Directing

Directing
Introduction
Directing is a vital managerial function. For the effective implementation of
any administrative decision, planning, organizing and staffing are not enough.
Planning, organizing and staffing are concerned only with the preparation for
work performance and it is the direction which alone stimulates the
organization and its staff to execute the plans. Hence it is also called
management in action.
Thus, it is a managerial function of instructing, supervising, inspiring and
guiding the employees forwards the achievement of predetermined objectives.
Some definitions
• According to Haimann:
“Directing consists of the process and techniques utilized in issuing
instructions and making certain that operations are carried on as originally
planned.”
• According to Koontz and O’Donnel:
“Direction is the interpersonal aspect of managing by which subordinates are
led to understand and contribute effectively and efficiently to the attainment of
enterprise objectives.”
Directing is influencing people's behavior through:
• Motivation
• Communication
• Group dynamics
• Leadership
• Discipline
The purpose of directing is to channel the behavior of all personnel to
accomplish the organization's mission & objectives. Simultaneously helping
them to accomplish their own carrier objectives should be considered.
Functions of directions
Directing function can be classified into two types. They are primary and
secondary.

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1. Primary functions of directing

• Leading
• Influencing
• Coaching, motivating
• Interpersonal relations
• Human relations
The directing function gives the manager an active rather than a passive role
in employee performance, conduct & accomplishments of tasks.
2. Secondary function of directing

Helping people in the organization accomplish their individual career
goals. Organization do not succeed while their people failing.

Helping people in the organization with career planning and professional
development is on integral part of the directing function.
In management, the directing function in managing for success has included:
• Motivation
• Communication
• Performance appraisal
• Discipline
• Conflict management
Management teams have to offer situational leadership for success, which
includes leader in services, group dynamics & team building.
Elements of Directing:
• Issuing order & instruction
• Supervising the employees
• Motivating the employees
• Providing the leadership
• communicating with the subordinates
• Maintaining the discipline.
• Rewarding & punishing the employees for their actions and
performance.

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Features of Directing
• Deals with people
• Pervasive function
• Superior does to subordinates
• Converts plans into action
• Link between planning, organizing & staffing functions of a
management.
• Continuous function
• Performance Oriented
Importance of Directing in management
• Initiates action
• Ensure efficiency
• Forwards achieving organizational objectives
• Integrate individual efforts
• Facilitates change in the organization.
Principles of Direction
• Principle of harmony of objectives
• Principle of Unity of Command
• Principle of direct supervision.
• Principle of Maximum individual contribution
• Principle of effective communication
• Principle of effective leadership.
• Principle of effective motivation
• Principle of appropriate techniques
• Principle of delegation of authority.
Requirements of Direction
• Knowledge of work
• Knowledge of by- laws.
• Skills in instructing.
• Skills in leading.
• Skills in dealing with immediate problems
• Human relations skills.

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Human factors in directing

Directing can be successful and effective only when managers understand the
nature of human beings. However, there is no uniformity of assumptions
about the nature of human beings because man is very complex to deal with.
Some assume that man will behave according to certain pattern. If the
condition for behavior is given, the behavior of man can be understood and
predicted depending upon the assumptions made, but researchers do not
believe on it because behaviors are unpredictable. Thus, human being is quite
complex. Following assumptions can be made about complex man.
1. Man is motivated by complex variables
2. Man is capable of learning many motives out of interaction with the
organization.
3. The understanding of human needs may not be final step in
understanding human behaviors
4. Man can behave diversely if we take into account his need pattern.
The complex man represents the real picture of human behaviors

Keys to successful directing:

• Depends more on the attitude of the manager forward the
subordinates
• Based on modern attitude that depends upon the maturity of the
managers & the subordinates.
• Objectives to be shown to the subordinates and should be essential
and compatible.

Key factors in directing:

• The order should be clear, concise & consistent.
• Order should be based on obvious demands of particular situation
• Tone of the order is important.
• Reason for the order should be given.

