
devices, 130 oTx driver setup, 173
Angle of arrival (AoA), 26 Channel RMS DS, 92
Arduino Mega board, 191 Checksum (CS) algorithm, 193
Arduino Mega’s characteristics, 172 Cisco Visual Networking Index (CVNI), 6
Arduino programs, 162 Coal mining environment, 98
Arduino software, 172 Coal mining industry, 134
Arduino Uno board, 185 Coded Modulation (CM), 12
Arduino Uno’s main characteristics, 164 Colour Rendering Index (CRI), 15
ARX mathematical model, 209 Commulight, 19
ARX model, 208 Communication system, 132
Attenuation, 147 Computer numerical simulations, 176
Avalanche photodiode (APD), 69 Constant Current Reduction (CCR), 13
CSK modulation technique, 113
Current-mode analog drivers, 82
B Cycle prefix (CP), 105
BeamCaster project, 20 Cyclic prefix (CP), 103
Biconvex lenses, 148
Bidirectional reflectance distribution
function (BRDF), 53 D
Bipolar signals, 108 Darlington pair configuration, 156
Bit Error Ratio (BER), 12, 197 Darlington transistor configuration, 156
Blu-ray discs, 58 Data communication, 98
BPW20R PIN PD, 169 DC reduced HCM (DCR⁃HCM), 112
DC–DC converter, 78

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 221

S. M. Riurean et al., Application of Visible Light Wireless Communication in
Underground Mine, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-61408-9
222 Index

DCO-OFDM modulation technique, 112 Hazardous area classification, 134

Decision feedback equalizer (DFE), 107 HEX file path, 165
Destination MAC address, 199 Hybrid communication, 43
Deterministic optical channel models, 87
Digital converter, 86
Digital oTx driver, 79 I
Digital signal processor (DSP), 47, 48 IEEE 802.15.7/2011, 113
Digital to analog converter (DAC), 47 IEEE 802.17.5 standard, 87
Discrete Multitone (DMT) modulation, 12 IEEE Task Force, 116
Duplex communication system, 144 IM/DD optical communication system, 99
DUSTIN algorithm, 89 IM/DD technique, 141
In-Circuit Serial Programming (ICSP), 172
Indoor communication, 20
E business, 20
EAN-8 code, 141 hybrid, 21
Electrical and photometric characteristics, 142 Li-Fi hotspots, 24
Electrical setup OOK amplitude modulation, 24
oTx, 75 USB dongle, 22
Electromagnetic interference (EMI), 128 V2V communication, 24
Electromagnetic spectrum, 2 VLC technology, 23
Electronic driver device, 137 Indoor Positioning Systems (IPSs), 16
Electro-optical characteristics, 170 Infrared wireless communication
EM wave modulation, 42 indoor wireless communication, 7
Encoding data, 196 Inherent unipolar OFDM, 112
Ethernet frame, 198, 199 Input signal (Vin) colored yellow, 162
Ethernet technology, 140 Input voltage (Vin) colored blue, 162
EveryCircuit, 155 Intensity Modulation/Direct Detection
EViews, 204 (IM/DD), 11
Internal quantum efficiency (IQE), 69
Intrinsic optical properties (IOPs), 95
F Intrinsic optical properties in underground
Fabry–Perot cavity, 74 mines (IOPUMs), 95
Fast wireless data communication, 83 IR indoor wireless communication, 8
Feedback resistor (Rf ), 85 IR radiation, 53
Fermat’s principle, 96, 146, 151
Finite impulse response (FIR), 107
Free space optics (FSO), 1 K
Full Width at Half Maximum (FWHM) Korean project, 17
bandwidth, 13

L
G Lambertian radiant intensity, 50
Gamma-rays, 3 Lambertian radiation pattern, 60, 87
Geometry-based deterministic model, 89 Laser diodes (LD), 63
Global corporations, 30 feature, 63
and LEDs, 63
use, 63
H Least squares method (LSM), 205
Hardware implementation LED cap-lamp prototype, 142
functionality, 182 LED lighting ecosystem, 19
LEDs, 183, 184 LED lighting infrastructure, 19
optical source, 183 LED transistor driver circuit, 80
oRx module, 187–192 Lenses, 145
oTx module, 182 Li-Fi concept, 2
Index 223

