Business, Working class & Freedom

movement.
 Capitalist class and Non cooperation movement
• the immediate post world war 1 period saw the
interests of Indian businesses being affected
adversely.
– Gandhian emphasis on non-violence and his theory of
“trusteeship” which legitimized ownership of wealth
reassured the industrialist against any kind of political
radicalism. Businessmen like G D Birla and Jamnalal
Bajaj became his close associates.
• When the non-cooperation movement started, the cotton
merchants supported the boycott movement & donated
generously to the tilak-swaraj fund.

• But many industrialists on the other hand had remained silent

or opposed mass agitiation outright. Anti Non-cooperation
society was started in Bombay by Purroshotamdas thakurdas
with funds from R.D Tata

• After 1922, the deteriorating economic condition of the indian

business community drew them more closely to the side of
indian nationalists. The wartime boom collapsed in 1921-22 &
was followed by a slump in Industries through out 1920’s.
• The situation of Bombay mill owners became worse due to growing
competition from cheap japanese goods that started inundating indian
markets & pushed down the prices further.

• In 1926 eleven mills closed and 13% of the workforce became

unemployed. In 1927, the Indian tariff board recommended a increase in
import duties from 11 to 15% on all manufacturers. But this decision
was put on hold by GoI because of vehement opposition from
Lancashire lobby.

• In 1921, the european trading organizations formed an apex body called

Associated Chambers of Commerce (ASSOCHAM). In response in 1927,
the indian capitalist class, despite their differences formed FICCI with
Purroshotamdas Thakurdas at the helm.
 1920-1930: Constitutionalism & Business class
• Traditionally the business groups favoured constitutionalism &
“pressure group politics” & this explains why they maintained
their distance from the non-cooperation movement in 1920-21.

• After the non cooperation movement as congress returned to

constitutionalism and pressure group politics, Indian Business
came closer to Swarajists & cooperated with them in legislative
assembly on various legislative issues.

• 1928-29-period of repeated labour strikes under the leadership

of Girini Kamagar Union which increasingly came under
communist leadership. In reaction, the government came down
heavily on the communists in the Meerut Conspiracy case.
 Capitalists and 1930-40
• The communist threat drew the indian capitalist class
towards congress and the congress was also sensitive to
their conditions and interests. So when gandhi announced
his 11 point ultimatum to Irwin, it contained demands of
protection for cotton industry & reservation of coastal
shipping for Indian companies.

• The indian capitalist class support for civil disobedience

movement was divided & when the civil disobedience
movement was finally suspended in 1934, it was welcomed
by the indian business community who where released by
the return to constitutionalist politics.
• The business class however was alarmed by the
rise of socialism within congress as Jawaharlal
Nehru, Subhash Bose & Jayprakash Narayan in
1934 formed their Congress Socialist Party.
• In response 21 bombay businessmen issued the
“Bombay Manifesto” in 1936 against nehru’s
preaching of socialist ideals.
• 1937 elections & the Bombay trade disputes act
1938: the success of congress in 1937 elections
evoked jubilations both from labour & capital & the
party had to continually balance between the two
contradictory interests.

• During the first 2 years of congress rule trade union

activities & labour unrest increased phenomenally in
congress ruled provinces & congress adopted a
number of labour welfare programmes.
• Faced with financial constraints these governments
were forced to increase taxes like property taxes, sales
taxes etc which the businessmen did not like.

• As congress tried to placate capitalist interests, it

brought about a shift in labour policy, which resulted in
the passage of Bombay Trade disputes act of 1938. It
aimed at preventing both strikes & lockouts but was
tilted heavily in favour of capitalists
• Some of the business leaders actively participated
in the economic planning process initiated by the
socialist thinking of jawaharlal nehru.
• When the congress under Bose constituted its first
National Planning Committee in 1938, it included
Purushottamdas Thakurdas and others.
 Conclusion
• Bipan Chandra: the indian capitalist class had developed a long
term contradiction with imperialism while retaining a relationship
of short term dependence on and accommodation with it.

• Sekhar Bandhopadhyay: the relationship between Indian capitalist

class & Congress remained strategic, issue based & even pragmatic.
They were not averse to nationalism but they preferred
constitutionalism over mass mobilization. But they were also
neither government loyalists or unpatriotic & they agreed, despite
reservation with many aspect of congress programme
 Working class
• low wages, improper working conditions & subhuman living environment
forced a number of successful strikes in Indian Industries despite the
limited growth of trade unionism. The Bombay textile workers struck work
eight times between 1919 & 1940, each time Industrial action lasted for
more than one month & in 1928-29 lasted for more than a year.

• Post WW1, decline in wages saw a series of strikes, one led by Gandhi
himself (Ahemdabad Mill strike). Like the Western India cotton mills, the
Calcutta jute mills also witnessed unprecedented strikes during 1920-21.

• 1928-29: TISCO workers strike in Jamshedpur & a general strike in Calcutta

Jute mills.
• Given the relations of congress with both the
working class & capitalist class, congress could
afford to be more articulate only where eurpoean
capitalists were involved such as raliways, jute
mills & tea gardens &

• they exerted moderating influence where Indian

capitalists were affected, such as the Jamshedpur
steel plants or the textile industries in Bombay &
Ahemdabad.
• The obvious dilemma in congress of balancing the
interests of both the capitalist and working class
resulted in an increasing influence of communists
within the labour front. This was witnessed by the rise
of Girni Kamagar Union & its domination by
communists.

• Meerut Conspiracy case 1929-33: wiped out the top

communist leadership.
 Stages of communalism
• The ideology of communalism evolved through three stages in
India:
1. Communal Nationalism: all people belonging to a particular
religious group have similar secular interests despite their
ethnic, linguistic or socio-economic differences.
2. Liberal communalism: the notion that since two communities
have different religious interests, they have different interests
in the secular sphere too.
3. Extreme communalism: the notion that not only different
religious communities have different interests but that these
interests are incompatible with each other.
• Communalism is a modern day phenomenon,
rooted in the modern social, economic and
political colonial structure.

• Communalism is associated with the emergence

of political structures based upon mass
mobilization and popular participation.
 Reason’s for the rise of communalism
• Socio-economic reasons: the economic under-development
ensured by british colonial polices meant that there was an
intense rivalry for government jobs and trading opportunities
between the elites/bourgeoisie of the two communities.

• Political reasons: because of the rampant unemployment there

was ample scope for colonial government to use concessions,
favors and reservations to fuel communal and separatist
tendencies.
 British policy of divide and rule
• Colonial repression of muslims post 1857: the muslims were
seen as prime instigators of the 1857 uprising and thus in the
immediate aftermath of the 1857, they were subjected to
repression and discrimination by government.

