Chapter 18

Electric and magnetic

fields

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

In this chapter you will learn how to:

● understand the concept and properties of
electric charge

● charge a body by electrostatic induction

● apply Coulomb’s law

● understand the concept of electric field

● work with magnetic fields

● determine the direction of the magnetic fields
created by straight currents and coils

● recognize how magnetic fields exert magnetic

forces on moving charges and electric currents

understand the concept of electric potential

and electric potential energy

understand the connection between electric

field lines and equipotential surfaces

GUIDING QUESTIONS

● What is the electric force between charged

particles?

● What is the magnetic force on moving charged

particles?

● What is the connection between electricity and

magnetism?
Introduction
This chapter examines the properties of electric charge
and the phenomena that take place when charge is
allowed to move so as to create an electric current. The
concept of an electric field is crucial to understanding
electric current, as it is the electric field inside a
conductor that forces electric charge to move.
18.1 Electric charge, force and
field
Electric charge is a property of matter. Ordinarily, matter
appears electrically neutral, but we can charge a body
by friction.

For example, take two plastic rods and rub each with a
piece of wool. We will find that the two rods now repel
each other. If we now rub two glass rods with silk, we
find that the glass rods again repel each other, but the
charged glass rod attracts the charged plastic rod. We
can understand these observations (Figure 18.1) by
assuming that:
● the process of rubbing involves the transfer of
charge from one body to the other

● charge can be positive or negative

● there is a force between charged bodies that can be

attractive or repulsive.

Figure 18.1: Two simple experiments to investigate

properties of electric charge.
Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790) decided to call the sign
of the charge on the glass rubbed with silk ‘positive’.
Much later, when electrons were discovered, it was
found that electrons were attracted to the charged glass
rod. This means that electrons must have negative
charge. But if Franklin had called the charge on the glass
rod negative, we would now be calling the electron’s
charge positive!

From experiments with charged objects, we learn that

there is a force of attraction between charges of
opposite sign and a force of repulsion between charges
of the same sign. The magnitude of the force becomes
smaller as the distance between the charged bodies
increases.

Properties of electric charge

In ordinary matter, negative charge is a property of
particles called electrons. Positive charge is a property
of protons, which exist in the nuclei of atoms. (There are
many other particles that have charge, but those do not
appear in ordinary matter.)

The first important property of electric charge is that it

is conserved. Like total energy, electric charge cannot be
created or destroyed. In any process the total charge
cannot change (see worked example 18.1).

In solid metals the atoms are fixed in position in a

lattice, but there are many ‘free’ electrons that do not
belong to a particular atom. When exposed to an
electric field (see later) these electrons can drift in the
same direction creating an electric current. In liquids,
and especially in gases, positive ions can also transport
charge.

Materials that have many ‘free’ electrons (Figure 18.2)

are called conductors.

Materials that very few ‘free’ electrons, so charge cannot

move freely, are called insulators.

Figure 18.2: In a conductor there are many ‘free’

electrons that move around much like molecules of a
gas.

WORKED EXAMPLE 18.1

Two separated, identical conducting spheres are

charged with charges of 4.0 µC and −12 µC,
respectively. The spheres are allowed to touch and
then are separated again. Determine the charge
on each sphere. Describe the transfer of charge
from one sphere to the other.

Answer
The net charge on the two spheres is 4.0 − 12 =
−8.0 µC. The contact of the two conducting
spheres implies that charge will be transferred
from one to the other. By symmetry, when the
 spheres are allowed to touch, they will end up with
the same charge, since they are identical. The total
amount of charge on the two spheres after
separation must be −8.0 µC by charge
conservation.

When they separate, each will therefore have a

charge of −4.0 µC.

It is negative charge that gets transferred

(electrons). The positive charges have fixed
positions and do not move. So an amount of −8.0
µC gets transferred.

The second important property of electric charge is that

it is a quantised quantity; this means that the amount of
electric charge on a body is always an integral multiple
of a basic unit. The basic unit is the magnitude of the
charge on the proton.

This amount of charge is symbolised by e. The charge

on an electron is –e. (If we include quarks, the particles
inside protons and neutrons, then the basic unit of
e
charge is .) The SI unit of charge is the coulomb (C). 1
3

e = 1.6 × 10−19 C.

The quantisation of electric charge was determined in

an experiment by Robert Millikan and is described at the
end of this chapter.

Electrostatic induction
Friction is one way to charge a body. Electrostatic
induction is another. Consider a positively charged rod
that is placed close to, but not touching, a conducting
sphere on an insulating stand.

Figure 18.3: Charging a sphere by induction.

The positive charge on the rod will attract free electrons

in the sphere closer to the rod. This means the left side
of the sphere will be left with an excess of positive
charge. The net charge on the sphere is still zero. In the
second diagram the sphere is grounded. This means
that we connect the sphere to the ground with a cable.
Electrons from the earth will move through the cable
and neutralize some of the positive charge on the left
side of the sphere. The connection to the earth and the
charged rod are both removed. The sphere is left with a
net negative charge that will distribute itself uniformly
on the surface of the sphere. The sphere is left with a
net charge that is opposite to that on the charged rod.

If the rod is negatively charged, the negative charge will

push electrons away leaving the right side of the sphere
with an excess of positive charge. Grounding (earthing)
will make electrons move to the earth leaving the
sphere with a net positive charge after grounding and
rod are removed. Again the charge on the sphere is
opposite to that on the rod.

CHECK YOURSELF 1

A student says, referring to Figure 18.3, that when the

positively charged rod is put close to the sphere,
negative charge is attracted to the right side of the
sphere and positive charge is repelled to the left side.
Comment on this statement.

Coulomb’s law for the electric force

The electric force between two electric charges, q1 and
q2, was investigated in 1785 by Charles Augustin
Coulomb (1736–1806). Coulomb discovered that this
force is inversely proportional to the square of the
separation of the charges and is proportional to the
product of the two charges. It is attractive for charges of
opposite sign and repulsive for charges of the same sign
(Figure 18.4).
Figure 18.4: The force between two point electric
charges is given by Coulomb’s law and can be attractive
or repulsive.

Coulomb’s law states that the electric force F between

two point charges q1 and q2 separated by a distance r is
given by:
q1 q2
F = k
2
r

The constant k is known as the Coulomb constant and

equals 8.99 × 109 NC−2 m2 in vacuum.
1
The constant k is also written as k = where ε is
4πε
known as permittivity. If the charges are surrounded by
vacuum, the value of the permittivity is ε0 = 8.85 × 10−12
C2 N−1 m−2. If they are surrounded by some other
medium, we must use the value of the permittivity
appropriate to that medium.

WORKED EXAMPLE 18.2

Two charges, q1 = 2.0 µC and q2 = 8.0 µC, are

placed along a straight line separated by a
distance of 3.0 cm.
a Calculate the force exerted on each charge in
vacuum.

b Calculate the force when the charges are

surrounded by water whose permittivity is 80
times that of the vacuum.
c The charge q1 is increased to 4.0 µC.
Determine the force on each charge now (in
vacuum).

Answer

a This is a straightforward application of the

q1 q2
formula F = k
2
. We find that:
r
9 −12
8.99 × 10 × 2.0 × 8.0 × 10
F =
−4
9.0 × 10

F = 160 N

This is the force that q1 exerts on q2, and vice

versa.

b The Coulomb constant is now 80 smaller so

the force is 2.0 N.

c Since the charge doubles the force doubles to

F = 320 N on both charges.

EXAM TIP

It is a common mistake to double the force on one

charge but not the other.

WORKED EXAMPLE 18.3

A positive charge q is placed on the line joining q1

and q2 from worked example 2.2. Determine the
distance from q1 where this third positive charge
experiences zero net force.