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Delegation of Authority
Authority
Authority is the right to give orders. It is assigned to departments and
positions. So, it is the formal right of supervisor to command and compel his
subordinates to perform certain task.
• According to Henry Fayol:
“Authority is defined as the right to give order and the power to exact
obedience”
• According to Koontz and O’Donnell:
“Authority is the power to command others to act or not to act in a manner
deemed by the pressure of authority”
• According to Stephen Robbins:
“Authority is the right to act, or command others to act, toward the attainment
of organizational goals.”
Characteristics of Authority
1. It is legitimate power to give orders.
2. It is the right to make decision to make decisions and use resources.
3. It is maximum at the top level and minimum at bottom level of
management.
4. It is delegated to subordinates. It can be added, reduced or withdrawn.
5. It is related with the position in the organizational hierarchy.
6. It is specified in the job description of the employee.

Authority delegation
The term “delegation” refers the process of assigning part of a manager’s job
to his/her subordinates with adequate authority and responsibility to
accomplish the task and making him /her responsible. It is the downward
transfer of formal authority, as well as responsibility, from one person to
another. It is an important way of motivating subordinates.
• According to F.G More: “Delegation means assigning work to others and
give them authority to do it.’’

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• According to Theo Haimann defined “Delegation of authority merely

means the granting of authority to subordinates to operate within the
prescribed limit”.

Steps in Delegation of Authority:

a) Assignment of duties and responsibility to subordinates:
Duties and responsibilities should be clearly identified for delegation.
Subordinates should have competence to perform the assigned duties and
responsibilities.
b) Granting of authority to subordinates:
This allows subordinates to use resources and make decision to do the job.
c) Creating accountabilities of subordinates for performance:
This creates obligation to perform the job assigned. It is answerability of
subordinate to perform.

Advantages of Delegation of Authority:

1. Higher productivity
2. Employee development
3. Use of expertise
4. Speedy decision making
5. Improved organizational climate

Barriers of Delegation of Authority

1. Reluctance to delegate
2. Fear of subordinates
3. Lack of trust ( “I can do it better myself” fallacy)
4. Incompetence of subordinates
5. Lack of reward
6. Lack of control
7. Distorted delegation

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Motivation
“An effective organization is one that has members who exhibit high levels of
both work-related motivation and work performance”
- Kanungo and Jaeger, 1990:2
Organizational success depends on how well the employees perform.
Management gets the jobs done by working with and through people to
achieve goals.
Motivation refers to the psychological process that gives purpose and
direction to behavior. It is an inner impulse that induces a person to act in a
certain way. The behavior of a person can be determined by the level of
his/her motivation. It helps to understand why some employees work harder
than others being equally talented and qualified. A working knowledge of what
motivates people enables managers to take constructive steps to improve
their employee’s performance. Motivation encourages people to carry out
effectively and willingly the tasks assigned to them by providing them with
rewards, or other forms of incentives that satisfy their needs.
Some Definitions
• According to Koonz and Weihrich
“Motivation is to do those things which satisfy drives and desires and induce
the subordinates to act in a desired manner.”
• According to Robbins and Decenzo
“Motivation is willingness to exert high levels of effort to reach organizational
goals, conditioned by the effort’s ability to satisfy some individual need.”
• According to Ricky Griffin:
“Motivation is the set of forces that cause people to behave in certain ways.”

Theories of motivation
The key to motivating others lies in somehow arousing and channeling their
desire to produce. But how can this desire of people be activated to improve
performance? This is the challenge for managers. In this section, several
motivation theories are explained which are presumed to be helpful for
managers in understanding motivation, as well as helping them to adapt
innovative techniques to motivate people in different work situations.

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Maslow’s Need Hierarchy

Abraham H. Maslow, an American psychologist has developed a theory of
motivation on the basis of human needs.
Assumptions of theory
1. Man is a social, preferably wanted animal and their needs are never fully
satisfied.
2. Human needs differ, innovations depends upon the fulfillment of these
needs.
3. A fulfilled need does not motivate an employee
4. Higher order needs motivate employees for better performance more than
the lower needs.
5. Higher order needs (self esteems and self actualization come into play
after lower order needs (physical needs, safety and social needs) are
satisfied.
Maslow classified needs into five categories

Self
Needs for opportunities to achieve things on individual
actualizati
on
considers important in life for personal growth