Li-Fi systems, 2, 60 O
Li-Flame technology, 22 Octave, 180
Light, 3, 93, 94 Op Amp NE5532, 171
Light behavior, 54 Op Amp-type TL072, 168
Light channel model, 176 Open-loop TIA, 84
Light emission diodes (LEDs), 2 Operational amplifier (Op-Amp), 189
Light fidelity (Li-Fi), 7 Optical attenuation, 147
Lightfair, 20 Optical camera communication (OCC)
LoS channel, 49 advantages, 15
LoS topology, 87, 176, 180 applications, 16
Low-cost manufactured prototype, 192 VLC/IR technology, 15
Low-cost VLC system, 201 Optical channel, 98
Lumicast project, 17 Optical concentrator, 178
Luminous flux, 59 conventional, 74
light, 74
PD results, 74
M solid angle, 75
Mangalore Institute of Technology and Optical direct detection (ODD), 100
Engineering (MITE), 29 Optical energy, 48
Mathematical models, 153 Optical filters, 65, 73
Millimetre-wave technology, 5 Optical path loss, 93
Miner’s helmet cap-lamp, 136 Optical path medium, 181
Mining Health and Safety (MHS), 136 Optical power, 97
Mobile wireless transmission, 6 Optical receiver, 159
Modified ceiling-bounce algorithm, 90 semiconductor, 64
Modulation schemes, 99 Optical setup
PAM, 102 optical concentrator, 74
PPM, 102 optical filter, 73
PWM, 102 optical receiver, 64
SCMTs, 99, 101 optical transmitter, 55
Modulation techniques, 215 Optical signal, 48
Monte Carlo algorithm, 89, 90 Optical signal experiences, 55
Monte Carlo ray-tracing algorithm, 176 Optical signal propagation, 29
Monte Carlo simulations, 91 Optical system
M-PAM technique, 103 artificial lighting, 143
Multi-carrier modulation techniques (MCMTs) aspheric lens, 144
CP, 108 attenuation, 147
Q-function, 111 biconvex LENS, 151
unipolar, 108 curvature radius, 151
Multiple input–multiple output (MIMO), 2 diode, 143
LED and LENS, 149
LEDs and SLD, 144
N light beam, 143
Near Field Communication (NFC), 17 optical path, 148
NLoS optical gain, 180 optimum distances, 153
NLoS VLC propagation, 51 oRx, 144
Noise equivalent power, 69 power, 152
Non-imaging concentrator, 50 refractive index, 151
NPN transistor 2N3904, 156 VLC system, 148
Nyquist single carrier (N-SC), 99 Optical telegraphy network, 3
224 Index

Optical transmitter (oTx), 55 P

advantages, 56 Peak to average power ratio (PAPR), 11, 75
characteristics, 60 Photoconductive mode, 64
electricity, 55 Photoconductive PD, 167
energy-efficient emitters, 58 Photodetector (PD), 64
LED, 55, 57, 60 APDs, 71
light-emitting diode, 57 characteristics, 72
optical data communication, 56 device, 67
slow response, 58 light, 67
wavelength and frequency, 59 noise, 67
Optical wireless communication (OWC), 1, 86 photoconductive mode, 64
applications, 2 p–n junction diode, 64
implementations, 16 quantum efficiency, 65, 67
Li-Fi concept, 16 responsivity, 65
long-distance signals, 3 signal, 65
VLC, 2 SNR, 69
OpticStudio, 154 spectral response, 66
OpticStudio packages, 155 temperature dependency, 64
Organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs), 63 types, 69
oRx circuit, 82 VLC setup, 64
oRx design, 167 zero biased, 64
oRx driver, 198 Photodiodes, 188
PIN PD converts, 84 Photometric and radiometric quantities, 61
oRx hardware, 85 Photophone, 3
oRx module, 140, 187–192, 200 Phototransistors, 188
oTx drive circuits, 185 Physical layer (PHY), 114
oTx driver Plano-convex lens, 154
active devices, 77 Polymer colour converter, 13
BJTs, 78 Positive intrinsic negative (PIN), 70
circuit, 80 Power delay profile (PDP), 91
hardware design and manufacturing, 75 Power-efficient modulation techniques, 46
LED, 75, 76
MOSFET, 77
optimal wireless communication, 75 Q
and oRx, 89 Q1 2N3904 NPN Silicon transistor, 156
PWM, 81 Quality of Service (QoS), 130
series resistor value, 77 Quantum efficiency, 67
setups, 78
oTx driver circuit, 82
oTx electrical circuit R
2N3904 NPN Silicon transistor, 155 Radiant power intensity, 50
2N3904 NPN Silicon transistors, 155 Radio Frequency (RF) bandwidth, 6
electronic circuit, 157 Raman scattering, 94
LED, 159 Rayleigh scattering, 98
LEDs, 155 Received signal strength (RSSI), 26
loading effect, 159 Recursive approach, 87
oscilloscope, 155 Refractive index, 93, 146
resistors and capacitors, 159 Regular-shaped channel model, 90
simulation application, 160 RF technologies, 41
oTx emittance spectrum, 54 RF wireless communication, 43
oTx module, 165, 167, 202 RF wireless networks, 44
OWC technology, 213 Root mean square spread delay (RMS-DS), 96
Index 225