Answer
Let that distance be x. A positive charge q at that
point would experience a force from q1 equal to
q1 q
F1 = k and a force in the opposite direction
2
x
q2 q
from q2 equal to F2 = k where d = 3.0
2
(d − x)

cm is the distance between q1 and q2.

Figure 18.5: For worked example 18.3.

Charge q will experience no net force when F1 = F2,

so:
q1 q q2 q
k = k
2 2
x (d − x)

Cancelling kq and substituting q1 = 2.0 µC and q2 =

8.0 µC gives:
2.0 8.0
=
2 2
x (d − x)
 2
2
(d − x) = 4x

(d − x) = 2x

d
x = = 1.0 cm
3

EXAM TIP

We do not have to change units to C. The units on

both sides of the equation are the same (µC) and
cancel out.

Electric field
The space around a charge or an arrangement of
charges is different from space in which no charges are
present. It contains an electric field. We can test
whether an electric field exists at a point P by bringing a
small, point charge q at P. If q experiences an electric
force, then there is an electric field at P. If no force is
experienced, then the electric field is zero. For this
reason the small charge is called a test charge: it tests
for the existence of electric fields. It has to be small so
that its presence does not disturb the electric field it is
trying to detect. By convention test charges are
assumed to be positive.

KEY POINT

We define electric field strength, E, as the electric

force per unit charge experienced by a small, positive,
point charge q:
 →
→
E =
F

Note that electric field strength is a vector quantity.

The direction of the electric field is the same as the
direction of the force experienced by a positive
charge at the given point. The unit of electric field is N
C−1.

The magnitude of the force experienced by a test charge

q placed a distance r from a point charge Q is (by
Coulomb’s law):

Qq
F = k
2
r

→
→
and so from the definition E =
F
, the magnitude of
q

the electric field strength is:

Qq
( )
2
r
E = k
q

Q
E = k
2
r

Q
The formula E = k applies to a point charge Q but
2
r
also outside of a spherical charge. If Q is a spherical
charge, r is the distance from the centre of the spherical
charge.
 CHECK YOURSELF 2

The distance of a point from a positive charge is

doubled. What happens to the electric field strength?

The left diagram in Figure 18.6a shows the electric field

at various points around a positive point charge. The left
diagram in Figure 18.6b shows the electric field around
a negative charge. The diagrams show the direction of
the electric field strength, and the fact that the arrows
get smaller as we move away from the charge indicates
that the magnitude of the electric field strength
Q
decreases as demanded by the formula E = k
2
.
r
Another way of representing the electric field is to
imagine smooth lines going through the arrows. These
are called electric field lines. This results in the diagrams
on the right in Figure 18.6.
Figure 18.6: The electric force experienced by a positive
test charge at various positions near a a positive and b a
negative point charge. The diagrams on the right show
the electric field lines.

The disadvantage is that we lost the information on the

magnitude of the electric field strength. We make up for
this by arguing that the lines are further apart as we
move away. So we take the density of the lines to be a
measure of the magnitude of the electric field strength.

Figure 18.7a shows the field lines created by two equal,

positive charges and Figure 18.7b by two equal and
opposite charges.

Figure 18.7: Field lines for a two equal positive charges

and b two equal and opposite charges.
Unlike the case of a single charge, the field lines are no
longer straight. The electric field is tangential to the field
lines in the direction of the arrow, Figures 18.8a and
18.8b. Thus the electric force is also tangential to the
field lines. The force on a positive charge is in the
direction of the electric field, and the force on a negative
charge is opposite to the electric field. The magnitude of
the force is F = qE.

Figure 18.8: a The electric force on a positive charge is

tangent to the field line in the direction of the arrow of
the field line. b The force on a negative charge is
tangent to the field line in a direction opposite to the
arrow. c The density of field lines increases as we move
towards the top of the page and so the electric field
strength increases.

CHECK YOURSELF 3

A negative charge is placed on the field line as shown

in Figure 18.9.
 Figure 18.9: For check yourself question 3.

Draw an arrow to show the electric force on the

charge.

Figure 18.10a shows the field lines created by two

unequal, positive charges and Figure 18.10b the field
created by two unequal and opposite charges. In Figure
18.10a q2 = 4q1 and in Figure 18.10b q2 = −4q1.

Figure 18.10: a Field lines for unequal and positive

charges. b Field lines for unequal and opposite charges.

CHECK YOURSELF 4

What is wrong with the field lines in Figure 18.11?

 Figure 18.11: For check yourself question 4.

Figure 18.12 shows the electric field lines for two

oppositely charged parallel plates. The lines are equally
spaced in between the plates indicating that the field
there is uniform (i.e. constant). The field stops being
uniform at the edges of the plates. The electric field
lines are directed from the positive to the negative plate.

Figure 18.12: Field lines for two oppositely charged

plates.

The magnitude of the uniform electric field strength in

between the plates is given by
V
E =
d

where V is the potential difference between the plates

and d is the separation of the plates.
CHECK YOURSELF 5

An electron is placed in position A, then B and then C

in between two oppositely charged parallel plates
(see Figure 18.13).

Figure 18.13: For check yourself question 5.

In which position does the electron experience the

greatest force?

WORKED EXAMPLE 18.4

A proton is placed on the positive plate in a

parallel plate arrangement and is then released
(see Figure 18.14).

Figure 18.14: For worked example 18.4.

The potential difference between the plates is 120

V and the separation of the plates is 2.0 cm.
a Calculate the electric field strength in between
the plates.

b Calculate the force on the proton.

c Determine the gain in kinetic energy of the

proton when it reaches the negative plate.

d The distance between the plates is doubled

but the potential difference remains the same.
How do the answers to parts a and b change,
if at all?

Answer
V 120
a .
3 −1
E = = = 6.0 × 10 NC
−2
d 2.0 × 10

b
−19 3 −16
F = qE = 1.6 × 10 × 6.0 × 10 = 9.6 × 10 N

c From W = qV (review Chapter 11) and W = ΔEK

we find ΔEK = 1.6 × 10−19 × 120 = 1.9 × 10−17 J.

d The electric field strength will halve but the

change in kinetic energy will stay the same.

WORKED EXAMPLE 18.5

A proton is placed on the positive plate in a

parallel plate arrangement. An electron is placed
on the negative plate. Both particles are released
at the same time and will reach the opposite plate.
The proton is 1840 times more massive than the
electron.

Figure 18.15: For worked example 18.5.

a What is the ratio

gain in kinetic energy of proton
?
gain in kinetic energy of electron

b What is the ratio

time for proton to reach positive plate

time for electron to reach negative plate

Answer

a The gain in kinetic energy is qV and so is the

same. The ratio is 1:1.

b The acceleration experienced is

F qE
a = = and so the time taken is given
m m
by (d is the plate separation):
1 1 qE 2dm
2 2
d = at = t ⇒ t = √
2 2 m qE
 Hence the required ratio is
tp mp
= √ = √1840 ≈ 43 .
tc mc

THEORY OF KNOWLEDGE

Action at a distance and fields

These are some of the words of the Scottish
theoretical physicist James Clerk Maxwell (1831–
1879). Maxwell was one of the scientists who created
the concept of the field.

I have preferred to seek an explanation [of electricity

and magnetism] by supposing them to be produced
by actions which go on in the surrounding medium as
well as in the excited bodies, and endeavoring to
explain the action between distant bodies without
assuming the existence of forces capable of acting
directly … The theory I propose may therefore be
called a theory of the Electromagnetic field because it
has to do with the space in the neighbourhood of the
electric and magnetic bodies.

J. C. Maxwell, 1865

The Millikan oil drop experiment

Between 1910 and 1911, Robert Millikan performed an
experiment that measured the charge of an electron. In
this experiment, oil drops that were charged by X-rays
were allowed to enter a region of uniform electric field
between the parallel plates, as shown in Figure 18.16.
Figure 18.16: Schematic diagram of Millikan’s apparatus.