Ego/esteem Status, self respect

needs Autonomy, recognition

Affection, companionship,
acceptance, support
Social needs

Safety needs

Physiological needs
Food, clothing,
shelter, sex

Fig: Maslow’s Hierarchy needs

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These needs are not all equally important to all; rather they exist in a
hierarchy of importance
2. Herzberg two factor theory
It is developed by Frederick Herzberg in the early 1960s. This theory is also
known as dual – factor theory or two factor theory. Herzberg’s theory has
influenced managerial thinking. This theory emphasized the roles of two sets
of factors i.e. hygiene and motivating factors.
Hygiene factor
Herzberg called these factors as ‘maintenance factors’ because their pressure
maintains employee’s satisfaction and their absence causes dissatisfaction.
Motivating Factors
Motivating factors are related to job satisfaction. If motivating factors are not
provided to employees, they will not be motivated. But, the absence of
motivating factors will not necessarily cause job dissatisfaction

Hygiene factors Motivating Factors

Company policy and administration Achievement
Technical supervision Recognition
Interpersonal relation with superiors, Advancement
peers and subordinates
Salary The work itself
Job security The possibility of personal growth
Personal life Responsibility
Work conditions Achievement
Status Recognition

Managers who seek to eliminate factors thatcan create job dissatisfaction may
bring about peace but not necessarily motivation. If a manager wants to
motivate people on their jobs, he should emphasize factors associated with
the work itself or to outcomes directly derived from it.

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Leadership
Leadership is an important managerial function for effective and efficient
performance. Leadership is defined as the ability of a person to influence
other people in order to achieve goals or objectives. Organizational success
depends on the appropriate leadership style which is in demand by the
organizational climate, culture and environment.
Leadership is the quality of an individual, which enables him in guiding and
directing the community people to bring desirable change in the community. It
is an important element for group or teamwork. Leadership quality includes
self-confidence, decision-making power. Leadership is the big source of
knowledge, ideas and experiences. It bears big responsibilities for the
betterment of the community even with some sacrifice from his/her side.
Leaders influence the behavior of all stakeholders of the organization. A
leader guides and influences people to work spontaneously and
enthusiastically towards achieving goal. Example: A health educator can
himself work as leader. People will have great faith upon their local leadership
and listen to his/her advice and suggestions.
Some definitions
According to Stoner, Freeman and Gilbert
“Leadership is the process of directing and influencing the task related
activities of group members.”
According to Newstorm and Davis
“Leadership is the process of influencing and supporting others to work
enthusiastically toward achieving objectives.”
According to Stephen Robbins
“Leadership is the ability to influence a group toward the achievement of
goals.”

Some important functions of leadership:

Motivating and guiding followers

Understand followers with cooperation

Influencing and understand social norms and values

Creating a climate of motivation successfully

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Public health leadership skills

1. Use systems thinking to lead innovation and change.
2. Partner effectively with communities.
3. Negotiate relationships with partners and stakeholders.
4. Communicate effectively in crisis and high-risk situations.
5. Reflect and act upon personal leadership strengths and weaknesses.
6. Envision the public health future, and lead teams to create it.

Qualities of Good leader

1. Energetic: Mental and physical, required for a job.
2. Emotional stability: Avoid anger, deal with subordinates with
understanding.
3. Knowledge of Human Relation: Understanding of human behavior.
4. Empathy: Look at things objectively and from other viewpoint.
5. Personal Motivation: Enthusiasm within himself to get the job done.
6. Communication Skills: Ability to talk and write clearly
7. Technical competence: Effective working knowledge.
8. Courageous: Readiness to do a work, to take decision.
9. Will power: Determination.
10. Judgment: Good
11. Flexibility: Flexibility of mind is vital.
12. Knowledge: Keep a jump or two ahead of followers.
13. Integrity: Honest, Promise etc.