S open spaces outdoor, 134

Sallen–Key method, 85 TTE transmissions, 129
SC5200N BJT transistor, 156 UWB, 130
Scattering, 94 VLC system, 135
Semaphore lines, 3 VLC wireless system, 135
Signal attenuation, 43 VoIP, 130
Signal-to-noise ratio, 46 Steradian (sr), 75
Simulation results, 208 Stochastic optical channel models, 90
Single-carrier modulation techniques Surface mount device (SMD), 15
(SCMTs), 100 System design
ASK, 102 lamp office, 136
M-PPM, 103 lighting device, 136
OFDM, 103 oTx device, 136
OOK, 101, 102
QAM, 103
Single-photon avalanche detectors (SPADs), 73 T
Situational awareness, 133 Thermal noise, 45, 68
Small-signal modulation, 60 Time difference of arrival (TDoA), 26
Smart devices, 41 Time of arrival (ToA), 26, 91
Smartphone devices, 17 TL072 amplifier, 169
Smartphone sensor, 19 Tracking system, 131
Snell’s law, 146, 148, 151 Transistor 2N3904 saturation, 161
Software applications, 215
Software equalization, 83
Software implementation U
control digit, 193 Underground positioning & monitoring system
CS algorithms, 193, 194 (UP&MS), 135, 140
EAN-8 barcode, 193 Underground VLC (UVLC) system, 95
encoding data, 196 Underwater Optical Wireless Communications
oRx driver, 197 (UOWC), 25
START string, 195 Universal Asynchronous Reception and
Solar panel, 191 Transmission (UART), 172
Solid State Lighting (SSL) technology, 12 UPO2104CS oscilloscope, 201
Space Act Agreement (SAA), 17
Spatial Division Multiple Access (SDMA)
technology, 25 V
Spatial Shift Keying (SSK), 13 Vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V) communication, 24
Spectral response (SR), 73 Visible light communication (VLC), 1
Spectral volume scattering (SVS), 96 applications, 25
Spherical model, 90 artificial light source, 1
State-of-the-art, 127 characteristics, 11, 15
coal mines, 133 EPSRC team, 29
coal mining industry, 134 indoor system, 9
communication systems, 131 IPS based, 20
EM noise, 128 Lambertian emitter, 12
gas and air quality, 133 LED’s light, 11
hardware and software, 131 LoS topology, 11
intentional RF emitters, 128 MIMO system, 14
LFS system, 129 monitoring and communication ,
lighting and electrical equipment, 135 solutions,26
lighting fixtures, 134 OCC technologies, 16
MIMO antennas, 130 OMEGA partners, 29
monitoring/tracking system, 133 range-based methods, 26
226 Index

Visible light communication (VLC) (cont.) VLC modulation bandwidth, 61

researchers, 13 VLC prototype, 185
RF communication, 27 VLC setup, 214
TG7 task group, 7 VLC system, 68, 215
UOWC, 25 VLC technology, 213
use, 14 VoIP technology, 130
ventilation level, 26
wireless networks, 27, 28
VLC channel W
applications, 48 Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM), 12
channel characteristic, 45 Wavelength-dependent refractive index, 94
conventional, 44 Wi-Fi technology, 27
E/O stands, 45 Wi-Fi wireless network, 130
geometry, 47 Wireless communication technologies, 27
LoS link, 49 Wireless communications, 3
network setup, 47 Wireless data communication, 12
optical channel, 44 Wireless Local Area Networks (WLANs), 5, 7
optical channel model, 45 Wireless optical medium, 135
oTx and oRx, 49 Wireless optical multipath channel, 92
shot noise, 45 Wireless transmission, 4
and spatial conditions, 47
thermal noise, 45
topology, 48 Z
transmission capacity, 46 Zemax®, 89
VLC data, 199