EXPERIMENT 1

To measure diameter ofa small sphericaleylindrical body using Vernier Callipers.

APPARATUS

Vernier Callipers, a spherical body (pendulum bob) or a cylinder and a magnifying lens.
THEORY
If with the body between the jaws, the zero of vernier scale lies ahead of Nth division of
main scale, then main scale reading (M.S.R.)= N.
If nth division of vernier scale coincides with any division of main scale, then vernier
scale reading (V.S.R)
=n x(L.C.) (L.C.is least count of vernier callipers)
=n x (V.C.) (V.C. isvernier constant of vernier callipers)
Total reading, T.R. = M.S.R. + V.S.R. (L.C. = V.C.)
=N+nx (V.C.).
DIAGRAM

Main Scale
..9..9...P
uluuluululunllunlupluubtluul

A B
Sphere
Fig. Vernier Calliperg--Measuring diameter of sphere.
PROCEDURE
1. Determine the vernier constant (V.C.) i.e. least count (L.C.) of the vernier callipers and
record it stepwise.
 34 COMPREHENSIVE PRACTICAL PHYSICS-X

2. Bring the movable jaw BD in close contact with the fixed jaw AC and find the zero erro.
Do it three times and recordthem. If there is no zero error, record zeroerror as nil.
3. Open the jaws, place the sphere or cylinder between the two jaws A and B and adjust
the jaw DB, such that it gently grips the body without any undue pressure on it. Tighten
the screw S attached to the vernier scale V.
4. Note the position of the zero mark of the vernier scale on the main scale. Record the
main scale reading just before the zero mark of the vernier scale. This reading (M) is
called main scale reading (M.S.R.).
5. Note the number (n)of the vernier scale division which coincides with some division of
the main scale.
6. Repeat steps 4 and 5 after rotating the body by 90° for measuring the diameter in a
perpendicular direction.
7. Repeat steps 3, 4, 5and 6for three different positions. Record the observations in each
set in a tabular form.
8. Find total reading and apply zero correction.
9. Take mean of different values of diameter and show that in the result with proper unit.
OBSERVATIONS
1. Determination of Vernier Constant (Least Count) of the Vernier Callipers
1M.S.D, = 1mm
10 V.S.D, =9 M.S.D.

1 V.S.D. = M.S.D. =0.9 mm

10
Vernier Constant, V.C. = 1 M.S.D. - 1 V.S.D. = (1-0.9) mm =0.1 mm = 0.01 cm.
2. Zero error (0) ...... cm, () ... cnm, (i) .... cm.
Mean zero error (e) F. cm.
Mean zero correction (c) =-e=... Cm.
3. Table for the Diameter (D)
Vernier Scale Reading Total Reading
Serial No. of Main Scale
No. of Vernier Value Observed Corrected
Observations Reading (N) division {n x (V.C.)
(cm) D, =N +n D=D, tc
coinciding (n)
x V.C.
(a) A O B
1 D, () =
(b) D D, (6) =
(a) A O B D, (a) =
2
(6) D
(a) AOB
D, (0) =
3 D,(a) =
(b) D
D, (6) =
MEASUREMENT OF LENGTH 35

CALCULATION
Mean corrected diameter,
D= D(a) + D, (0) +D,(a) +D,(6) +D,() +D,()
6
RESULT
The diameter of the given spherelcylinder is ....cm.
PRECAUTIONS
1. Motion of vernier scale on main scale should be made smooth (by oiing, if necessary).
2. Vernier constant and zero error should be carefully found and properly recorded.
3. The body should be gripped between the jaws firmly but gently (without undue pres
sure on it from the jaws).
4. Observations should be taken at right angles at one place and taken at least at three
different places.
SOURCES OF ERROR
1. The vernier scale may be loOse on main scale.
2. The jaws may not be at right angles tothe main scale.
3. The graduations on scale may not be correct and clear.
4. Parallax may be there in taking observations.