• After 1870’s, with the emergence of indian nationalism, the

government reversed its policy of repression of muslims and
instead tried to appease the muslim elites to rally behind
them through concessions, reservations and use them against
nationalist forces.
 Applications of policy of divide and rule
• the idea of martial races post 1857.
• The cultivation of aligarh school of thought post
1870’s.
• morley minto reforms 1909.
• Communal award of 1932
• Specially post the Cripps proposal, the British gave
the muslim league a virtual veto on any future
political settlement
Other reasons for the rise of communalism
• Communalization of history writing: initially suggested by
imperialist historians later adopted by some Indian
historians, the communal interpretation of Indian history
portrayed the ancient phase as hindu phase and the
medieval phase as muslim phase.
– The conflicts of ruling elites of medieval phase were distorted
and exaggerated as Hindu-Muslim Conflicts.

• The revivalist tendencies of socio-religious reform

movements
 Was the partition of India inevitable??
• The evolution of two nation theory happened over decades-
– 1880’s and the cultivation of aligarh “loyalist” school.
– 1906- Agha Khan led a muslim delegation demanding separate
electorates.
– 1907- All India Muslim League was formed
– 1915- All India Hindu Mahasabha was formed
– 1916- Lucknow pact: Congress granted tacit acceptance to the
politics of muslim league.
– 1920’s – Communal riots and clashes over shuddhi and talibagh
and tanzeem movements
– 1927-28: Jinnah’s fourteen point demand
• 1937 elections: the poor performance of muslim league in
1937 provincial elections resulted in the muslim league
switching from liberal communalism to more extreme
forms.

• Post 1937 there was a tendency to project muslims not as a

minority in search of safeguards and reservations to
protect its political and economic interests but as a
separate nation.
• 1940- Pakistan resolution
• Post 1940- the virtual veto to muslim league granted by
British.
“FIRST” “NATIONAL” “WAR” OF
INDEPENDENCE
 CAUSES OF WAR OF 1857:
The causes of war emerged from all aspects: socio-cultural, economic
and political.
Economic:
1. High burden of taxation: the peasantry suffered under the new
revenue settlement systems imposed by the british.
2. Commodification of land and alienation of cultivators from their land:
the british system of revenue settlement didn’t recognize the
customary rights of cultivators and made land a marketable
commodity.
3. Alienation of the old zamindari class: the inability to meet the high
revenue demands imposed by the british saw the old zamindars
being deposed of their erstwhile zamindaris and the rise of the new
merchant-zamindars
4. Ruin of handicrafts: the imposition of one sided free trade
on the indian artisans by the british and the influx of the
cheaper british manufactured goods saw a collapse of the
domestic handicraft industries.
• Political causes:
1. The doctrine of lapse & the disgruntled regional rulers: was introduced by
the british with an intent to deprive the regional princely rulers the
opportunity of smooth succession and were subjected to direct annexation.
2. Discontent among the sepoys: the indian sepoy was made to feel
subordinate at every step and was discriminated against racially and in
matters of pay and promotions. The sepoy in fact was a “peasant in
uniform”.
3. Also the terms of service of sepoys often came in conflict with their religious
beliefs.
4. The annexation of awadh.

• Socio-religious causes:
• The conservative social reaction to attempted social reforms through
legislative measures such as abolition of sati, widow remarriage and women
education were seen as interference in social and religious domains of locals
by outsiders.
CAUSES OF WAR-Peasant-
Sepoy- racial high levels
of taxation Taluqdars-
discrimination land
-smaller ranks, &
indebtedn confiscate
lesser pay. He d,-21k in
was a Peasant ess to
moneylen awadh,
in uniform.75k storm Artisans &
came from der
centre of craftsmen
awadh-peasant revolt -Source of
families patronage
Doctrine of gone-no
lapse alternative
Orthodox
Immediate religious
cause- backlash-
religious abolition of
1857
conspiracy- sati-1830,
greased widow
cartridges remarriage
act-1856
CAUSES OF FAILURE-
Poor co-
Intelligentsia &
ordination-no
native princes-
quick system of
supported british.
communication
Limited
Territorial Poor
spread-east, leadership-
southern and except laxmibai
west- kunwar singh
unaffected

Lack of
definitive
No arms-
vision of
swords & Failure
future- wanted
spikes
to regain lost
privileges
EFFECTS POST 1857-
Army- European
dominance-divide &
counterpoise-martial
races, caste &
communal companies
introduced in all
regiments

Policy of
subordinate
Company rule union-
abolished-
Crown took direct
Post annexation
stopped,
resp-1858 1857 foreign policy-
british + pro
zamindar

Regression –
divide & rule,
wither social
reforms.
CONCLUSION
Imp of historical event is not limited to its immediate
achievements.
The revolt of 1857 was not a pure historical tragedy- Even in
failure it served a grand purpose: a source of inspiration for the
national liberation movement which later achieved what the revolt
could not.
1914-27
 Home rule movement-1914
• The home rule movement was a less charged but a
more effective response(as compared to gadhar
movement) to Indian participation in WW1.

• Tilak was released from jail in 1914 and made

conciliatory gestures both towards the government
and moderates.
• Inspired by the irish home rule leagues tilak and
annie besant launched the home rule league.
• They launched a campaign demanding self
government for india after war on the lines of
white colonies.
• Tilak’s league- 1916- restricted to maharashtra,
karnataka, central provinces.
• Besant league- 1916- formed in madras and
covered rest of India.
 Evaluation of home rule leagues
• The campaign conveyed to the common man the message of
home rule as self government.
• It carried a much wider appeal than earlier mobilizations did
and attracted the politically backward areas of Gujarat and
Sindh.
• Use of plays, songs, libraries to promote political education.
• The movement shifted the emphasis away from the educated
elite to the masses and permanently deflected the movement
from the course mapped by moderates.
• Tilak-besant efforts led to reunion of congress at
lucknow in 1916 and revived the congress as an
effective instrument of Indian nationalism.

• The russian revolution of 1917 provided an

important boost for the home rule league
campaign.
 Lucknow Pact-1916
• Readmitted extremist led by tilak back to the congress fold.

• The lucknow session also saw the muslim league and congress
coming together and presenting common demands to british.
• The reasons for the shift in league’s position from a loyalist
position to an anti-imperialist one was guided by many factors-
– League came to be dominated by younger nationalists and came closer
to congress objectives (they turned anti imperalists). The league
outgrew the loyalist outlook of the Aligarh school of thought.
– Britain’s refusal to help turkey in its war in the balkans.
– Annulment of partition of bengal (1911)
• While the league agreed to press joint constitutional demands
with the congress to the government, the congress accepted
the muslim leagues position on separate electorates.
• Assessment of lucknow pact-
• Positive- the acceptance of principle of separate electorates
represented a serious desire to allay minority fears of majority
domination
• Negative- the lucknow pact was a tacit acceptance of the idea
that the congress and league represented separate political
interests. This was a major landmark in the evolution of a two-
nation theory by the muslim league.
– While the leaders of the two groups came together, efforts to bring
the masses together were not considered.
 Monatgu- Chelmsford reforms- GoI
1919
• Montagu statement-gradual development of
self governing institutions, with a view to
progressive realization of self govt for indians
now became a govt policy.