Types of Leadership

Autocratic Democratic Laissez-Faire

F F F F F F

Fig: Types of Leadership

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a) Autocratic Leadership:
Under this style, power and decision making are centralized in the leader. Its
features are:
Leaders make all the decisions. They order what to do and how to do.
Subordinates are not consulted.
Leaders have position based authority. They demand total obedience
from subordinates.
Leaders give reward and punishment as they like.
Information is controlled by the leader.
Advantages of Autocratic Leadership
1. Effective in crisis and emergency situations. Achieves higher
productivity in short run.
2. Chain of command is clear.
3. Discipline is maintained in the organization.
Disadvantages of Autocratic Leadership
1. Subordinate participation in decision making is ignored.
2. It does not motivate employees.
3. Subordinates work due to fear of punishment.
4. It does not consider situational needs.

b) Democratic (Participative) Leadership

Under this style, power and decision making is decentralized. Discussion,
consultation and participation are encouraged. Its features are:
Leaders consult with subordinates about decisions. Subordinates
willingly cooperate with the leader. They are encouraged to participate
and give idea.
Authority is delegated to subordinates.
Performance based reward and punishment.
Information is shared between leader and subordinates.
Advantages of Democratic Leadership
1. Subordinates involved in decision making, promotes participation.
2. Effective where team work is needed.
3. Results in high morale and productivity. People feel committed to goal.

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4. Motivate subordinates.
5. Provide opportunities for development and growth of subordinates.
Creativity is encouraged.
Disadvantages of Democratic Leadership
1. It is time consuming, slow and cumbersome.
2. It can result in indiscipline.
3. Leaders may avoid responsibility.
c) Laissez-Faire Leadership (Free Rein style)
Under this style, power and decision making is entrusted to the subordinates.
Its features are:
Leaders use very little power and control. They serves as an
information centre.
Subordinates have complete freedom to make decisions with
decentralized authority and responsibility. They have high degree of
independence in decision making. Influence flows all direction.
Subordinates set their own goals. Their potential is effectively utilized.
Advantages Laissez-Faire Leadership
1. Subordinates have freedom and autonomy to work. They set their own
goals.
2. Effective for research oriented and creative jobs.
3. Employee morale is high.
Disadvantages Laissez-Faire Leadership
1. Subordinates lack focus toward goals achievement.
2. Productivity suffers.
3. Responsibility may be avoided.
4. Coordination is poor

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Communication
The word communication has been derived from the Latin word ‘communis’
which means common. However, besides commonality, communication is the
transfer of information from a sender to a receiver, with the information being
understood by receiver. Communication is the lifeblood of organization. It
facilitates all the function of management. It is vital skill for a manager.
Everything a manager does involve communication.
Some definitions
• According to Ricky Griffin
“Communication is the process of transmitting information from one person to
another.”
• According to Koontz and Weihrich
“Communication is the transfer of information from a sender to receiver with
the information being understood by a receiver.”
• According to Keith Davis
“Communication is the process of passing information and understanding
from one person to another.”
Purpose of communication
1. To establish and disseminate the goals of an organization;
2. To develop plans for their achievement;
3. To organize human and other resources in the most effective and
efficient way;
4. To select, develop, and appraise members of the organization;
5. To lead, direct, motivate, and create a climate in which people want to
contribute; and
6. To control performance
Methods of Communication
1. Formal communication
• Downward communication
• Upward communication
• Horizontal communication
• External communication
2. Informal communication

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Forms of communication
1. Oral communication
2. Written communication
3. Non-verbal communication e.g. facial expression, posture, gesture etc.
Communication Process
The communication has been defined as a process. Process refers to
identifiable flow of information through interrelated stages of analysis directed
towards the achievement of objectives. The process of communication
includes following sequential elements; as shown in figure.

Sender Message Encoding Channel

Feed Back

Message Decoding Receiver

Fig: Communication process with feed back

Let us have a brief outlook of these elements

1. Sender
He is the originator of message. He is a person who intends to make contact
with other person to pass message. In organizational context, sender may be
supervisor or subordinate or peer etc.
2. Message
This is the subject matter of communication which is intended to be passed to
the receiver from sender. The message may be in the form of ideas, opinions,
feelings, views, suggestions or orders etc.
3. Encoding
Since the subject matter of communication is abstract and intangible its
transmission requires the use of symbols such as words, picture etc. The
process of converting the message into communication symbol is known as
encoding.