EXPERIMENT 1A
Tomeasure internal diameter and depth of a given beakerlealorimeter using
Vernier Callipers and hence ffnd its volume.
APPARATUS
Vernier Callipers,a beaker or a calorimeter, magnifying glass.
THEORY
() For measuring internal diameter and depth. Same as in Experiment 1A.
(i) For volume:
Volume of beaker or calorimeter = internal area of cross section x depth
Or V=

where, D=internal diameter of beaker/calorimeter

d= depth of beakerlcalorimeter.
 COMPREHENGIVE PRAGTICAL PHYSIG8-

DIAGRAM

Main Scale

M
10

teaker

Flg. (o) Internal diameter of beaker,

9
MH
10

Beaker

Fig. (b) Depth of beaker.

MEASUREMENT OF LENGTH 37

PROCEDURE

1. Determine the vernier constant (V.C.) i.e., least count of thevernier callipers and record
it stepwise.
2. Bring the movable jaw BD in close contact with the fixed jaw AC and ind the zero error.
Do it three times and record it. If there is no zero error,then record, zero error as nil.
Measurement of internal diameter
3. Put the jaws Cand D inside the beaker or calorimeter and open them till each of them
touches the inner wall of the beaker or calorimeter, without any undue pressure on the
walls. Tighten the screw attached to the vernier scale gently.
4. Note the position of the zero mark of the vernier scale on the main scale. Record the
main scale reading just before the zero mark of the vernier scale. This reading (N) is
called main scale reading (M.S.R.).
5. Note the number (n) of the vernier scale division which coincides with some division of
the main scale.

6. Repeat steps 4 and 5 after rotating the vernier callipers by 90° for measuring internal
diameter in a perpendicular direction.
7. Find total reading and apply zero correction.
Measurement of depth
8. Keep the edge of the main scale of vernier callipers on its peripheral edge. This should
be done in such a way that the tip of the strip is able togo freely inside the beaker along
its depth.
9. Keep sliding the moving jaw of the vernier callipers until the strip just touches the
bottom of the beaker. Take care that it is just perpendicular to the bottom surface. Now,
tighten the screw of the vernier callipers.
10. Repeat steps 4 and 5 for four different positions along the circumference of the upper
edge of the beaker or calorimeter.
11. Find total reading and apply zero correction.
12. Take mean of two different values of internal diameter and four different values of the
depth.
13. Calculate the volume by using proper formula and show that in the result with proper
unit.

OBSERVATIONS
1. Determination of Vernier Constant (Least Count) of the vernier callipers
1M.S.D, = 1 mm
10 V.S.D, = 9 M.S.D.
1 V.S.D.= M.S.,D, =0.9 mm
10
 COMPREHENSIVE PRACTICAL PHYSICS

38 =(1-0.9) mm
M.S.D. -1V.S.D.
Vernier constant, V.C,= 1
= 0.01 cm.
= 0.1 mm (ii) .... cm.
() ...... cm,
2. Zero error=() ..... cm,
Mean zero error (e) =...... Cm
...... Cm.
Mean zero correction (c) =- (e) =
3. Table for the Internal Diameter (D) Total Reading
Vernier ScaleReading
Observed
Serial Main Scale
No. Reading (N)
No. of Vernier Value D, =Ntn Corrected
of Observations (cm)
division
coinciding (n)
x V.C.
D=D,te
1. D,=
2 D,=
3. D,=
4 D,=
4. Table for the depth (d)
Serial Position Main Seale Vernier Scale Reading Total Reading
No. Reading (N)
(cm) No. of Vernier Value Observed Corrected
of Obs. division n x(V.C.)) d,=N+n d=d,te
coinciding (n) x (V.C.)
1 at A

2. at B

3. at C

4. at D

CALCULATIONS
Mean corrected internal diameter,
D= D(0) +D(6)
2 Cm
Mean corrected depth,
d= 4t tdo +dy
4 Cm
Volume of beakerlcalorimeter =
MEASUREMENT OF LENGTH 39

RESULT

The volume of the beaker/calorimeter is ......cm®.