• unlike morley’s statement of 1909 that the

reforms were not intended to give self govt.
• Provincial Level
– GoI Act 1919- executive- dyarchy at provincial level.
– Reserved subjects- finance, taxation, law & order
– Transferred subjects- health, local government,
education etc- to be administered by elected
representatives
– Governor general could interfere even with transferred
subjects
• Legislative-
– Provincial councils to be expanded-70% members to be
elected
– Communal & class electorates further expanded.
– Women right to vote.

• CENTRAL govt- without responsible govt.

– Governor general to continue.
– Legislature could ask questions, pass adjournment, vote
only 25% of budget
• Drawbacks-
– Limited franchise
– Central Legislature -no control over governor general
– Provisional govt- had no control over finances

ROWLATT act 1919-

– Arrest person without trial- suspend habeas corpus.
 Gandhi’s struggle in South Africa
• 1894-1906: moderate phase of struggle against racial subjugation
and exploitation of Indian labour class.
• Gandhi during this phase relied on sending petitions to
authorities in south africa and britain hoping that the authorities
would make a sincere attempt to address the plight of its British
Indian subjects.

• 1906-1914: phase of mass passive resistance or satyagraha.

– Satyagraha against registration of certificates (1906)
– Setting up of tolstoy farm
– Campaign against poll tax and invalidation of Indian marriages.
 Arrival of gandhi-
• Principles of Satyagraha-
1) Not to submit to what was considered wrong- remain
truthful, non violent & fearless.
2)Accept suffering in his struggle
3) True satyagrahi would love evil doer and hate only the
evil
4) Only the brave & strong could practice non violence &
satyagraha- it was not meant for the weak.
• Champaran- first civil disobedience –1917
– Tinkathia-3/20 indigo plantation, competition from
german synthetic dyes, price collapse, high taxation.
– Gandhi opposed- 25% of collected tax returned, indigo
cultivators left in 10 yrs.
– Tinkathia abolished

• Ahemdabad mill strike-1918- 1st hunger strike

– 35% increase in wages demanded, mill owners ready for
20%, finally hunger strike- full 35% hike given
• Kheda satyagraha- 1st non cooperation
– Drought- if yield was less than 1/4th of normal-
farmers were entitled to remission.
– Poor farmers were granted remission after they
with held tax under gandhi’s guidance.
Jaliawalah bagh & Cameron…
 Against rowlatt act- jaliawala bagh
• Satyagraha against rowlatt act-
– from now on peasants, artisans & urban poor went on to
play an imp role in struggle
– orientation turned to masses permanently-gandhi said
“salvation would come when masses were awakened &
became active in politics”

• JALIAWALA BAGH happened-tagore renounced

knighthood, 1000 dead. Hunter commission absolved
general dyer of all charges.
Khilafat movement
 Khilafat & non co-operation movt
• Khilafat- committee led by gandhi- to reinstate the
khalifa back in turkey
• Causes of Non cooperation movement-
– Jallianwalah bagh incident & rowlatt act
– Hunter commission
– High prices & taxes
– Montagu chelmsford were an eyewash: Congress was
loosing faith in constitutional struggle after punjab
incident & hunter commission report.
• Lucknow pact & congress league cooperation
• Opportunity for furthering communal unity
 Nagpur session- december 1920
• Endorsement of non cooperation movement.

• An important change was made- now instead of having

attainment of self govt through constitutional means as the
goal of congress, commitment to attainment of swaraj
through extra constitutional mass struggle was made.

• PCC organized on linguistic basis & four anna membership

• Non cooperation- boycott of govt schools, offices clothing
 Chauri Chaura incident
• Breakdown of reading-gandhi talks in 1922, in February, gandhi
threatened to launch civil disobedience from bardoli if-
– all political prisoners were not released
– press controls were not removed
• however, civil disobedience had barely begun when chauri
chaura happened.

• In march 1922 gandhi arrested- ‘I am here to invite & submit

cheerfully to the highest penalty that can be inflicted upon me
& for what in law is a deliberate crime & what appears to me to
be the highest duty of a citizen’
 Causes for withdrawal-
• People had not clearly learnt the lesson of non
violence, violent incidents could be easily used by
government to violently suppress the whole
movement.

• Movement was showing signs of fatigue

• The central theme-the khilafat agitation was to soon

disappear- turkey became a secular state.
Swarajists- No Changers debate
 Swarajists- supported council entry
• C. R Das, motilal nehru- congress khilafat swaraj
party-
– Use councils as arena for political struggle
– It would be like opening a new front to fight through
other means.
– In times of political vacuum, will serve to enthuse the
masses.
 No changers- patel, rajendra prasad, m.a ansari
• Opposed council entry because-
– Would lead to neglect of constructive work, loss of
revolutionary zeal
– Focus was on popularizing charkha & khadi, setting up
national schools (constructive social work).
• Despite differences, both wanted to avoid a repeat
of 1907, thus swarajists were allowed to contest
elections.
HRA to HSRA
 Revolutionary terrorism- ideological rethinking
• Sudden withdrawal of non-cooperation left them
disillusioned. They questioned the basic strategy of
national leadership.
• Punjab-UP-Bihar:Hindustan Republican Army (HRA)
was formed in 1924 by ramprasad bismil, jogesh
chandra chaterjee & sachin sanyal.
• Kakori robbery-1925: bismil, ashfaqullah khan, roshan
singh & rajendra lahiri were hanged.

• HRA to HSRA-IDEOLOGICAL RETHINK: decided to

work under collective leadership & adopted socialism
as its official goal.
– HRA manifesto-published in Revolutionary: stood for the
abolition of all systems which made exploitation of man by
man possible.
– Bhagat singh moved from the ideology of individual heroic
action to marxism & the belief that popular broad-based
movements alone could lead to a successful revolution.
• Pubjab Naujawan Bharat Sabha (1926): formed an open wing
of revolutionaries to carry out political work amongst
masses.

• Saunder’s murder (Lahore 1928)- to avenge the death of Lala

Lajpat Rai in the Anti-Simon commission protests.

