Introduction on Photovoltaic cell

A photovoltaic cell is a specific type of PN junction diode that

is intended to convert light energy into electrical power.
These cells usually operate in a reverse bias environment.
Photovoltaic cells and solar cells have different features, yet
they work on similar principles.
Photovoltaic cells are essential for turning incident light into
electrical energy that can be used, and their ability to
function in a reverse bias situation emphasizes how
specifically engineered they are to maximize solar power.
It is interesting to note that despite the fact that these names
may pertain to distinct facets of the technology, their close
proximity to the process of turning sunlight into electrical
power makes them often used interchangeably.

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 Photovoltaic Cell Structure

A photovoltaic (PV) cell, commonly known as a solar cell, is a

device that directly converts light energy into electrical
energy through the photovoltaic effect. Here’s an explanation
of the typical structure of a silicon-based PV cell:
❖ Top Contact: This is the topmost layer of the PV cell, often
made of a transparent conductive material like indium tin
oxide (ITO) or doped tin oxide. Its transparency allows
sunlight to pass through to the active layers beneath while
also providing a path for the generated electrical current to
flow out of the cell. The top contact is also called Transparent
Conductive Layer.

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❖ Emitter Layer: Beneath the top contact layer is the emitter
layer, which is typically a thin layer of heavily doped (high
concentration of impurities) n-type silicon. This layer
facilitates the movement of electrons generated by absorbed
sunlight.
❖ Base Layer: Below the emitter layer lies the base layer, which
is usually a thicker layer of lightly doped (low concentration
of impurities) p-type silicon. This layer helps in creating an
electric field within the cell by providing positively charged
“holes” for the electrons to move towards.
❖ Back Surface Field (BSF) Layer: In some PV cell designs, a
back surface field layer is made of heavily doped p-type
silicon. It is added to the rear surface of the cell to further
enhance the collection of charge carriers (electrons and
holes) and reduce recombination losses.
❖ Back Contact: The bottom layer of the PV cell is the back
contact or back electrode, which is typically made of a
conductive material like aluminum or silver. Its primary
function is to collect the generated electrons and provide an
external path for the electrical current to flow out of the cell.

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 Working of Photovoltaic Cell

Here’s how it works:

❖ Absorption of Sunlight: When sunlight (which consists of
photons) strikes the surface of the PV cell, it penetrates into
the semiconductor material (usually silicon) of the cell.
❖ Generation of Electron-Hole Pairs: The energy from the
absorbed photons is transferred to electrons in the
semiconductor material, allowing them to break free from
their atomic bonds and create electron-hole pairs. Electrons
are negatively charged and move freely, while the holes are
positively charged.
❖ Separation of Charges: Due to the built-in electric field within
the PV cell (created by the junction between different
semiconductor layers), the newly generated electron-hole
pairs are separated. Electrons are pushed towards the n-type

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 (negative) side of the cell, while holes are pushed towards
the p-type (positive) side.
❖ Flow of Electrons: The separated electrons are collected by
metal contacts on the surface of the cell, forming an electric
current. This current can be harnessed for external use.
❖ External Load: When an external electrical load (such as a
light bulb or a battery) is connected to the PV cell, the flow of
electrons through the load generates electrical power, which
can be used to power various devices or stored in batteries
for later use.

Photovoltaic Cell Working Principle

Working principle of Photovoltaic Cell is similar to that of a
diode. In PV cell, when light whose energy is greater than the
band gap of the semiconductor used, the light get trapped and
used to produce current. In the absorption layer of the cell,
photons from sunlight provide electrons energy, which causes
the electrons to break free from their atomic connections and
form electron-hole pairs. These charge carriers separate more
easily at the P-N junction due to the electric field there, which
pushes holes toward the P-type region and electrons toward
the N-type region. When an external circuit is linked, the space
separation between the two sides generates a voltage potential
that causes electrons and holes to flow, producing an electric
current.

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 Types of Photovoltaic Cell

❖ Silicon Photovoltaic Cell

Silicon photovoltaic cell, also referred to as a solar cell, is a
device that transforms sunlight into electrical energy. It is
made of semiconductor materials, mostly silicon, which in
turn releases electrons to create an electric current when
photons from sunshine are absorbed.

❖ Monocrystalline Silicon Solar Cells

Monocrystalline cells are made from a single crystal
structure, resulting in a high efficiency of solar energy

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 conversion. These cells are known for their sleek
appearance and high power output per square foot.

❖ Polycrystalline Silicon Solar Cells

Polycrystalline cells are made from multiple crystal
structures. While they are less efficient than
monocrystalline cells, they are more cost-effective to
produce. Polycrystalline solar panels often have a blue tint.

❖ Thin-Film Solar Cells

Thin-film solar cells use layers of semiconductor materials
that are only a few micrometers thick. Common materials
include amorphous silicon (a-Si), cadmium telluride (CdTe),
and copper indium gallium selenide (CIGS). Thin-film cells
are lightweight, flexible, and cost-effective but generally
have lower efficiency.

❖ Multijunction Solar Cells

Multijunction solar cells consist of multiple layers of
semiconductor materials stacked on top of each other.
Each layer is designed to absorb a specific range of
wavelengths of sunlight, increasing the overall efficiency.
These cells are often used in concentrated photovoltaic
systems.

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❖ Organic Photovoltaic Cells (OPVs)
Organic photovoltaic cells use organic (carbon-based)
materials as the semiconductor. They are lightweight,
flexible, and have the potential for low-cost
manufacturing. However, their efficiency is currently lower
compared to traditional solar cells.

❖ Perovskite Solar Cells

Perovskite solar cells use a class of materials called
perovskites, which have shown great promise due to their
high efficiency and relatively simple fabrication process.
Research in perovskite solar cells is ongoing to address
issues such as stability and scalability.

❖ Tandem Solar Cells

Tandem solar cells combine multiple solar cell
technologies in a stacked configuration to enhance
efficiency. For example, a tandem cell might combine
silicon and perovskite layers to capture a broader range of
the solar spectrum.

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 Photovoltaic Cell Circuit Diagram

Generations of Photovoltaic Cell

Photovoltaic cells have evolved over several generations, each
characterized by advancements in materials, design, and
efficiency. Currently, there are three generations of Photovoltaic
Cell or solar cells which are discussed below:
1. First Generation Photovoltaic Cell
2. Second Generation Photovoltaic Cell
3. Third Generation Photovoltaic Cell

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❖ First Generation Photovoltaic Cell
First generation of photovoltaic (PV) cells emerged in the
1950s It primarily utilized crystalline silicon as the
semiconductor material. These cells are often referred to as
single-crystal silicon or monocrystalline silicon cells. They
were the earliest commercialized PV technology and laid the
foundation for modern solar energy systems.

❖ Second Generation Photovoltaic Cell

Second generation of photovoltaic (PV) cells emerged in the
1980s and introduced new semiconductor materials and
thin-film technologies as alternatives to traditional crystalline
silicon cells. This generation of PV cells is often referred to as
thin-film solar cells and includes cadmium telluride (CdTe),
and copper indium gallium selenide (CIGS).

❖ Third Generation Photovoltaic Cell

The third generation of photovoltaic (PV) cells, which began
to emerge in the early 2000s, focuses on advanced materials
and novel device architectures to improve efficiency, reduce
costs, and enable new applications. Some key examples of
third-generation PV technologies include:

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