PRECAUTIONS
Same as given in Experiment 1.
SOURCES OF ERROR
Same as given in Experiment 1.
 EXPERIMENT 2

To measure diameter of a given wire using serew gauge.

APPARATUS
Screw gauge, wire, half-metre scale and magnifying lens.
THEORY
1. If with the wire between plane faces A and B, the edge of the cap lies ahead of Nth
division of linear scale, then, linear scale reading (L.S.R.) = N.
If nth division of circular scale lies over reference line, then, circular scale reading
(C.S.R.)=n x(L.C.) (L.C. is least count of screwgauge)
Total reading (T.R.) =L.S.R. + C.S.R. = N+n x (L.C.).
2. If D be the mean diameter and lbe the mean length of the wire,

volume of the wire, V=

DIAGRAM
-Wire
H

Fig. Screw gauge measuring diameter of the wire.

MEASUREMENT OF LENGTH 41

PROCEDURE

1. Find the value of one linear scale division (L.S.D.).

2. Determine the pitch and the least count of the screw gauge and record it stepwise.
3. Bring the plane face B in contact with plane face Aand ind the zero error. Do it three
times and record them. If there is no zero error, then record zero error as nil.
4. Move the face Baway from face A. Place the wire lengthwise over face A and move
the face B towards face A using the ratchet head R. Stop when R turns (slips) without
moving the screw.
5. Note the number of divisions of the linear scale visible and uncovered by the edge of the
cap. The reading (N) is called linear scale reading (L.S.R.).
6. Note the number (n) of the division of the circular scale lying over reference line.
7. Repeat steps 5and 6after rotating the wire by 90° for measuring diameter in a
perpendicular direction.
8. Repeat steps 4, 5, 6 and 7 for five different positions separated equally throughout the
length of the wire. Record the observations in each set in a tabular form.
9. Find total reading and apply zero correction in each case.
10. Take mean of different values of diameter.
11. Measure the length of the wire by stretching it along a half-metre scale. Keeping one
end of wire at a known mark, note the position of other end. Difference in position of the
two ends of the wire gives the length of the wire. Do it three times and record them.
OBSERVATIONS

1. Determination of Least Count of the Screw Gauge

1 LS.D. =1 mm
Number of full rotations given to screw = 4
Distance moved by the screw = 4 mm
4 mm
Hence, pitch p = =1 mm
100
Number of divisions on circular scale = 100
1mm
Hence, least count, = 100 =0.01 mm =0.001 cm.
2. Zero Error. () ... mm, (i) ....mm, () .... mm.
Mean zero error (e) =.... mm
Mean zero correction (c) =-e...... mm.
 COMPREHENSIVE PRACTICAL PHYSICS

42

3. Table for diameter (D)

Total Reading
Circular Scale Reading
Observed
Linear Scale No. of Circular
Value
D, =N+n Corrected
Serial No. of
Observations Reading (N)
(mm)
Scale division on
reference line
In x (L.C)]
x L.C. D=D,tc
(mm)
(n)
(mm) (mm)
D, (a) =
(a) A O B
1
D, (b) =
(6) D
D, (a) =
(a) AOB
D, (b) =
(6) D
(a) AOB
D, (a) =
3
D, (6) =
()D
CALCULATIONS
Length of the wire, l= (i) ...cm, (i)..... cm, (i) ..... cm.
Mean diameter of the wire,
D= D, (a) +D,(6) +...+ D,(a) + D, (6) = ...... mm = ....cm
6
Mean length of the wire,
4+4+h "... Cm
3

Volume of the wire,

2

RESULT
The volume of the given wire is .....cm,
PRECAUTIONS
1. To avoid undue pressure; the screw should always be rotated by ratchet Rand not by
cap K.
2. The screw should move freely without friction.
MEASUREMENT OF LENGTH 43

3. The zero correction, with proper sign should be noted very carefully and added alge
braically.
4. For same set of observations, the screw should be moved in the same direction to avoid
back-lash error of the screw.
5. At each place, the diameter of the wire should be measured in two perpendicular
directions and then the mean of the two be taken.
6. Readings should be taken atleast for five different places equally spaced along the
whole length of the wire.
7. Error due to parallax should be avoided.
SOURCES OF ERROR
1. The screw may have friction.
2. The screw gauge may have back-lash error.
3. Circular scale divisions may not be of equal size.
4. The wire may not be uniform.
 EXPERIMENT 4

To determine radius of curvature of agiven sphericalsurface by a spherometer.