• Bombing central legislative assembly (1929): bhagat singh &

batukeshwar dutt.
– Public Safety bill & trade disputes bill- curtailed civil liberties of
citizens & workers.
• Bengal- Surya Sen- Chittagong army raid-1930:
raided chittagong under the banner of Indian
Republican Army-chittagong branch.
• Large scale participation of young women under
Surya Sen.
– Pritilata Waddedar
– Kalpana Dutt- arrested & tried alongwith surya sen
– Santi Ghosh & Suniti Chandheri- shot the DM.
– Bina Das- shot governor in 1932.
Anti Simon Commission upsurge-1927
 Delhi proposal-1927
• Following demands were made-
– Muslim should be given 1/3rd reservation in central
provinces.
– Joint electorates in place of separate electorates with
reserved seats for muslims.
– Reservation in punjab & bengal according to proportion.
– Formation of three new provinces – sindh, baluch & NWFP.
– Residual power to provinces
Motilal nehru report
 NEHRU REPORT-1928
– Confined its recommendation to british india &
envisaged a future link-up of british india with princely
states on a federal basis.
– DOMINION STATUS.
– rejection of separate electorates- joint electorates with
reservation for muslims where they were in minority &
not in majority areas like Punjab & Bengal.
– Linguistic provinces
– 19 FR
• Governor- General-appointed by Britain, would act on
advice of Parliament.
• Complete disassociation of state from religion.
• Broadly unitary structure- residual powers with centre.

• J.Nehru & Bose- rejected goal of Dominion status &

jointly setup the Independence for India League.
 Jinnah’s Fourteen demands-1929
– Federal constitution with residual power to provinces.
– Provincial autonomy.
– Separate electorate.
– No constitutional amendment without state consent
– 1/3rd representation of muslim in central legislature, in
any cabinet at centre or in provinces.
– No bill to be passed in any legislature if 3/4th of minority
community in opposition to it.
– Separation of sindh from bombay.
1905-1917
 PARTITION OF BENGAL
• The official reason to partition bengal was that with a population of
78 million it was too large to administer officially.
• However, the real motive behind the partition plan was the british
desire to weaken bengal, the nerve centre of indian nationalism.
• This was sought to be achieved by dividing them:
• On the basis of language and reducing bengalis to a minority within
bengal
• On the basis of religion as the western half was to be a hindu majority
and the eastern half a muslim majority area.
 MOVEMENT AGAINST PARTITION OF
BENGAL
The strategies used were-
• Boycott of foreign goods
• Corps of voulnteers or samitis
• Imaginative use of popular festivals and melas
• Emphasis on self reliance and “atma shakti”
• Program of swadeshi or indigenous enterprises
• Significant developments in the cultural sphere
In many ways the strategies of mass resistance that later came to be associated
with gandhian politics were used in this movement.
 THE SURAT SPLIT-1707
• 1906- Dadabhai Naoroji-Calcutta session goal of INC was declared as
‘swarajya or self government like United kingdom or the colonies’.

• Resolution supporting swadeshi, boycott & national education was

passed.

• Extremists- gave a call for wide passive resistance & boycott of

schools, colleges, legislative councils, courts etc.

• Moderates- were hopeful given the news about impending council

reforms, deciding to tone down the Calcutta program
• Surat split-1907- congress came to be dominated by moderates who
lost no time in restating their support to the goal of self government
within the british empire and to constitutional methods only to
achieve this goal.

• Extremists were suppressed- Tilak was jailed for six years. Aurbindo
ghosh & Bipin Chandra Pal retired from active politics. Lala Lajpat
Rai left for abroad.

• Extremists were not able to organize an effective alternate party to

sustain the movement & the moderates were left with no popular
base or support, specially as the youth rallied behind extremists.
• After 1908 the national movement as a whole declined for a time. Tilak
was released in 1914 & he picked up the threads of the movement.

• British Strategy- Carrot & Stick policy- three pronged strategy of

repression-conciliation-suppression.
 REASON’S FOR THE END OF
MOVEMENT
By 1908, open phase of the movement almost ended-
1. Due to severe government repression
2. The movement threw an entire array of techniques that later came to be
associated with gandhian politics. But they failed to give these
techniques a disciplined focus.
3. Most of the extremist leaders were either deported or jailed by the end
of 1908.
4. Divide in the political leadership-Surat split-1907
5. The limited nature of mass participation- remained confined to the
upper & middle classes, did not reach the masses, specially the
peasantry.
6. It is difficult to sustain a mass-based movement at high pitch for too
long
 ANALYSIS OF THE MOVEMENT
1. Proved to be a leap forward in many ways- first movement with mass
base. Certain untouched sections till then- students, women & some
sections of rural & urban india participated.

2. Swadeshi campaign undermined the hegemony of colonial ideas &

institutions.

3. Future struggles were to draw heavily from the experience gained.

4. Some muslims participated- Liaqat Hussain, but most of the upper and
middle class muslims stayed away from it. Those led by Nawab
Salimullah of Dacca, supported the partition of Bengal on the plea that it
would give them a muslim majority East Bengal
RISE OF REVOLUTIONARY TERRORISM
(RT)
• The repression of Extremists failed to provide effective organization to
the impatient & patriotic youth of country, they took the path of
individual heroism & revolutionary terrorism inspired by the activity of
Irish nationalists.
• Attempted to assassinate unpopular British officials like Lord Curzon
with the aim of striking terror in the heart of the rulers & arouse the
patriotic instinct of the masses, thereby removing the fear of authority
from their minds.
• Moreover the trial of revolutionaries who were caught would act as
‘propaganda by deed’.
• Bengal- inner circle of Anushilan Samiti ( Barindrakumar Ghosh,
Bhupendranath Dutta) started the weekly ‘Yugantar’ and conducted a
few actions. Political Dacoity and abortive attempts on higher british
officials.
• Newspaper like Sandhya & Yugantar in Bengal openly advocated RT.

• Maharashtra- chapekar brothers-killing of plague commisioner 1897.

• V.D Savarkar- Mitra mela (1899) later merged with Abhinav Bharat (1904).
• Nasik, Poona & Bombay emerged as hubs of gun manufacture
 MORLEY MINTO REFORMS-1909
1906- Shimla Deputation- Met Lord Minto & demanded separate
electorates for muslims.
1. Number of elected officials were increased in both central and
provincial councils
2. Provincial councils- non-official majority was introduced. But overall
non-elected majority remained.
3. Elected members were to be indirectly elected.
4. Separate electorates for muslims, in excess of their population
strength.
5. One indian was to be appointed to Viceroy’s Executive council.
 EVALUATION OF REFORMS OF 1909
• Part of British divide and rule policy
• Moderates VS extremist divide
• Hindu VS muslim divide

• Failed to usher in self government- Meaningless reforms

• Conclusion: The reforms of 1909 gave to the people of the country a

shadow rather than substance. The people had demanded self
government but what they got was ‘benovlent despotism’
 WW1 & THE IMPACT ON FREEDOM
MOVEMENT
The nationalist response to British participation in WW1 was-
• Moderates supported the empire as a matter of duty.
• Extremists including tilak supported british in the belief that british would
repay indian loyalty.
• The RT’s decided to utilize the opportunity to wage a war on british rule.
KOMAGATA MARU
INCIDENT
 MILITANT NATIONALISM DURING
WW1
Ghadar party- San Francisco- Lala Hardayal & Sohan Singh Bhakna,
Barkatullah. It preached militant nationalism with a completely secular
approach.
• Komagata Maru incident & Outbreak of WW1 further strengthened their
intentions in 1914.
• Intended to provoke a mutiny amongst Indian soldiers stationed in India and
abroad.
• Defence of India Act 1915 was passed to suppress them- granted the
Executive very wide powers of preventive detention, internment without trial,
restriction of writing, speech, and of movement.