Some oil drops were observed to be at rest in between

the plates. This means that the weight of the oil drop is
matched by the electric force:

mg = qE

V
mg = q
d

and so
mgd
q =
V

So to measure the charge, Millikan needed a method to

measure the mass of the oil drop. He did that by turning
off the electric field and observed the oil drop that is
now falling vertically down.

The oil drop quickly achieves terminal speed because

now the weight is matched by the drag force D given by
Stoke’s law: D = 6πηrv, where η is the viscosity of air:

mg = 6πηrv

So:
 mg
r =
6πηv

But the mass of the oil drop is given by

3
4πr
m = ρV = ρ , where ρ is the density of oil.
3

So:
3
4πr
ρ( )g
3
r =
6πηv

Giving:

9ηv
r = √
2ρg

Thus, by measuring the terminal speed, Millikan could

find the radius of the drop and hence its mass and
finally its charge. He measured the charge on more than
150 oil drops but only used the data for 58 oil drops for
his published results. (This gave rise to some
controversy related to correct scientific practice that you
may wish to learn more about.) He found that each
charge he measured was an integral multiple of a basic
unit; he found that unit to be e = 1.6 × 10−19 C.

NATURE OF SCIENCE

Ethics in physics
The case of Robert Millikan played a central role in
the discussion of ethics in physics. Millikan was
accused of being a misogynist (in a letter to the
president of Duke University he advised against hiring
women in physics faculty positions) and he expressed
anti-Semitic views in letters to his wife while he was in
Europe, in contrast to the facts that he personally
hired many Jewish physicists at Caltech (including
Einstein) and one of his heroes, A. Michelson, was
Jewish. He was also accused of mistreating his
students: he demanded that a graduate student, who
contributed crucially to his experiment, not be an
author on the final paper announcing the discovery
of the value of the elementary charge.

The big question mark for Millikan’s behaviour is the

blatantly false statement in his 1913 paper that “It is
to be remarked, too, that this is not a selected group
of drops but represents all of the drops experimented
on during 60 consecutive days…”.

It is now accepted by all that this is a lie. Millikan only

used 58 of the more than 150 oil drops he had
measured. So why did Millikan include such a
statement in his otherwise masterful paper? Millikan
was a perfectionist. Undoubtedly, some runs with oil
drops were aborted because something had gone
wrong. Others, he may have rejected because he did
not trust Stokes’ law for very small drops which were
influenced too much by Brownian motion (collisions
with air molecules) and others were too big and fell
too fast for accurate measurement. Modern
historians of science who have gone through
Millikan’s notebooks note that even if he had included
the data on all the drops, his result for the value of
the elementary charge would not change much; only
the statistical error would be larger.

TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING

1 A charged conducting sphere with charge +12 µC

is allowed to touch an identical conducting
sphere of charge –6 µC. The spheres are then
separated. What is the charge on each sphere
after separation?

2 The electroscope is a device consisting of a metal

sphere, a metallic rod connected to the sphere
and two light metallic leaves attached to the rod.
When charge is deposited on the sphere, rod and
leaves, the leaves repel as shown. The whole
arrangement (see Figure 18.17) is protected
within a glass jar.

Figure 18.17: For question 2.

Suppose the charge on the electroscope is

positive. A negatively charged rod is put close but
not touching the sphere of the electroscope.
What will happen to the leaves?
3 An electroscope is neutral. The following process
takes place:
a a positively charged rod is placed close but
not touching the sphere of the electroscope

b the sphere is earthed

c the earthing is removed with the charged rod

still in place

d the rod is removed far away.

At each stage draw a diagram to represent the

state of the electroscope.

4 a Calculate the force between charges q1 of 2.0

µC and q2 of 4.0 µC separated by r = 5.0 cm.

b Let the force calculated in a be F. In terms of

F and without further calculations, state the
force between these charges when:
i the separation r of the charges is
doubled

ii q1 and r are both doubled

iii q1, q2 and r are all doubled.

5 Three charges are placed on a straight line as

shown in Figure 18.18. Calculate the net force on
the middle charge.
 Figure 18.18: For question 5.

6 In the previous question, determine the position

of the middle charge so that it is in equilibrium.

7 Calculate the force (magnitude and direction) on

the charge q in Figure 18.19, where q = 3.0 µC.

Figure 18.19: For question 7.

8 A charge of magnitude +5.0 µC experiences an

electric force of magnitude 3.0 × 10−5 N when
placed at a point in space. Determine the electric
field at that point.

9 Figure 18.20 shows two spherical charges that

are fixed in place. The spheres have the same
radius.

Figure 18.20: For question 9.

Explain:
a in which region, I, II or III, could the electric
field be zero?
 b in which region, I, II or III, does the electric
field attain its maximum magnitude?

10 Four charges, each of magnitude q, are fixed at

the vertices of a square of side a, as shown in
Figure 18.21.

Figure 18.21: For question 10.

a What is the direction of the electric field at

the centre of the square?

b What is the magnitude of the field in a?

11 Two plastic spheres each of mass 100.0 mg are

suspended from very fine insulating strings of
length 85.0 cm, as shown in Figure 18.22.

When equal positive charges are placed on the

spheres, the spheres repel and are in equilibrium
when 10.0 cm apart.
 Figure 18.22: For question 11.

a Determine the charge on each sphere.

b Estimate how many electron charges this

corresponds to.

c The charge on the left sphere is increased.

Draw a diagram to show how the two
charges hang.

12 Consider two people, each of mass 60 kg, a

distance of 10 m apart.
a Assuming that all the mass in each person is
made out of water, estimate how many
electrons there are in each person.

b Hence, estimate the electrostatic force of

repulsion between the two people due to the
electrons.

c List any other simplifying assumptions you

have made to make your estimate possible.

d No such force is observed in practice.

Suggest why this is so.

13 The electric field is a vector, and so two electric

fields at the same point in space must be added
according to the laws of vector addition. Consider
two equal positive charges q, each 2.00 µC,
separated by a = 10.0 cm and a point P a distance
of d = 30.0 cm, as shown in Figure 18.23.
 Figure 18.23 shows the directions of the electric
fields produced at P by each charge. Determine
the magnitude and direction of the net electric
field at P.

Figure 18.23: For question 13.

14 Repeat the previous question where the top

charge is +2.00 µC and the bottom charge is –
2.00 µC.

15 The formula for the radius of the oil drop derived

in the text ignores the buoyant force on the oil
drop. Show that if this force is taken into account
9ηv
the radius is given by r = √ .
2 (ρ − ρai ) g

16 In a hypothetical Millikan type experiment the

following charges were measured on
hypothetical oil drops: 96 × 10−20 C, 144 × 10−20 C,
192 × 10−20 C, 240 × 10−20 C, 288 × 10−20 C. What is
the unit of electric charge in this ‘experiment’?
Explain your reasoning.
18.2 Magnetic field and force
Effects of magnetic fields have been known since
ancient times, and the magnetic compass has been
used in navigation since the twelfth century and
probably earlier. In modern times the use of magnetic
fields is abundant in modern devices such as computers
and mobile phones. Very powerful magnets are used to
steer charged particles in circular paths in accelerators
such as the Large Hadron Collider at CERN.

What produces magnetic fields?

Simple experiments reveal that bar magnets have two
poles; these are called north and south. Two like poles
repel and two unlike poles attract. This is very similar to
positive and negative electric charges, but the poles of a
magnet and electric charge are different things.