APPARATUS

Spherometer, convex surface (it may be unpolished convex mirror), a big size plane glass
slab or plane mirror.
DIAGRAM

See Fig. 2.14.

THEORY

Refer to Section 2.14.

PROCEDURE

1. Raise the central screw of the spherometer and press the spherometer gently on the
practical note-book soas to get pricks of the three legs. Mark these pricks as A, B and
C.
2. Measure the distance between the pricks (points) by joining the points as to form a
triangle ABC.
3. Note these distances (AB, BC, AC) on the notebook and take their mean.
4. Find the value of one vertical (pitch) scale division.
5. Determine the pitch and the least count of the spherometer [Art. 2.13] and record it
stepwise.
6. Raise the screw sufficiently upwards.
7. Place the spherometer on the convex surface so that its three legs rest on it.
8. Gently, turn the screw downwards till the screw tip just touches the convex surface.
(The tip of the screw will just touch its image in the convex glass surface).
9. Note the reading of the circular (disc) scale which is in line with the vertical (pitch)
scale. Let it be a (It will act as reference).
10. Remove the spherometer from over the convex surface and place it over a large size
plane glass slab.
11. Turn the screw downwards and count the number of complete rotations (n,) made by
the disc (one rotation becomes complete when the reference reading crosses past the
pitch scale).
 COMPREHENSIVE PRACTICAL PHYSICS-X
48

plane surface of the glass slab.

ontinue tillthe tip of the screw just touches the
vertical (pitch
18. Note the reading of the circular scale which is finally in line with the
scale. Let it be b.
14. Find the number of circular (disc) scale division in last incomplete rotation.
lb. Repeat steps 6 to 14, three times, Record the observation in tabular form.
OBSERVATIONS
1. Distance between the two legs of the spherometer
In AABC, marked by legs of the spherometer:
AB = " 6 . Cm

BC= ..... Cm
AC=..... cm B

AB + BC + CA Fig. Distance between the

Mean value ofl= =....o.. CM
two legs of the spherometer.
3
2. Least count of spherometer
1 Pitch scale division=1 mn
Number of full rotations given toscrew = 5
Distance moved by the screw =5 mm
5 mmm
Hence, pitch, p= 5
=Imm

Number of divisions on circular (disc) scale = 100

1mm
Hence, least count =
100
=0.01 mm
= 0.001 cm.

3. Table for Sagitta (h)

Circular (Disc) Scale Number of No. of Disc
Serial Reading complete scale divisions
No. rotations in incomplete Total Reading
On convex On plane
of Obser. glass sheet on plane rotation h=n, xp +*x (L.C)
surface
vations Initial Final (n) *=(a- b) (mm)
(a) (b) glass sheet or (100 +a) -b
1
h,
2.
h
3.
hg
MEASUREMENT OF LENGTH 49

CALCULATIONS
1. Find value of h in each observation and record it in the last column.
2. Find mean of value of h recorded in the last column.

Mean value of h= mm
3
=...... mm...... Cm.

3. We have, R= 6 + cm
2
=..... Cm.

RESULT

The radius of curvature of the given convex surface is .. cm.

PRECAUTIONS

1. The screw should move freely without friction.

2. The screw should be moved in same direction to avoid back-lash error of the screw.
3. Excess rotation should be avoided.