Berlin Committee- Zimmerman plan-1915- was formed with the assistance of

german foreign office.
The most effective contribution made by DadabhaiNaoroji to the cause
of Indian National Movement was that he
• exposed the economic exploitation of India by the British
• interpreted the ancient Indian texts and restored the self-confidence of
Indians
• stressed the need for eradication of all the social evils before anything
else
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
The Ilbert Bill controversy was related to the: (2013)
• (a) imposition restrictions the Indians of certain to carry arms
by Indians
• (b) imposition of restrictions on newspapers and magazines
published in Indian languages
• (c) removal of disqualifications imposed on the Indian
magistrates with regard to the trial of the Europeans
• (d) removal of a duty on imported cotton cloth
With reference to the period of colonial rule in India, “Home Charges” formed an
important part of drain of wealth from India. Which of the following funds constituted
“Home Charges”?(2011)
• Funds used to support the India Office in London.
• Funds used to pay salaries and pensions of British personnel engaged in India.
• Funds used for waging wars outside India by the British.

Select the correct answer using the codes given below:

(a.) 1 only
(b.) 1 and 2 only
(c.) 2 and 3 only
(d.) 1, 2 and 3
Which of the following statements is/are correct regarding
BrahmoSamaj? (2012)
• It opposed idolatry.
• It denied the need for a priestly class for interpreting the religious
texts.
• It popularized the doctrine that the Vedas are infallible.
Select the correct answer using the codes given below :
(a) 1 only
(b) 1 and 2 only
(c) 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
The Partition of Bengal made by Lord Curzon in 1905 lasted
until? (2014)
a) the First World War when Indian troops were needed by the
British and the partition was ended.
b) King George V abrogated Curzon’s Act at the Royal Darbar
in Delhi in 1911
c) Gandhiji launched his Civil Disobedience Movement
d) the Partition of India, in 1947 when East Bengal became
East Pakistan
1928-1937
 Run up to civil disobedience
• In december 1928, congress decided that if the government did
not accept a constitution based on dominion status by the end
of next year, the congress will not only demand independence
but will launch a civil disobedience movement against it.

• Dec 1929- lahore session –j. nehru- poorna swaraj- following

decisions were taken-
1. RTC to be boycotted
2. Complete independence as aim
3. Jan 26, 1930 celebrated as independence day
4. CWC authorised to launch civil disobedience
 Gandhi’s 11 demands & dandi march
• Ultimatum to govt till jan 1930, to accept or reject 11 demands
including
• In general interest-
– reduce exp on army, release political prisoners, change arms act to
allow popular control of firearm licenses
• Specific Bourgeois demands-
– Introduce textile protection
– Reserve coastal shipping for indians
• Specific peasant demands-
– Reduce land revenue by 50%
– Abolish salt tax & govt salt monopoly
 Dandi march- march 12- april 6, 1930
• Why salt was chosen- salt in a flash linked the ideal of
swaraj with a most concrete & universal grievance of
rural poor.
– Moreover it had no socially divisive implications like a no
tax campaign
• Gandi broke the salt law by picking handful of salt at
dandi on april 6.
• Khan abdul ghafffar khan-khudai khidmatgars-nwfp-
massive participation of muslims.
 Extent of mass participation
• Women- the movt was the most liberating experience
& can be said to have truly marked their entry into
public sphere-picketing liquor shops, opium dens,
burning foreign cloth

• Students- youth played the most prominent role

• Muslim- nowhere near 1920-22 level bcoz of appeal by
muslim leaders to stay away except in NWFP led by
khudai khidmatgars
 1st RTC & gandhi-irwin pact
• Congress boycotted 1st RTC (jan 1931)-
muslim league, hindu mahasabha, prices attended it-
Without congress involvement meaningless.

GANDHI IRWIN PACT-

• Congress leaders released unconditionally from jail,
gandhi irwin pact signed-
– Immediate release of all political prisoners not convicted
of violence.
 – Remission of all fines not yet collected.
– Return of all land not yet sold to third parties.
– Right to make salt in coastal villages for personal
consumption ( not for sale).

• Viceroy however turned down-

– Demand of public inquiry into police excesses
– Commutation of death sentence of bhagat singh to life
sentence
• Gandhi agreed to-
Suspend civil disobedience movt
Participate in next RTC
 Karachi session-1931
• Endorsed the gandhi- irwin pact or delhi pact.
• Goal of poorna swaraj was reiterated.
• Two resolutions were adopted-
• Fundamental rights-
– Free speech & free press
– Right to form associations
– Universal adult franchise
– Neutrality of state in religious matters
– Free & compulsory primary edu
• Resolution on national economic programme—
– Substantial reduction in rent & revenue
– Better working conditions, limited working hours
Congress spelt out- ‘in order to end exploitation of masses, political freedom must
include economic freedom of starving millions’
2nd round table conference
 2nd RTC
• Gandhi participated in 2nd rtc in london-deadlock over
the question of separate electorates for muslims,
depressed classes, christians & anglo indians.
• Government failed to concede basic indian demand for
freedom
• COMMUNAL AWARD- 1932-divide & rule
• In addition to muslims, christians, sikhs which had
been already recognized as minorities, communal
award declared the depressed also+ separate elect
 Gandhi’s response
• Saw communal award as an attack on Indian
unity & nationalism.
• Once depressed classes were treated as a
separate entity, question of abolishing
untouchability would get undermined.
• Separate electorates would ensure that
untouchables remain untouchables in
perpetuity.
 Gandhi’s Harijan campaign
• Launched in 1933, collected money for his newly
set up Harijan Sewak Sangh- propagated removal
of untouchability in all forms, undertook fasts.