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4. Channel
It is the vehicle by which the sender transmits the message to receiver. The
channel may be written, personal contact or phone call etc. depending upon
the situation.
5. Receiver
Receiver is the person to whom the symbols are transmitted.
6. Decoding
It is the reverse of encoding. The receiver receives the subject’s matter of
communication in the form of communication symbols in which the sender has
encoded his message. The receiver decodes these symbols into message.
6. Feed Back
Feedback is necessary to ensure that the receiver has received the message
and understood it in the same sense as the sender intends.
Importance of communication
Communication requires in every human interaction whether in the
organizational context or otherwise. The importance of communication may
be seen in terms of various functions which it performs.
1. Information exchange
2. Command and instruction
3. Influence and Persuasion
4. Integration
Barriers to effective communication
Effective communication is measured by the quality of message received. The
meaning of the message received by the receiver is not the same as the
sender intended. The barriers can be
1. Physical Barriers
• Physical distance
• Noise
• Physical arrangement e.g. wall between people in the office design
2. Psychological Barriers
• Selective perception: selective attention, distortion of message to fit
perception, selective retention in long term memory
• Filtering : sender deliberately manipulates information

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• Distrust of the sender

• Emotional factors like anger, hate, fear, love etc. Influence the
understanding (decoding) of the message.
• Biased viewpoints
• Receiver interprets the message received as threatening and responds in
defensive ways.
3. Organizational Barriers
• Poor planning
• Structure complexity
• Distance in organizational hierarchy
• Status (Position) difference: filter the message
• Information overload
• Timing
• Technology
4. Semantic (word/symbol) Barriers
• Language
• Jargon : unfamiliar jargon or technical language

Essential features of communication system

1. Clarity
2. Adequacy
3. Timing
4. Integrity

Steps for making communication effective

1. Clarity of idea
2. Purpose of communication
3. Empathy in communication
4. Two way communication
5. Appropriate language
6. Supporting words with action
7. Credibility in communication
8. Good listening

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Supervision
The word “supervision” is the combination of super and vision. The word
super means upper or brilliant and vision means to see or idea. Hence it is
process of improving the supervisee through the brilliant idea.
Supervision is an art or a process by which designated individuals or group of
individuals oversee the work of others and establish controls to improve the
work as well as the worker.The concept of supervision is to guide and help the
subordinates in their work.
Definition
“Supervision is a process by which workers are helped by a designated staff
member to learn according to their needs to make the best use of their
knowledge and skills, and to improve their abilities so that they can do their
jobs more effectively and increasing satisfaction to themselves and the
agency.”
-Margaret Williams
There are many types of supervision emerged rather than the traditional ways
of supervision. One of the effective supervisions in health care service is
supportive supervision.
Supportive supervision is a continuous process. It looks into whether the
quality and quantity of an activity maintains the expected standard/set
standard.
A supervisor provides feedback, hands-on-skills and helps develop positive
attitude to a worker/service provider to achieve expected or set standard. The
supervisor also helps in developing the congenial atmosphere in the work
environment. Therefore, supportive supervision ensures:
• Task done maintaining accepted standard/set standard
• Regular and close observation and support to service providers in the
field. Feedback to service providers to ensure the quality of the task,
if needed
• Provide hands-on-skill to service providers
• Help service providers in improving work environment including
material development and
• Help motivate service providers and grow task interest among them.

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Differences between Traditional supervision and Supportive supervision

S.N. Traditional Supervision Supportive Supervision
1. Administrative related Providers' skill related
2. Usually no checklist is used Checklist is a must and used.
3. Problems identified, but no plan for Problems identified and planned for
immediate solution solution
4. No planned follow up visit to resolve Planned follow up visits to resolve
problems identified earlier problems detected earlier
5. Usually service providers are Service providers are regularly
informed of expected task standard informed of task standard
6. Little/no emphasis on service Strong emphasis on service
provider's motivation providers' motivation
7. No/little emphasis on improvement of Strong emphasis on improvement of
work environment work environment