SOURCESOF ERROR
1. The screw may have friction.
2. The spherometer may have back-lash error.
3. Circular (disc) scale divisions may not be of equal size.
 muuuhununlmua

Fig. 2.15 Fig. 2.16

serew Gand the centre of the sphere 0. The third leg Cis not visible., Let GH=h. the heightd
central screw above the plane ABC, which is measured by the spherometer. (h is called Sagitta)
Applying Sagitta theorem we can write,
Chord
= Sagitta x
(Diameter - Sagitta)
Or (AH² = GH× HE
MEASUREMENT OF LENGTH 33

Or R
a h
Or a'= h(2R- h) or 2R-h= h R= Dh2
But and cos 30° = (from Fig. 2.16)
2 2a

where l is the distance between any of the two legs.

h
R= +
6h 2
MOTION UNDER GRAVITY AND ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY 85

EXPERIMENT 7
Using a simple pendulum, plot its L-T° graph and use it to find the effective length
of second's pendulum.
APPARATUS

Aclamp with stand, a split cork, thread, bob, Vernier Callipers, stopclock/watch, me
scale and a piece of chalk.
THEORY

1. Simple Pendulum. An ideal simple pendulunm consists of a heavy point mass (called bob)
tied to one end of a perfectly inextensible, flexible and weightless string. There is no ideal
simple pendulum. In practice, we make a simple pendulum by tying a metallic spherical
bob to a fine cotton stitching thread.
2. Length of Simple Pendulum. The distance between the point of suspension of the
pendulum and its C.G. (which is C.G. ofthebob), is called the length ofthe simple pendulum.
It is represented by the symbol I.
Length of simple pendulum = length of thread + length of hook of bob + mean radius of
the spherical bob
i.e., l=l+h+r
3. Time Period of the Simple Pendulum. Time taken by the bob of the simple pendulum
tomake one complete vibration, is called the timeperiod of the simple pendulum.It is
represented by the symbol T.
The time period is given by the formula,
411
T= 2 Or T2= Or
41
Knowing the value of Tand g, lcan be calculated.
 COMPREHENSIVE PRACTICAL PHYSICS
86

DIAGRAM

Solit -Clamp S
cork S

Stand Thread

M, 130 cm
M. 120 cm
Table
M, 110 cm

M, 100 cm
M, 90 cm
M, 80 cm

Hook

Lab Bob
floor
5 cm 5 cm
(a (b) (c)

Fig. (a) Simple Pendulum.

(b) Effective length of simple pendulum, l=l+h+r
(c) Marks on thread.

PROCEDURE
1. Find the vernier constant and zero error of the vernier callipers and record it (as in
Experiment 1).
2. Determine the mean diameter of the spherical bob (as in Experiment 1). Find the mean
radius (r) of the bob.
3. Find the lengthhof the hook attached to the bob by metre scale and record it.
4. Take acotton thread about 2 metres long and tie its one end with the hook.
5. Put ink marks, M,, Mo, M3, ....on the thread as distance of 80cm, 90 cm, 100 cm, 110cm,
120 cm, 130 cm, from the centre of gravity of the bob. These distances give effective
length () of the simple pendulum.
6. Pass the thread through the two split parts of a cork with the thread coming out just
from 80 cm mark.
7. Tight the two half cork pieces between the clamp.
8. Fix the clamp in astand kept ona table at such aheight that the bob isjust 2cm above th
laboratory floor.
9. Marka point Aon the floor just below the position of bob at rest (mean position).
10. Draw a straight line CAB, 10 cm long in direction along which bob will move whel
Oscillating. Ais middle point of CB.
MOTION UNDER GRAVITY AND ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY 87