• Did not mix the issue of untouchability with inter

caste marriage and inter dining etc.
 Gandhi vs Ambedkar
• Gandhi- whatever the limitation of varnashram
systems, nothing sinful about it.
• Untouchability was a distinction of high & low,
varnashram could function in a manner where each
caste could be complimentary to other rather than
being higher or lower.
• Was opposed to using compulsion against orthodox
hindus, they were to be won over by persuasion by
appealing to their reason & hearts.
 Two level strategic debates
• First level-for the future strategy-
– Support council entry- m.a ansari, asaf ali, desai etc
supported- participation would keep up political interest
– Would increase congress prestige & confidence.

• Opposed council entry- leftists led by nehru argued for

a S-V strategy, advocated maintenance of a continuous
direct action.

• Constructive work- on gandhian lines

• Finally yes to council entry, gandhi resigned in
1934 from congress to serve it better in word
thought & deed.
 GOVT OF INDIA act, 1935
• following completion of 3rd RTC without
congress,
– an all india federation to be formed on the
condition that states should agree to join the
federation- implying right to secede
 Dyarchy at federal level
• federal level: subjects divided in reserved &
transferred subjects, transferred administered on
basis of advice of ministers.
– 80% of the budget was unvotable
– Bicameral legislature: elections to council of states
would be direct & to the federal assembly indirect
– Three lists of union list, state list & provincial ones
– separate electorates continued
 Provincial autonomy
• Provincial autonomy to replace dyarchy,
provinces were given independent financial
powers & resources.
– All members-directly elected
– 40% of budget was still unvotable.
– Governor continued to enjoy veto power
• The long term aim of introducing the Act of 1935 was
to weaken the freedom movement by:
– Integrating large section of movements into colonial
administrative structure
– Provincial autonomy would create powerful provincial
leaders who would gradually become autonomous.
Congress would thus become provincialised & central
leadership would get weakened.
• Rejected by congress & instead demanded convening
of constituent assembly based on adult franchise for
independent india.
 2nd stage debate
• For the impending 1937elections-
– Nehru, subhash were opposed to council entry as
it would negate the rejection of the act by
nationalists.
– Proponents of office entry- it was only a short
term tactic since option of mass movement was
not available at that time.
• Gandhi opposed office acceptance but was willing to give it
a trial, 1937 faizpur , congress decided to fight elections

• 1937 elections, congress got majority in all except- bengal,

punjab, sindh & NWFP. But emerged largest party in bengal,
assam & NWFP.

• Gandhi advised congressmen to hold the offices lightly &

not tightly, the office were to be seen as crowns of thorns
to see if they hastened the pace of achieving complete
freedom
 Impact of 28 month rule of congress in
provinces (1937-39)
• Impact on civil liberties: congress did much to ease curbs on civil liberties
– Laws giving emergency powers were repealed
– Press restrictions were lifted
– In bombay, lands confiscated during civil disobedience movement were
restored.
– Confiscated arms & arms licenses were restored.
• Impact on Agrarian reforms: there were constraints of power & finances
with the government. Also the second chamber was dominated with
landlords, moneylenders & capitalists whose support was necessary for
passing laws.
– Limited progress was witnessed on the front of land reforms. But debt relief
for farmers and tenancy rights for peasants were strengthened.
• Attitude towards industrial class: the ministries treated militant
trade union protests as law & order problems. The Bombay trade
disputes act was introduced in 1938 which clamped down upon
militant trade union protests and led to criticism of the government
for resorting to repressive measures.

• Social welfare measures: measures for welfare of harijan were

taken- temple entry, use of public facilities, scholarships.
– The ministries were able to contain communal riots.
• On the whole the constructive work
performed by congress during its 28 month
rule from 1937 onwards demonstrated what
would be the shape of things when
independence was won.
• In the wake of WW 2, congress ministries
resigned in 1939
THE RISE OF
CONGRESS
 MODERATE PHASE AND EARLY
CONGRESS
Factors responsible for the growth of modern nationalism:
1. Understanding of contradictions of indian & colonial interests
2. Political, administrative & economic unification of country
3. The role of western thought and education- the ever expanding english
educated class formed the middle class intelligentsia who constituted
the nucleus for newly arising political unrest. They provided leadership
for indian political associations.
4. Role of press and literature
5. Impact of contemporary movements worldwide
6. Reactionary policies & racial arrogance of rulers
• Lord Lytton-1876-80
• Royal title act 1876- Queen victoria assumed the title of ‘Kaiser-i-Hind’ or
Queen empress of India.
• The vernacular press act (1878)
• The arms act (1878)

• Lord Ripon & the Ilbert bill controversy (1883)- under ripon, the govt
sought to abolish “judicial disqualifications based on race distinctions” &
give the Indian members of civil service the same powers as those
enjoyed by their European colleagues. However, ripon came under
intense pressure and was forced to modify the bill.
POLITICAL ASSOCIATION BEFORE INC
1. East India Association- Dadabhai Naoroji- 1866: was formed in
London to discuss the Indian question & influence public opinion in
England to promote Indian welfare

2. Indian Association of Calcutta-1876: Surendranath Banerjee & Anand

Mohan Bose.

3. Poona Sarvajainik Sabha- 1867: MG Ranade & others

4. The Bombay Presidency association-1885: Badruddin Tayabji,

Pherozshah Mehta & K T Telang.
 INC-1885
First session at Bombay-1885- was organized by a retired English civil
servant A.O Hume by mobilizing leading intellectuals of the time. The
first session was presided over by Womesh Chandra Bonnerjea.

1883-1885- Indian National Conference: Surendranath Banerjee & Anand

Mohan Bose- was a prelude to INC & had representatives drawn from all
over the country.

1890- Kadambini Ganguly- the 1st women graduate from calcutta

university addressed the Congress session.
 SAFETY VALVE VS LIGHTNING
CONDUCTOR
Safety valve hypothesis- Hume formed congress with the idea that it would
prove to be a ‘safety valve’ for releasing growing discontent of Indians. He
convinced Lord Dufferin not to obstruct the formation of congress.

Lightning conductor- Bipin Chandra argues that INC represented the urge of
politically conscious Indians to set up a national body to express their
political and economic demands.

If the indians would have convened such body on their own, they would
have faced a strong colonial backlash. Thus they decided to use Hume as a
‘lightning conductor’ i.e as a catalyst to bring the nationalistic forces even if
under the guise of ‘safety valve’.
 THE ROLE OF MODERATES -1885-1905
• Dadabhai Naoroji, Pherozshah mehta, W.C Bonnerjea
• Dominated early stages of congress- strong believers in liberalism and
moderate politics. Moderate political activity involved constitutional
agitation within the confines of law.