It is well known that the needle of a compass (the

needle is a small bar magnet) aligns itself in an
approximately north–south direction. This can be
explained by assuming that the earth is itself a large
magnet. The north pole of the compass needle is
attracted by the earth’s magnetic south pole (which is in
the geographic north). Just as an electric charge creates
an electric field in the space around it, a magnet creates
a similar (but distinct) field, a magnetic field. The
magnetic needle of a compass can be used to
investigate the presence of magnets. Since the compass
needle aligns itself with a magnetic field (Figure 18.24), it
follows that we can use the direction in which a
compass needle is pointing to define the direction of the
magnetic field at the location of the compass. In 1819
the Danish scientist H. C. Ørsted (1777–1851) noticed a
compass needle change direction when a current was
turned on in a nearby wire. Although he could not
explain why this happened, Ørsted had demonstrated
that electric currents produce magnetic fields. (The
earth’s magnetic field is also thought to be created by
currents in the earth’s molten iron core.)

Figure 18.24: A magnetic needle in an external magnetic

field experiences forces that will align it with the
direction of the magnetic field. The direction of the
needle (from its south to the north pole) gives the
direction of the external magnetic field.

A magnetic field is produced by electric currents. An

electric field is produced by electric charges.

The vector representing a magnetic field is called

magnetic flux density and its symbol is B. Its unit is the
tesla, T, which will be defined later on. B is the analogue
in magnetism of E in electricity.
In permanent magnets, such as bar magnets and
horseshoe magnets, the magnetic field is created by
microscopic currents due to the motion of electrons in
the atoms of the material. These microscopic currents
create microscopic magnetic fields; in materials called
ferromagnetic these tiny fields are aligned so that a
large observable macroscopic magnetic field is
produced. Figure 18.25 shows the magnetic field lines
for a bar magnet and a horseshoe magnet.

Figure 18.25: Magnetic field lines of a bar magnet and a

horseshoe magnet. Notice that the arrows exit the north
poles.

CHECK YOURSELF 6

Place the magnetic needle shown (red = North) at the

two points marked and show how it is aligned. Ignore
the magnetic field of the earth.
Figure 18.26: For check yourself question 6.

THEORY OF KNOWLEDGE

Magnetic poles appear similar to electric charges. We

have north and south magnetic poles and positive
and negative charges. The big difference is that we
can isolate charges of the same sign but we cannot
isolate, say, a north pole. If you cut a bar magnet in
half you will only succeed in creating two smaller bar
magnets, not isolated north and south poles. Yet
theories of particle physics suggest that there may
exist particles called magnetic monopoles which
would be isolated north or south magnetic poles.
Paul Dirac (1902–1984), one of the greatest but least
well known physicists of the twentieth century,
showed that the existence of magnetic monopoles
would automatically explain why electric charge is
quantised. Despite much search, no magnetic
monopole has ever been found.
The field of a straight current carrying
wire
How do we find the direction of the magnetic field
created by a straight wire carrying electric current?
Figure 18.27 shows small magnetic compasses around a
long straight wire that carries current upwards. The
compass needles align with the magnetic field. The
direction of the needles at each point gives the direction
of the magnetic field at that point.

Figure 18.27: Magnetic field around a straight wire.

Drawing a smooth curve through the compass needles

gives a circle. The magnetic field is tangent to this circle
(Figure 18.18). The imaginary curves whose tangents
give the magnetic field are called magnetic field lines.
Figure 18.28: A three-dimensional view of the magnetic
field pattern around a long straight wire. The magnetic
field is symbolized by B. The cross in the wire indicates
that the current is entering from left to right. The
magnitude of the field decreases as we move away from
the wire.

Drawing conventions in this chapter

A circle with a cross (⊗) indicates current or vector into

the plane of the page.

A circle with a dot (⊙) indicates current or vector out of

the plane of the page.

But which tangent do we take? The direction of the

magnetic field around a straight wire carrying a current
is given by the right-hand grip rule illustrated in Figure
18.29.

Grip the wire with the fingers of the right hand in such a
way that the thumb points in the direction of the
current. Then the direction in which the fingers curl is
the direction of the ‘flow’ of the magnetic field vectors.
Figure 18.29: The right-hand grip rule for the magnetic
field around a straight current-carrying wire. The thumb
is in the direction of the current. The fingers curl in the
direction of the magnetic field.

CHECK YOURSELF 7

Figure 18.30 shows a wire that goes vertically through

a horizontal table. The current goes into the plane of
the page.

Figure 18.30: For check yourself question 7.

Copy the diagram and draw arrows to show the

direction and relative magnitude of the magnetic field
at points P and Q.
The solenoid
Figure 18.31 shows the magnetic field lines for a
solenoid (a coil). They are no longer circular as they were
for the straight wire. The magnetic field lines within the
solenoid are fairly uniform, indicating that the field is
roughly constant in both magnitude and direction.
Notice the similarity between the field outside the
solenoid and that around the bar magnet. Notice also
that magnetic field lines always exit from a north (N)
pole and enter at a south (S) pole.

Figure 18.31: The magnetic field lines for a solenoid.

A different right-hand grip rule gives the direction of the

magnetic field for a solenoid, illustrated in Figure 18.32.
The fingers curl in the direction of the current. The
thumb points in the direction of the magnetic field.
Figure 18.32: The right-hand grip rule for the magnetic
field around a solenoid.

The field of a single loop of current

There is one last arrangement for which we need to
know the magnetic field: a loop, i.e. a ring that carries a
current. In Figure 18.33 the current flows clockwise if
looked at from above. The magnetic field lines are
closed loops around every point in the ring. Shown here
are loops around just two points; you have to imagine
similar loops around every point on the ring. For all
practical purposes the field of a ring, just like that in the
exterior of a coil, may be taken to be the same as that of
a bar magnet.

Figure 18.33: The field of a ring. Outside the ring the

field is very similar to that of a bar magnet.
CHECK YOURSELF 8

a A ring carrying current which is clockwise when

looked at from above is brought near a bar
magnet (Figure 18.34a). Do they attract or do
they repel?

b Two rings with counterclockwise currents when

looked at from above have a common vertical
axis (Figure 18.34b). Do they attract or do they
repel?

Figure 18.34: For check yourself question 8.

WORKED EXAMPLE 18.6

Figure 18.35 shows two wires carrying equal

currents into the page. State the direction of the
magnetic field at point P which is equidistant from
the two wires.
Figure 18.35: For worked example 18.6.

Answer
Using the right-hand grip rule for each wire, the
magnetic fields are as shown in the following
figure. The arrows representing the field are at
right angles to the line joining P to each wire. Both
fields have the same magnitude, as P is
equidistant from both wires and the current is the
same in both wires. The resultant field points to
the left.

Figure 18.36: The magnetic fields from each wire

are added as vectors to give the net magnetic field
at P.
The magnetic force on a moving charge
Experiments show that an electric charge moving in a
region of magnetic field experiences a new type of force
called a magnetic force.

There is an exception to this rule: if the velocity of the

charge is parallel to the direction of the field, the
magnetic force is zero (Figure 18.37).

Figure 18.37: There is no magnetic force if the velocity is

parallel to the magnetic field.

In any other direction there will be a force on the

charge.A charge q moving with speed v in a region of
magnetic field of magnetic flux density B will experience
a magnetic force F given by:

F = qvB sin θ

where θ is the angle between the velocity direction and

the B field direction.

In most of what we will do here θ = 90° so that the

magnetic force will be given by the simpler formula

F = qvB
We see that there is no magnetic force if the charge is
not moving. This is different from the electric force on a
charge, which is always non-zero whether the charge
moves or not. The magnetic force on particles that are
electrically neutral (q = 0) is, of course, zero.

The magnetic force is what we use to define the

magnetic flux density.