11. Find the least count and the zero error of the stopclock/watch. Bring its hands at zero
position.
12. Move the bob by hand to over position Bon the right of Aand leave. See that the bob
returns over line BC without spinning.
13. When the bob returns from C to A and starts moving toright of A, start the stopclock/
watch and count zero.
14. The bob goes towards B to right extreme, returns from right extreme and goes towards
Cto left extreme. When bob crosses Afrom towards C, count one.
15. In this way count upto 19,. Become alert when bob starts the 20th vibration.
16. Just when 20th vibration is completed, count 20 and at once stop the stopclock/watch.
17. Pind total time noting positions of both the hands of the clock/watch. This time is time for
twenty vibrations.
18. Repeat steps 13 to 18 two times more for same length.
19. Move the clamp up by 10 cm.
20. Loose the cork pieces and pull the thread out to increase its length by 10 cm. Now
effective length of pendulum becomes 90cm. Bob will be again 2cm above the laboratory
floor.
21. Repeat steps 13 to 19 two times to take in all the two observations for this new length.
Repeat step 20.
22. Repeat step 21 and then steps 13 to 19 to take two observations each for lengths 90 cm,
100 cm, 110 cm, 120 cm and 130 cm.
23. Record all the observations as given ahead.
OBSERVATIONS
1. Vernier constant of Vernier Callipers (V.C.) = ....cm.
Zero error of vernier callipers (e):
0) ..... cm, (ti) .... cm, (iüi) ...... Cm,

Mean zero error, (e) = .... cm

Mean zero correction (c)=-e=......cm
Observed diameter of the bob:
) ..... cm, (0) ..... cm, (iüi) ...... Cm.

Mean observed diameter, do = . . .cm

Mean corrected diameter, d= do t c= .... cm
d
Mean radius of the bob, 2
=..... Cm

Length of hook of the bob, h=... cm

Standard value ofg= 980 cm s,
*88 COMPREHENSIVE PRACTICAL PHYSICS

2. Least count of stop clock/watch =... 8

Zero error of stop clock/watch =...s
Zero correction of stop clock/watch= .ses. S.

3. Table for Length () and time (T)

S. No. Length of Time for 20 vibrations Time period
of Thread Pendulum Mean T= t
Obs. t
l=l+h+r 20
(cm) (cm) (s) (s) s) (s) (s)
1. 78.4 80.0 35 37 36 36 1.8 3.24
2. 88:4 90.0 38 38 38 38 1.9 3.61
3 98.4 100.0 40 40 40 40 2.0 4.00
4. 108.4 110.0 41 42 42 42 2.1 4.41
5. 118.4 120.0 43 45 44 44 2.2 4.84
6. 128.4 130.0 47 45 46 46 2.28 5.20

Note. Observations are given as sample and istaken as 10)

CALCULATIONS
(a) With the table
For each length, write mean time for 20 vibrations,

Write mean values of t in column (3) of above table.

t
For each length, find time period T = s and write its
20 value in column 4 and write
value of T² in column 5 of the above table.
1-T graph. Plot a graph between l
X-axis and T along Y-axis. The graph comes(column, 2b) and T (column 5) by taking lalong
to be a straight line.
MOTION UNDER GRAVITY AND ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY 89
GRAPH

Graph between / and T tor a simple pendulum

Scale
X-axis :1cm = 10 cm of1
5.2 2
Y-axis : icm = 0,4s of T
s'
in
(T') 4.84
period

time
of
Square

3.2

26O70 80 110 120 130

Length of penduBumn ()in cm

Fig. Graph between l and T for a simple pendulum. It is a straight line.

The graph is a straight line because,
T= 2n and T c l

From this graph, for T =4, lcomes to be 100 cm.

Hence for second's pendulum (T=2s) length comes to be 100 cm.
RESULT
Experimental length = 100 cm
Actual length =99,4 cm
Error = 0.6 cm
0.6
×100 = 0.6%
Percentage error = 99.4
This error is within the limit of the experimental error.
PRECAUTIONS
1. Thread should be strong, weightless and inextensible,
2. Point of suspension should be fixed in a rigid support.
3. Lower faces of split cork should be in same level.
 EXPERIMENT 9
To study the relationship between force of limiting friction and normal reaction
lto find the co-effcient offriction between a block and a horizontal surface.
APPARATUS
Wooden block (with a hook on one side), 50 gor 20 gweights, horizontal plane (table top)
fitted with a frictionless pulley at one end, pan, spring balance, thread, spirit level.
THEORY
Sliding friction, It is the friction between two surfaces of the bodies in sliding motion.
Force of sliding friction. It is the least force required to make a body start sliding
over a surface.
Force of friction, Foc R
..1)
F= uR
where u= co-efficient of friction, Ris the normal reaction.
At equilibrium, F=P+p
and ...2)
R= W+ w
...3)
DIAGRAM
R (Normal Reaction)