• 3P strategy- they resorted to Prayers, Petitions & Protests to the

government with the hope that authorities would concede their
demands gradually. For this they chose a two pronged strategy-
• Create strong public opinion to arose nationalistic consciousness
• Persuade british govt and british public opinion to introduce reforms in India
 CONTRIBUTIONS OF MODERATES
1. Economic critique of British Colonialism
2. Constitutional reforms and propaganda in Legislature- Imperial
legislative Council was formed in 1861 but was a toothless body.
• From 1885-92 the nationalist demands were centered around-
• Expansion of councils with greater indian representation
• Reform of councils- granting of more power to councils, especially over
finances.
• However the Indian Council Act of 1892 failed to meet their demands.
3. Campaigned for general administrative reforms.
4. Defence of civil rights- freedom of press.
 INDIAN COUNCIL ACT OF 1861 & 1892
• Indian Council Act of 1861:
• Established the imperial legislative council which was an impotent
body with minimal indian representation.
• Indian members were few in number and most of them were landed
elites and british loyalists.
• Indian Council Act, 1892:
• Enlarged the size and function of central and provincial councils.
Some of these members could be indirectly elected. Thus an element
of election was introduced for the first time.
• The councils were given the right to discuss budget under certain
conditions. However the budget could not be voted upon.
• Members of the council were granted the right to ask questions
 EVALUATION OF THE ROLE OF
MODERATES
• Strengths:
1. They exposed the basically exploitative character of colonial rule in
India.
2. Their political work was based on hard factual analysis and not
particularistic religious sentiments

• Weakness:
1. The moderate phase of national movement had a narrow social base
and the masses played a passive role. They had little faith in the
capacity of masses.
2. They failed to broaden the scope of their demands beyond those
permitted by strictly constitutionalist framework.
1937- freedom & partition
Opposing indian involvement in WW 2
• Support for war on - two basic conditions-
– after war a constituent assembly will be convened to
determine political structure of free india
– immediately, some form of genuine responsible govt to be
established at centre

• Offer rejected by linlithglow, CWC at wardha

condemned fascist aggression but said-
– india could not be a party to a war being fought ostensibly
for democratic freedom while freedom was itself being
denied to indians
 – if Britain was fighting for democracy & freedom , it should
prove it by abolishing imperialism & establishing full
democratic state in india.

• Upon rejection by linlithgow, CWC in 1939 decided-

– Not to support the war & called upon congress ministries to
resign in the provinces.
• Pakistan resolution: Meanwhile in march 1940, muslim
league passed a resolution for grouping of
geographically continuous areas in NW & east into
independent states.
 August offer 1940-
• Upon the fall of belgium, holland & france,
england came in a conciliatory mood, the viceroy
offered-
– Dominion status as objective.
– Setting up a constituent assembly after war where
mainly indians would decide the constitution.
– No future constitution to be accepted without the
consent of minorities.
• Evaluation:
– first time, inherent right of indians to frame their constitution
was recognized & congress demand for constituent assembly
was conceded.
– Dominion status was explicitly offered.

• Congress rejected August offer. Nehru said “dominion

status concept is as dead as a doornail”

• Muslim league welcomed the veto assurance given to it.

 Individual/limited Satyagrahas
• Government had taken a rigid position that no advancement can be made
till congress came to an agreement with muslim league.
• It started to curtail freedom of speech, of media.

• Aim of launching individual satyagraha were:

– Nationalist patience was not due to weakness
– To express people’s feeling that they were not interested in the war.
– To give government another opportunity to govt to accept congress demands
peacefully.

• “Delhi Chalo” Movement: the demand of satyagrahi would be freedom of

speech against the war through an anti war declaration
 Cripps Mission-1942
• Was sent to secure indian support as the British suffered
reverses in South-East India & the threat of japanese invasion
seemed imminent.
• Main proposal:
– An indian union with a dominion status to be set up.
– After the war, a constituent assembly elected solely by Indians
would be set up.
– Any province not willing to join the union could form a separate
union.
• Implications:
– Making of constitution was solely to be in Indian hands now
• Congress objections: to the offer of dominion
status instead of a provision for complete
independence.
– The right to secede to provinces, as this went
against the principal of national unity.
– Governor-general’s supremacy had been retained.
Quit India Movement- Bombay session, August 8 1942
• Reasons-
– Failure of Cripps mission
– Popular discontent because of rising prices & shortages
– The reverses suffered by British in South East Asia
• Quit India resolution was ratified by Congress.
Gandhi was named the leader of the struggle.
• August 9: all top leaders of congress were
arrested. This lead to a spontaneous upsurge.
 Famine of 1943
• Bengal: around 1.5- 3million people suffered in this
basically man-made famine. The causes were:
– The need to feed a vast army diverted food grains from
the common masses
– Rice imports from burma & south east asia had been
stopped
– Famine got aggravated by gross mismanagement
 C.R Formula
• Efforts were being made to reach a consensus with the
muslim league for jointly raising demand for
independence.
• C.R formula was a step in this direction it was a tacit
acceptance of the demand for Pakistan, Gandhi
supported the formula-
– muslim league was to endorse congress demand for
independence
– league to cooperate with congress in forming provisional
government at centre.
 – after end of war, entire population of muslim majority
areas in NW & NE india were to decide by plebiscite
whether or not to form a separate sovereign state
– in case of acceptance of partition-agreement to be
made jointly for safegaurding defence, commerce,
communication etc
• Jinnah objection-wanted congress to accept 2
nation theory, wanted only muslims in these
areas to vote, also opposed the idea of common
centre.
 Desai- liaqat pact
• Both came up with draft proposal for the
formation of interim govt at centre-
– 1) equal no of persons nominated by congress & league
in central legislature.
– 2) 20% seats reserved for minorities.

• No settlement could be reached, but the fact that a

sort of parity b/w both was decided upon had far
reaching consequences.
 Wavell plan-1945
• Despite the fact that the war was coming to an end, the
japanese threat still remained.
• The conservative led by churchill were keen to reach a
solution on constitutional question
• There was pressure from allies to seek further indian
co-op in the war.
– 1)Except governor general & commander in chief, all
members of EC were to be indians.
– 2) hindus & muslims to have equal representation
– 3) Gov gen to exercise veto on advice of legislature
• The league wanted all muslims to be its nominees, the
league claimed some kind of veto in council with
decision opposed to muslims needing a 2/3rd majority.

• Congress- objected to attempts to reduce it to a hindu

organization & insisted on its right to include members
from all communities.

• Wavell announced a breakdown of talks thus giving the

muslim league a virtual veto, greatly strengthening
muslim league position.
 INA: 1942-43
• The idea of INA was first conceived by Mohan Singh in Malaya in
1942. INA intended to go into action only on invitation of INC &
the people of India.

• Outbreak of Quit India movement gave a boost to INA. The first

division was formed with 16,000 people.