If the magnetic force is F when a charge q moves with

velocity v that makes an angle θ with the direction of the
field, then the magnitude of the magnetic field, B, also
called the magnetic flux density, is defined to be:

F
B =
qv sin θ

The unit of the magnetic flux density is the tesla (T). A

magnetic flux density of 1 T produces a force of 1 N on a
charge of 1 C moving at 1 m s−1 at right angles to the
direction of the field.

What about the direction of the magnetic force? An

example is shown in Figure 18.38. The force is at right
angles to both the velocity vector and the magnetic
field.
Figure 18.38: The charge shown is positive. The direction
of the force is perpendicular to both the velocity vector
and the magnetic field vector.

There are a number of ‘rules’ to help us find this

direction. Three of these are shown in Figure 18.39.

Figure 18.39: The right-hand rule gives the direction of

the force on a positive charge. The force on a negative
charge is in the opposite direction.

Try the different versions and choose the one that you
are comfortable with.
● Figure 18.39a. Hold your right hand as if you are
going to shake hands. Place your hand so that the
four fingers point in the direction of the field and
the thumb in the direction of the velocity. The
direction away from the palm is the direction of the
force.

● Figure 18.39b. Hold your right hand as in Figure

18.39a, but then bend the middle finger at right
angles to your palm. The middle finger now
represents the force, the index finger the field and
the thumb the velocity.

● Figure 18.39c. Curl the right-hand fingers so that

they rotate from the vector v to the vector B (along
 the smallest of the two possible angles). The
direction of the thumb is the direction of the force.
(In this version you can also imagine you are
rotating a screw in the direction from v to B. The
direction the screw moves is the force direction.)

If you are familiar with the vector product of two

vectors, you may recognise that F→ →
= qv × B →.

These rules give the direction of the magnetic force on a

positive charge. To find the force on a negative charge,
pretend the charge is positive and then reverse the
force direction you find.

CHECK YOURSELF 9

Figure 18.40 shows the magnetic force on a moving

electron.

Figure 18.40: For check yourself question 9.

What is the direction of the magnetic field?

WORKED EXAMPLE 18.7

Express the tesla in terms of fundamental units.

Answer
 F
From the definition B = it follows that:
qv sin θ

−2
N N kgms −1
−2
T = = = = kg s A
−1
C × m s A × m A × m

The magnetic force on a current-

carrying wire
A current in a wire consists of moving charges. So a
current-carrying wire placed in a magnetic field will
experience a magnetic force because there is a force on
the moving charges in the wire.

Part of the wire in Figure 18.41 is in a region of magnetic

field directed out of the page. In Figure 18.41a the
current in the wire is zero and there is no force. Figure
18.41b and Figure 18.41c show the forces on the wire
when there is current.
Figure 18.41: The magnetic force on a current-carrying
wire.

The formula for the magnetic force on a length L (L is

that length of the wire that finds itself in the region of
the field) is:

F = BI L sin θ

where θ is the angle between the current and the

direction of the magnetic field.

To find the direction of the force, use the right-hand

rules for the force on a charge (Figure 18.39) and
replace velocity by current.

The force between two current-carrying

wires
Consider two long, straight, parallel wires carrying
currents I1 and I2 (Figure 18.42). The first wire (wire 1)
creates a magnetic field in space. This field has
magnitude B1 at the position of the second wire (wire 2).
This means wire 2 experiences a magnetic force.
Similarly, wire 2 creates a magnetic field of magnitude B2
at the position of wire 1, so that wire 1 also experiences
a magnetic force. By Newton’s third law, the force that
wire 1 exerts on wire 2 must be accompanied by an
equal and opposite force of wire 2 on wire 1. Therefore
the forces experienced by the two wires are equal and
opposite.

The currents are different in the two wires, so the

magnetic fields are different, but the two forces are
equal in magnitude.
Figure 18.42: The forces on two parallel currents are
equal and opposite. a Force between parallel currents. b
Force between anti-parallel currents.

We can use the right-hand rule to find the directions of

these forces. Assume first that both currents are flowing
into the page. Then the magnetic fields are as shown in
Figure 18.42a and the forces are attractive. If wire 1
carries current into the page and wire 2 carries current
out of the page, as shown in Figure 18.42b, the forces
are repulsive. In both cases the forces are equal and
opposite, consistent with Newton’s third law. So we have
found that if the currents are parallel, the forces are
attractive, and if they are anti-parallel, the forces are
repulsive.

It is useful to know that the magnitude of the magnetic

flux density created at a distance r from a long straight
wire carrying current I is given by the formula (which is
μ0 I
not on the syllabus) B = . Here μ0 is a constant of
2πr
physics called magnetic permeability. Its value in
vacuum is defined to be μ0 = 4π × 10−7 T m A−1. This
constant is to magnetism what permittivity (ε0) is to
electricity. Looking at Figure 18.43, the magnetic flux
density created by the left wire at the position of the
μ0 I 1
right wire is B1 = where r is the separation of the
2πr
wires. Therefore the force experienced by a length L of
μ0 I 1 I 2 L
the right wire is F = B1 I2 L = . This gives the
2πr
syllabus formula for the force per unit length:
F I1 I2
= μ0
L 2πr

Notice that the magnetic field produced by the right

μ0 I 2
wire at the position of the left is given by B2 = .
2πr
The force on the left wire is then
μ0 I 2 I 1 L
F = B2 I1 L = which, as expected from
2πr
Newton’s third law, is equal to the force on the right
wire.

CHECK YOURSELF 10

1
Calculate the unit and value of the quantity √ .
ε 0 μ0

WORKED EXAMPLE 18.8

Figure 18.43 shows three wires, X, Y and Z, carrying

equal currents I. The directions of the currents are
as shown. The separation of two adjacent wires is
d.

Figure 18.43: For worked example 18.8.

Find the magnitude and direction of the force per

unit length on wire Z when I = 4.0 A and d = 2.0
cm.
Answer
Parallel currents attract and anti-parallel repel. So
X attracts Z and Y repels it. Y is closer to Z so the
force it exerts is larger. Hence the force is to the
right. The force per unit length from X is
2 2
I I
μ0 to the left and that from Y is μ0 to
2π(2d) 2πd

the right. The net force per unit length is then

2 2 2
I I I
μ0 − μ0 = μ0 to the right. For I =
2πd 4πd 4πd
4.0 A and d = 2.0 cm the force per unit length is
2
4.0
−7 −5 −1
4π × 10 × = 8.0 × 10 N m
−2
4π × 2.0 × 10
.

EXAM TIP

It is simpler to remember that parallel currents

attract rather than having to work out the direction of
the magnetic field at Z’s location and then find the
force.

NATURE OF SCIENCE

Introduced in the nineteenth century by Michael

Faraday as ‘lines of force’, the concept of magnetic
field lines allowed scientists to visualize the magnetic
field around a magnet and the magnetic field around
a moving charge. A few years later, in one of the
greatest unifications in physics, James Clerk Maxwell
showed that all magnetic and electric phenomena are
different sides of the same general phenomenon,
electromagnetism, and that light is a combination of
electric and magnetic fields. In the early twentieth
century, Albert Einstein showed that viewing electric
and magnetic phenomena from different frames of
reference leads naturally to the theory of relativity. At
about the same time, trying to understand
magnetism in different materials required the
introduction of quantum theory, so magnetism
played a crucial role in the development of physics.

WORKED EXAMPLE 18.9

An electron approaches a bar magnet, as shown in

Figure 18.44. What is the direction of the force on
the electron?

Figure 18.44: For worked example 18.9.