50 g Weight (w)

Block
P+p Pulley

¼ W+w Table
Pan
(P)

Weight (p)

Fig. Studying the force of

sliding friction.
FRICTION 103

PROCEDURE
1. Clean the horizontal table top and check the pulley to see that it is frictionless (oil if
necessary).
2. Weigh the wooden block and put it on the table top. (Check horizontality of table top by
spirit level.)
3. Tie one end of a thread with the hook of the wooden block and pass it over the pulley.
(The thread must be horizontal).
4, Find the weight of the pan.
5. Tie other free end of the thread with the pan and let the pan hang vertical. (The pan
will pull the wooden block horizontally by a force equal to its weight).
6. Since the pan itself does not pull the block, put some weights in the pan (from weight
box).
7. Tap the table top to make the block just slide.
8. Increase weights in pan little by little, till the block just starts sliding on tapping the
table top.
9. Note thetotal weights put in the pan then record them in observation table (sum of
weight of pan and weights in pan gives the force of sliding friction.)
10. Put one 50 g or 20 g weight over the wooden block and repeat steps 8 and 9.
11. Repeat steps 8, 9, 10,six times. Every time increase weight by 50 g or 20 g.
12. Record the observations in tabular form as given ahead.
OBSERVATIONS
Weight of wooden block, W=...... g wt
Weight of pan, P=.... g wt.

Table for additional weights

Serial Weights on Total weight being Weight on Total weight (force)

No. wooden block pulled(W+w) (gwt) pan pulling the block and
of (w) =Normal reaction (R) P) weights (P+p) (& wt)
Obs. (g wt) g wt) (g wt) = Limiting friction (F) (g w)
1.

2,

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.
 COMPREHENSIVE PRACTICAL PHYSICS
J04
force of
CALCULATIONS the value of
Total total weightsand
weight (force) pullingthe block
On horizontal surface, weightsgives
being pulled give normal reaction P Total weigh sliding fricti
friction F.
(force) pulling these weights gives dynamic friction F, taking R
Plot a graph between normal reaction
Rand limiting along X"ax
and Falong Yaxis.
shown below.
The graph comes to be a straight line as

(F)
Reactioh (R) and Limiting Friction
Graph between Normal
Scale :
YT X-axis i1cm = 50 wt of R
Y-axis 1cm = 25 g wi of E
200

+p) 175
(P
wt 150 -
g
(F)
Friction125

Limiting100
75 E:
1
50

25

50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400

Normal Reaction (R) g wt (W+ w)

Fig. Graph between R and F.

RESUT
It is found that as the total
weight pulled increases, force of limiting
creases. The increase is in direct proportion. friction aso
The graph shows that limiting friction Fis
It is an agreement with law of limiting directly proportional
to the normalreactionk
of the law).
friction. (This may be taken as a verification
experiment
The constant ratio FIR, is called
slope of the graph. coefficient of friction (u), It can be byfinding
calculated
FRICTION
105

In AABC,
BC F 150- 50
slope of straight line AB = tan 0= AC R 300-100
F 100 1
...(1)
Or tan ) = =0.5
R 200 2
But, F=uR
F ...(2)
R
From eguation (1) and (2)
u= tan 0=0.5
=0.5.

PRECAUTIONS
1. The surface (table top) should be horizontal.
2. The part of thread between block and pulley should be horizontal.
oscillate or
3. Weight in pan should be increased in small steps and pan should not
rotate.
4. Table top should be tapped gently each time.
5. Pulley should be frictionless.
SOURCES OF ERROR
1. The table top may not be horizontal.
be horizontal.
2. The thread part between block and pulley may not
frictionless.
3. Pulley may not be