• Subhash Bose-1943-Second phase:

– Formed forward bloc in 1940.
– In march 1941 escaped from India.
– In October 1943, he set up Provisional Indian Government with base at
Rangoon & Singapore. This provincial government was recognized by
Axis powers
 1946 elections: the rise of muslim league
• Congress got 91% of non-muslim votes
– Captured 57 out of 102 seats in Central assembly.
– Got a majority in all states except Bengal, Sindh &
Punjab.
– Congress won a majority in NWFP & Assam

• Muslim league got 86% muslim votes

– Provincial level, majority in Bengal & Punjab
– Captured 30 reserved seats in central assembly
 INA trials
• After the end of WW2, the british had decided to hold
public trials of several hundred INA prisoners, dismissing
them from service and detaining them without trial.
• The first public trial was held in nov 1945.
• Congress supported the INA prisoners and defended them
in courts. Also an agitation was launched demanding the
release of INA prisioners.
• Graffiti, pamplets and public meetings were organized in
their support. INA day (Nov 12 1945) and INA week (Nov 5-
11)
• Campaign had a wide geographical reach and
drew support from diverse social groups and
political parties.
• The central theme soon became the right of
Britain to decide a matter concerning Indians.
The British realized the political significance of
the issue
 RIN upsurge/mutiny
• The INA trials received a direct support from the
soldiers of Royal Indian Navy. 1100 naval ratings
went on a strike to protest against-
• INA trials
• Racial discrimination
• Use of Indian troops in Indonesia demanding
withdrawal.
• Unpalatable food, abuse by senior officers
 Significance of RIN mutiny and INA trials
• The rebels carved “quit india” on HIMS talwar, raised the tricolour on the rebel
fleet.
• There were sympathetic military strikes in Karachi, Madras, Vishakapatnam

• Significance of RIN mutiny and INA trials

• Revolt in the armed forces had a great liberating effect on the minds of the
people
• RIN revolt was seen as an event marking the end of British rule and the final
independence day
• These uprisings prompted the british to offer concessions- Cabinet mission was
sent in Jan 1946.
• Imprisonment sentence passed against the first batch of INA prisoners was
remitted, and the severe charges against them were dropped.
 Cabinet Mission plan-1946
• Pethick Lawrence, Stafford cripps & A V Alexander.
• Rejected demand for a full fledged pakistan
– Because would include a large non-muslim population. 38% in NW &
48% in NE.
• Grouping of Existing provincial assemblies into three sections.
– Section A: Hindu majority provinces
– Section B: Punjab, NWFP & Sindh (Muslim majority provinces in west.)
– Section C: Bengal & Assam (Muslim majority provinces in East)
• A constituent assembly to be elected by provincial assemblies by
proportional representation.
• Common centre would control defence, communication &
external affairs
 Atlee’s statement: Feb 20, 1947
• Deadline of june 30,1948 was set up for transfer of
power, even if indian politicians could not reach an
agreement by that time.

• Mountbatten would replace Wavell as viceroy.

• British would relinquish power to a central

government or in some areas to existing provincial
governments if the constituent assembly was not fully
representative.
 Mountbatten plan: June 3, 1947
• Dominion Status.

• Punjab & Bengal legislative assemblies would meet in two groups, Hindus
& Muslims to vote for partition.

• Independence for princely states ruled out, they would either join India or
Pakistan.

• Independence for Bengal ruled out

• Accession of Hyderabad to Pakistan ruled out.
• A boundary commission would be set up if partition was to be effected
• Quit India Movement was launched in
response to: (2013)
• (a) Cabinet Mission Plan
• (b) Cripps Proposals
• (c) Simon Commission Report
• (d) Wavell Plan
• The people of India agitated against the arrival of Simon
Commission because: (2013)
• (a) Indians never wanted the review of the working of the
Act of 1919
• (b) Simon Commission recommended the abolition
of Dyarchy (Diarchy) in the Provinces
• (c) there was no Indian member in the Simon Commission
• (d) the Simon Commission suggested the partition of the
country
• What was the reason for Mahatma Gandhi to organize a satyagraha
on behalf of the peasants of Kheda?(2011)
– The Administration did not suspend the land revenue collection in
spite of a drought.
– The Administration proposed to introduce Permanent Settlement in
Gujarat.
• Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
– (a.) 1 only
– (b.) 2 only
– (c.) Both 1 and 2
– (d.) Neither 1 nor 2
• Mahatma Gandhi undertook fast unto death in 1932,
mainly because: (2012)
• (a) Round Table Conference failed to satisfy Indian political
aspirations
• (b) Congress and Muslim League had differences of opinion
• (c) Ramsay Macdonald announced the Communal Award
• (d) None of the statements (a), (b) and (c) given above is
correct in this context
• Annie Besant was: (2013)
– responsible for starting the Home Rule Movement
– the founder of the Theo-sophical Society
– once the President of the Indian National Congress
• Select the correct statement/statements using the codes given
below.
• (a) 1 only
• (b) 2 and 3 only
• (c) 1 and 3 only
• (d) 1, 2 and 3
• With reference to the period of Indian freedom struggle, which of the
following was/were recommended by the Nehru report?(2011)
– Complete Independence for India.
– Joint electorates for reservation of seats for minorities.
– Provision of fundamental rights for the people of India in the Constitution.

• Select the correct answer using the codes given below:

• (a.) 1 only
• (b.) 2 and 3 only
• (c.) 1 and 3 only
• (d.) 1, 2 and 3
• The Rowlatt Act aimed at: (2012)
• (a) compulsory economic support to war efforts
• (b) imprisonment without trial and summary
procedures for trial
• (c) suppression of the Khilafat Movement
• (d) imposition of restrictions on freedom of the
press
• The Lahore Session of the Indian National Congress (1929) is very
important in history, because(2012)
– the Congress passed a resolution demanding complete independence
– the rift between the extremists and moderates was resolved in that Session
– a resolution was passed rejecting the two-nation theory in that Session

• Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

• (a) I only
• (b) 2 and 3
• (c) 1 and 3
• (d) None of the above
• The 1929 Session of Indian, National Congress is of significance in
the history of the Freedom Movement because the (2014)
1. attainment of Self-Government was declared as the objective of
the Congress
2. attainment of Poorna Swaraj Was adopted as the goal of the
Congress
3. Non-Cooperation Movement was launched
4. decision to participate in the Round Table Conference in London
was taken
• The Ghadr (Ghadar) was a (2014)
1. Revolutionary association of Indians with
headquarters at San Francisco.
2. nationalist organization operating from
Singapore
3. militant organization with headquarters at Berlin
4. communist movement for India’s freedom with
head-quarters at Tashkent
• The Radcliffe Committee was appointed
to (2014)
1. solve the problem of minorities in India
2. give effect to the Independence Bill
3. delimit the boundaries between India and
Pakistan
4. enquire into the riots in East Bengal