Answer
The magnetic flux density at the position of the
electron is to the left. Placing the right hand so
that the thumb points up the page (velocity
direction) and the fingers to the left (field
direction), the palm is pointing out of the page. But
the charge is negative and so the force is into the
page.
Links
We have now added two new forces to our list of forces
which up to now really only included the gravitational
force. All the other forces we met (normal forces,
friction, tension etc.) are really macroscopic
manifestations of electric or magnetic phenomena.
Maxwell showed that electric and magnetic phenomena
are closely linked and joined the electric and the
magnetic force into one, the electromagnetic force,
achieving the first unification in physics. Later on, in
Chapter 23, we will meet two new forces, the weak and
strong nuclear forces. These are forces that are relevant
in the subatomic world. In order of increasing strength
of interaction the list is gravitational, weak nuclear,
electromagnetic and strong nuclear. But this is a rather
meaningless list since the comparison of interaction
strength depends heavily on the context in which the
comparison is made. Adding to the unification of
Maxwell, the theory of Glashow, Salam and Weinberg
that gave us the presently accepted standard model of
particles implies that the electromagnetic force and the
weak nuclear force are two aspects of the same force
called the electroweak force. Are there other forces that
we have not discovered yet?

TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING

17 Two wires carry equal currents into the plane of

the page (Figure 18.45).
 Figure 18.45: For question 17.

What is the direction of the magnetic field at

point P halfway between the charges and at point
Q?

18 Two wires carry equal currents into the plane of

the page (Figure 18.46).

Figure 18.46: For question 18.

What is the direction of the magnetic field at

point P which is on the perpendicular bisector of
the line joining the wires?

19 Two wires carry equal currents in opposite

directions at right angles to the plane of the page
(Figure 18.47).

Figure 18.47: For question 19.

What is the direction of the magnetic field at

point P which is on the perpendicular bisector of
the line joining the wires?
20 The current in a horizontal loop of wire is as
shown in Figure 18.48.

Figure 18.48: For question 20.

What is the direction of the magnetic field at

points P, Q and R?

21 Determine the direction of the missing quantity

from B, v and F in each of the cases shown in
Figure 18.49. The circle represents a positive
charge.

Figure 18.49: For question 21.

22 The north pole of a bar magnet is brought close
to a ring that carries current. For clarity only a
cross section of the ring is shown (Figure 18.50).

Figure 18.50: For question 22.

Describe the force between the bar magnet and

the ring.

23 Currents are established in two parallel rings as

shown in Figure 18.51. For clarity, only a cross
section of each ring is shown.

Figure 18.51: For question 23.

 Describe the force between the rings.

24 A wire carrying current into the plane of the page

is put in between two bar magnets as shown in
Figure 18.52.

Figure 18.52: For question 24.

What is the direction of the force on the wire in

each case?

25 A current carrying wire is placed in between two

bar magnets as shown in Figure 18.53.

Figure 18.53: For question 25.

What is the direction of the force on the wire?

26 A bar magnet attracts a metallic ball hanging

from a thread (Figure 18.54).

Figure 18.54: For question 26.

 The magnet is reversed so that the south pole is
facing the ball. What will happen now?

27 Two wires carry equal currents into the plane of

the page (Figure 18.55).

Figure 18.55: For question 27.

a On the diagram draw:

i the magnetic field created by wire X at
the position of wire Y

ii the magnetic field created by wire Y at

the position of wire X

iii the magnetic forces on each wire.

b The current in wire X is doubled. Make new

drawings for ai, aii and aiii.

28 Two wires carry equal currents in opposite

directions at right angles to the plane of the page
(Figure 18.56).

Figure 18.56: For question 28.

 Wire X carries current into the page and is
equidistant from the other two wires. What is the
direction of the magnetic force on wire X?

29 A ring carries current as shown in Figure 18.57.

For clarity only a cross section of the ring is
shown. A proton moves parallel to the plane of
the ring.

Figure 18.57: For question 29.

What is the direction of the magnetic force on the

proton?

30 A square loop of wire is placed close to a straight

wire (Figure 18.58).

Figure 18.58: For question 30.

Both wires have currents in them as shown.

Carefully describe the force between the straight
 wire and the loop.

31 Draw the magnetic field lines for two parallel

wires carrying equal currents into the page.
Repeat for anti-parallel currents.

32 Copy Figure 18.59. Draw the magnetic field lines

that result when the magnetic field of a long
straight wire carrying current into the page is
superimposed on a uniform magnetic field
pointing to the right that lies on the page.

Figure 18.59: For question 32.

33 A long straight wire carries current as shown in

Figure 18.60. Two electrons move with velocities
that are parallel and perpendicular to the
current. Determine the direction of the magnetic
force experienced by each electron.

Figure 18.60: For question 33.

34 A proton moves past a bar magnet as shown in

Figure 18.61. Find the direction of the force it
experiences in each case.
 Figure 18.61: For question 34.

35 A bar magnet is placed in a uniform magnetic

field as shown in Figure 18.62.

Figure 18.62: For question 35.

a Suggest whether there is a net force on the

bar magnet.

b Describe how it will move.

36 A high-tension electricity wire running along a

north–south line carries a current of 3000 A. The
magnetic field of the earth at the position of the
wire has a magnitude of 5.00 × 10−5 T and makes
an angle of 30° below the horizontal.

Calculate the force experienced by a length of

30.0 m of the wire.

37 A uniform magnetic field is established in the

plane of the paper as shown in Figure 18.63. Two
wires carry equal parallel currents normally to
the plane of the paper at P and Q. Point R is on
the line joining P to Q and closer to Q. The
magnetic field at position R is zero.

Figure 18.63: For question 37.

a Determine whether the currents are going

into the paper or out of the paper.

b The magnitude of the current is increased

slightly. Determine whether the point where
the magnetic field is zero moves to the right
or to the left of R.
18.3 Electric potential and
electric potential energy
Most of what we learned about gravitational potential
energy and gravitational potential applies also to
electricity. Just as a mass creates a gravitational
potential around it, an electric charge creates electric
potential. And just as two masses have gravitational
potential energy between them, two electric charges
also share electric potential energy. The formulas we
derived for gravitation carry over to electricity
essentially by replacing mass everywhere by charge, as
we will see. The ideas are the same as those for
gravitation so the derivations for electricity will be brief.

Suppose that at some point in space we place a large

positive charge Q. If we place another positive charge q
at infinity and try to move it closer to the large charge
Q, we will have to exert a force on q, since it is being
repelled by Q (Figure 18.64). That is, we have to do work
in order to change the position of q and bring it closer
to Q.

Figure 18.64: Work is done to bring the positive charge

q from infinity to a given position away from positive
charge Q. The red arrow is the force of repulsion
between the two charges. The green arrow represents
the force that moves charge q towards Q.

KEY POINT

The electric potential at a point P in an electric field is

the amount of work done per unit charge as a small
positive test charge q is moved from infinity to P
W
Ve =
q

The unit of potential is the volt (V), and 1 V = 1 J C−1.

The work done in moving a charge q from infinity to

point P is the electric potential energy, EP of the system.

If the electric potential at some point P is Ve, and we

place a charge q at P, the electric potential energy EP of
the system is given by:

Ep = qVc

Using calculus to calculate the work done in moving the

charge q from infinity to a separation r, as we did for
gravitation, results in:

kQq
W =
r

Therefore:

kQ
Ve =
r
and

kQq
Ep =
r

Electric potential and electric potential energy are scalar

quantities, just like gravitational potential and
gravitational potential energy. For gravitational and
electric fields, the work done is independent of the path
followed.

Moving a charge q from one point in an electric field to

another requires work (Figure 18.65).

Figure 18.65: Work must be done in order to move a

charge from one point to another where the potential is
different.

The work done W in moving charge q from A to B is:

W = qΔVe = q (VeB − Ve )

The quantity VeB – VeA is the potential difference

between A and B.

In all these formulas, the charges must be entered with

their correct sign.
WORKED EXAMPLE 18.10

The hydrogen atom has a single proton and a

single electron, as shown in Figure 18.66.

Figure 18.66: For worked example 18.10.

a Find the electric potential a distance of 0.50 ×

10−10 m from the proton of the hydrogen
atom. The proton has a charge 1.6 × 10−19 C,
equal and opposite to that of the electron.

b Use your answer to a to calculate the electric

potential energy between the proton in a
hydrogen atom and an electron orbiting the
proton at a radius 0.50 × 10−10 m.

Answer

kQ
a Ve =
r

Substituting the values from the question:

9 −19
8.99 × 10 × 1.60 × 10
Ve =
−10
0.50 × 10

Ve = 28.77 ≈ 29 V
 b The electric potential energy is given by:
kQq
Ep = = qVe
r

Substituting the value for Ve from part a:

−19
Ep = 28.77 × (−1.6 × 10 )

−18
Ep = −4.6 × 10 J

Electric potential is a scalar quantity. So if we have two

charges q1 and q2, the electric potential at a point P that
is a distance r1 from q1 and a distance r2 from q2 is just
the sum of the individual electric potentials:

kq1 kq2
Ve = +
r1 r2

That is, we first find the potential at P from q1 alone,

then from q2 alone, and then add up the two (Figure
18.67). We find the electric potential for more than two
charges in the same way—by adding the individual
potentials.

Figure 18.67: The potential at P is found by finding the

potential there from the first charge, then finding the
potential from the second charge, and finally adding the
two.

The simple formula for electric potential works for point

charges. (By point charges we mean that the objects on
which the charges qi are placed are mathematical
points, or close to it.) The formula also works in another
special case—when the object on which the charge q is
placed is a sphere.

For a point P outside the sphere and at a distance r

from the centre of the sphere, the potential at P is
indeed:

kQ
Ve =
r

On the surface of the sphere the potential is:

kQ
Vc =
R

where R is the radius of the sphere.

But at any point inside the sphere, the electric potential

is constant and has the same value as the potential at
the surface (Figure 18.68).
Figure 18.68: The electric potential is constant inside
1
the sphere and falls off as outside. Shown here are a
r
a positively charged sphere and b a negatively charged
sphere.

The connection between potential and

field
There is a deep connection between potential and field
for both gravitation and electricity. To see this
connection let us move a point charge q from a point P
to a neighbouring point Q. There is a potential
difference ∆Ve between the two points, and the points
are a distance ∆r apart, Figure 18.69.
Figure 18.69: A point charge q is to be moved between
points P and Q at different potential. This requires
work.

We know that this requires an amount of work W given

by:

W = qΔVe

But we may also calculate the work from W = force ×

distance. The force on the point mass is the electric
force F = qE, where E is the magnitude of the electric
field strength at the position of the charge q. Assuming
that the two points are very close to each other means
that E will not change very much as we move from one
point to the other, and so we may take E to be constant.
Then the work done is also given by:

W = qEΔr

Equating the two expressions for work done gives:

ΔV∘
E =
Δr

(A more careful treatment using calculus gives

dVc
E = − .)
dr
In a graph showing the variation with distance of the
potential, the gradient (slope) of the graph is the
magnitude of the field strength. This applies to both
gravitational and electric fields.

KEY POINT

We conclude, see Figure 18.68, that the electric field

inside a charged conducting sphere is zero since the
potential is constant.

WORKED EXAMPLE 18.11

Figure 18.70 shows two unequal positive charges,

+Q and +q.

Figure 18.70: For worked example 18.11.

Which one of the four graphs in Figure 18.71

shows the variation with distance x from the
larger charge of the electric potential Ve along the
line joining the centres of the charges?
Figure 18.71: Variation of electric potential with
distance.

Answer
The electric field is the gradient of the graph. It is
zero closer to the smaller charge, and so the
answer has to be B.

THEORY OF KNOWLEDGE

Are fields real?

Are electric (and gravitational) fields real, or are they
just convenient devices for doing calculations and
visualizing situations?

Feynman describes a situation of two protons

moving at right angles to each other:
 The protons repel each other with the electric force
(red arrows). These forces are equal in magnitude
and opposite in direction. Proton 2 creates a
magnetic field at the position of proton 1 directed
into the plane of the page and so there is a magnetic
force on proton 1 (green arrow). However, proton 1
does not create a magnetic field at the position of
proton 2 because (at this instant) proton 2 is along
the direction of the velocity of proton 1. Hence there
is no magnetic force on proton 2. This appears to
violate Newton’s third law but as we know Newton’s
third law is crucial in deriving the law of conservation
of momentum. It can be shown that there is a rate of
change of the momentum carried by the
electromagnetic field of the protons of the right
magnitude and direction so as to restore Newton’s
third law. Fields carry energy and momentum and
are as real as protons and electrons.

The connection between field lines and

equipotential surfaces
Consider a single charge Q. The electric potential it
Q
creates in the space around is given by Ve = k . This
r
means that points in space that have the same distance
from the charge have the same potential. These points
lie on spheres centred at the charge. Spheres of
different radii correspond to different values of the
potential. We call surfaces of the same potential
equipotential surfaces. Figure 18.72a shows
equipotential surfaces for a point charge (the surfaces
are spheres surrounding the charge; we only show a
two-dimensional version of them as circles here). Figure
18.72b adds field lines (the charge is assumed negative)
along with the equipotential surfaces. We see that the
field lines are normal (perpendicular) to the
equipotential surfaces.

Figure 18.72: a Equipotential surfaces for a point

charge. b The field lines are at right angles to the
equipotential surfaces.

The explanation of why the field lines are at right angles

to the equipotential surfaces is as follows: to move a
charge from one point on an equipotential surface to
another requires zero work because W = qΔV and ΔV =
0. If the field lines were not normal to the equipotential
surfaces, there would be a component of the field along
the equipotential and so a force on the charge. As the
charge moved this force would do work, which
contradicts the fact that the work should be zero.

Equipotential surfaces are spheres only for an isolated

charge. With more than one charge present, the
equipotential surfaces are complicated surfaces. Figure
18.73 shows the equipotential surfaces (in black) and
field lines (in red) for two charges. In Figure 18.73a q2 =
q1 (both positive) and in Figure 18.73b q2 = −q1. The field
is zero halfway between the charges along the line
joining the charges in Figure 18.73a.

Figure 18.73: Field lines and equipotential surfaces for a

two equal charges of the same sign and b two equal
and opposite charges.

Figure 18.74 shows the equipotential surfaces (in black)

and field lines (in red) for two unequal charges. The
field is zero closer to the smaller charge along the line
joining the charges in Figure 18.74a. In Figure 18.74a q2
= 4q1 and in Figure 18.74b q2 = −4q1.
Figure 18.74: Field lines and equipotential surfaces for a
two unequal charges of the same sign and b two
unequal and opposite charges.

Figure 18.75 shows equipotential surfaces and field

lines for the case of parallel charged plates.

Figure 18.75: Field lines and equipotential surfaces for

parallel charged plates.

WORKED EXAMPLE 18.12

A wire of length L has a potential difference V

across its ends.
a Find the electric field inside the wire.

b Hence find the work done when a charge q is

moved from one end of the wire to the other.

Answer
 ΔV V
a From E = it follows that E = .
Δr L

b The work done can be found in two ways.

1 Use W = qΔV = qV .
V
2 Use W = F d = qEL = q L = qV .
L

The answer is W = qV in both cases.

TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING

38 a Determine the electric potential at the mid-

point of the line joining two equal positive
charges q in terms of q, the Coulomb
constant and the charge separation d.
b Repeat a for two equal but opposite
charges.

39 Two charges, q1 = 2.0 µC and q2 = −4.0 µC, are

0.30 m apart. Find the electric potential at a
point P, which is 0.40 m from q1 and 0.60 m from
q2.

40 Four equal charges of 5.0 µC are placed at the

vertices of a square of side 10 cm.
a Calculate the value of the electric potential
at the centre of the square.

b Determine the electric field at the centre of

the square.
 c How do you reconcile your answers to a and
b with the fact that the electric field is the
derivative of the potential?

41 A charge q of 10.0 C is placed somewhere in

space.
a What is the work required to bring a charge
of 1.0 mC from a point X, 10.0 m from q, to a
point Y, 2.0 m from q?

b Does the answer depend on which path the

charge follows?

42 An electron is brought from infinity to a distance

of 12 cm from a charge of −15 nC. How much
work was done on the electron by the agent
moving the electron?

43 An electron moves from point A where the

potential is 100.0 V to point B where the
potential is 200.0 V. The electron started from
rest. Calculate the speed of the electron as it
passes point B.

44 A proton is placed on the surface of a positively

charged sphere of charge 2.0 nC and radius 0.25
m. The proton is released.
a What is the speed of the proton when it gets
very far away from the sphere?

b Draw a graph to show the variation with

distance travelled, of the proton speed. (No
numbers required, just the shape.)
45 Four charges are placed at the vertices of a
square of side 5.00 cm, as shown in Figure 18.76.

Figure 18.76: For question 45.

a On a copy of Figure 18.76, show the forces

acting on the 2.0 µC charge. Find the
magnitude and direction of the net force on
the 2.0 µC charge.

b Calculate the value of the electric potential

at the centre of the square.

c Determine the work that must be done in

order to move a charge of 1 nC initially at
infinity to the centre of the square.

46 An electron is launched with speed 1.5 × 106 m

s−1 from the positively charged plate, directed
towards the opposite plate (Figure 18.77).

The potential difference between the plates is

8.0 V. The plates are separated by 12 cm. (The
potential at the negative plate may be taken to
be zero and that at the positive plate 8.0 V.)
 Figure 18.77: For question 46.

a Show that the electron will not make it to the

negative plate.

b Determine the distance at which the

electron stops and turns back.

c What should the minimum electron initial

speed be such that the electron makes it the
negative plate?

d The electron has the minimum speed found

in c. Draw a sketch graph to show the
variation of the electron speed with distance
travelled.

47 Two conducting spheres are separated by a

distance that is large compared with their radii.
The first sphere has a radius of 10.0 cm and has
a charge of 2.00 µC on its surface. The second
sphere has a radius of 15.0 cm and is neutral.
The spheres are then connected by a long
conducting wire.
a Find the charge on each sphere.
 b Calculate the charge density on each sphere
(charge density is the total charge on the
sphere divided by the surface area of the
sphere).

c Calculate the electric field on the surface of

each sphere.

d Comment on your result in the light of your

answer to part b. Why is it stated that the
wire is long?

48 Figure 18.78 shows the equipotential lines for

two equal and opposite charges. Draw the
electric field lines for these two charges.

Figure 18.78: For question 48.

49 Two long parallel plates are separated by a

distance of 15.0 cm. The bottom plate is kept at a
potential of −250 V and the top at +250 V. A
charge of −2.00 µC is placed at a point 3.00 cm
from the bottom plate.
a Find the electric potential energy of the
charge.
 The charge is then moved vertically up to a
point 3.00 cm from the top plate.

b What is the electrical potential energy of the

charge now?

c How much work was done on the charge?

50 An electron is shot with a speed equal to 1.59 ×

106 m s−1 from a point where the electric
potential is zero toward an immovable negative
charge q (see Figure 18.79).

Figure 18.79: For question 50.

a Determine the potential at P so that the

electron stops momentarily at P and then
turns back.

b Calculate the magnitude of q.

51 Two equal and opposite charges are placed at

points with coordinates x = 0, y = a and x = 0, y =
−a, as shown in Figure 18.80.
 Figure 18.80: For question 51.

a Find the electric field at the point with

coordinates x = d, y = 0.

b Repeat for two equal negative charges −q on

the y-axis.

c Sketch graphs to show the variation of these

fields with the distance d.

52 Three protons are initially very far apart.

Calculate the work that must be done in order to
bring these protons to the vertices of an
equilateral triangle of side 5.0 × 10−15 m.

53 A charge −q whose mass is m moves in a circle of

radius r around another positive stationary
charge q located at the centre of the circle, as
shown in Figure 18.81.

Figure 18.81: For question 53.

 a Draw the force on the moving charge.

b Show that the velocity of the charge is given

by:
2
q
2
v = k
mr

c Show that the total energy of the charge is

given by:
2
q
E = −k
2r

d Hence determine how much energy must be

supplied to the charge if it is to orbit around
the stationary charge at a radius equal to 2r.

54 An electron of charge −e and mass m orbits the

proton in a hydrogen atom as in the previous
problem.
a Show that the period of revolution of the
2
4π m
electron is given by T 2 =
2
r
3
where k
ke
is the Coulomb constant and r the radius of
the orbit.

b Calculate this period for an orbit radius of

0.5 × 10−10 m.

c Using the results of the previous problem

calculate the energy that must be supplied
to the electron so it orbits the proton in an
orbit of radius 2.0 × 10−10 m.
55 An alpha particle (mass = 6.6 × 10−27 kg, charge =
+2e) is directed towards a nucleus of electric
charge +79e. The radius of this nucleus is 7.0 ×
10−15 m. Initially the alpha particle is very far from
the nucleus. What should the initial speed of the
alpha particle be so that it just stops on the
nuclear surface?
SELF-ASSESSMENT CHECKLIST

Ready
Nearly to
I am able to ... Section Not yet
there move
on
appreciate that 18.1
electric charge is
conserved and
quantised
state and apply 18.1
Coulomb’s law
understand the 18.1
concept of an
electric field
solve problems 18.1
with electric fields
draw the electric 18.1
field patterns for
simple
arrangements of
charges
describe Millikan’s 18.1
experiment
understand the 18.2
concept of a
magnetic field
draw the magnetic 18.2
field patterns for
straight wires, coils
and loops of
current as well as
for permanent
magnets
solve problems 18.2
with magnetic
forces on moving
charges and
currents
understand the 18.3
concept of electric
potential and
electric potential
energy
calculate the work 18.3
done when a
charged particle is
moved in an
electric field
calculate the total 18.3
energy of a
charged particle in
an electric field
appreciate that 18.3
electric field lines
and equipotential
surfaces are
normal to each
other
REFLECTION

Do you understand what is meant by charge

conservation? Do you understand what is meant by
charging by induction? Can you solve problems with
Coulomb’s law? Do you understand the concept of
electric field? Can you solve problems involving
electric field strength? Can you describe the Millikan
experiment and its consequences? Do you
understand the concept of magnetic field? Can you
draw the magnetic field patterns due to a bar magnet
and current carrying straight wires, circular loops and
coils? Can you find the direction of the magnetic force
on moving charged particles and between current
carrying straight wires, circular loops and coils? Can
you solve problems involving the formula for
magnetic force per unit length?
Do you understand the concepts of electric potential
and electric potential energy? Can you solve
problems involving electric potential and electric
potential energy? Can you solve problems with
energy conservation in electric fields?

EXAM-STYLE QUESTIONS

You can find questions in the style of IB exams in the

digital coursebook.
CHECK YOURSELF ANSWERS

1 The student is wrong. Positive charges are fixed

and cannot move.
1
2 Since E ∝
2
and r is doubled E will decrease by
r
a factor of 4.

4 Field lines cannot cross since at the crossing

point the direction of the field would not be
defined.

5 It is the same everywhere because the electric

field is uniform.

6
7

8 a Repulsion;
b attraction.

9 Out of the page

10 3.0 × 108 m s−1, the speed of light in a vacuum.

This is worth looking into!