Aspect of Supervision
• Imparting knowledge and information on the subject matter
• Helping to acquire skills and techniques
• Promotion of personality development of the worker
Objectives of Supervision
• To improve KAP
• To meet predetermined work objectives
• To promote effectiveness of the workers
• To promote morale and motivation among workers
• To enable employee assess their own performance
• To promote teamwork
• To bridge the gap between the worker’s personal goals and the
organizational goals
Components of Supervision

Training

Guidance

Demonstration

Individual counseling

Checking

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Importance of Supervision
1. Qualitative improvement of service provider’s performance by:

Improving service providers’ knowledge and skills;

Regular monitoring of the performance of service providers; and

Regular support to service providers by supervisors.
2. Service provider’s work environment will be improved through:

Ensuring required register, forms, supplies and medicines;

Increasing regular communication and coordination between service
providers and supervisors; and

Accelerating community participation and cooperation.
3. Clients will get quality services by:

Standard service facilities;

Standard health care; and

Poor woman and children will have access to health care facilities.

Process of Supportive Supervision

Inform
worker about
expected
standard

Motivate
Provide
worker and
feedback on
create
quality of
interest in
performance
work

Improve
work Improve
condition required
and ensure knowledge
supply of and skills
materials

Supervisory skills
a) Technical skill:

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Methods, process, procedures and other professional skills related to

specific performance.
b) Human skill:
Ability to work with, understands, motivates and communicates with
individual and the group.
c) Conceptual skill:
Ability to understand abstract of general ideas and apply them to specific
working situations.
d) Diagnostic skill:
Ability to analyze the nature of problem associated with people, ideas,
things or events.

Effective supervision
• Sincere expression of genuine friendship with subordinates
• Encourage subordinate's participation in the decision making
• Maintaining consistency and fairness in discipline
• Emphasizing praise over punishment
• Performing general supervision to close supervision
• Readdressing grievances with objectively and empathy
• From the point of view of supervision leadership style can be either
employed oriented or production oriented.
• Manager have consider both view simultaneously

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Monitoring
Monitoring is a process to match the performance with set targets and quality.
Monitoring is collecting, recording and reporting concerning any and all
aspects of project performance that the manager or others in the organization
wishes to know. According to David I. Cleland, Monitoring means to keep
track of and to check systematically program activities. Monitoring ensures:

The basic and universal management tool for identifying strength and
weakness in a program.

All the people involved make appropriate and timely decisions that will
improve the qualities of works

Monitoring primarily aimed tracking and improving project
implementation. (Problems are identified; corrective actions are taken
and develop feedback mechanism)

Monitoring is ongoing process where evaluation is a periodic
In management, the continuous oversight of the implementation of an activity,
seeking to ensure that input deliveries, work schedules, targeted outputs, and
other required actions are proceeding according to plan. So, Monitoring can
answer such questions:
• How well are we doing?
• Are we doing the right things?
• What difference are we making?
Purpose of Monitoring
• Compare performance with set targets;
• Assess quality of performance and help workers to achieve it
• Identify problems in implementing activities and help workers to solve
the problems
• Help workers to coordinate with different organizations for smooth
implementation of the activities of the plan
• Help workers in improving work situation

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Techniques of Monitoring
• Observation
• Rapid survey
• Interviews
• Records and reports

Areas to be monitored

Daily work progress

Supply and use of necessary materials

Proper application of acquired knowledge and skills

Present status of KAP to perform the assigned duties

Problem and constrains

Types of indicators used for Monitoring

Input indicator – Resources needed to carry out the program

Output indicator – The services or goods produced by the program

Effects – The knowledge, attitude and behaviour changes that result,
including coverage

Impacts – Changes in health or fertility status due to the effects

Steps of Monitoring
1. Planning

Specify the monitoring objectives

Select the indicator and performance standards

Choose information sources

Develop data collection procedures
2. Implementation

Collection, tabulation and analysis of data

Presentation of findings

Taking necessary actions
3. Assessment

Decide whether to continue monitoring

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Evaluation
Evaluation is an objective and systematic judgmental process for determining
relevance, efficacy, effectiveness and effect of the project performance. An
evaluation is the assessment at one point of time of the impact of piece of
work and the extent to which stated objectives have been achieved.
Monitoring measures Efficiency, while Evaluation measures effectiveness of
the project.
Some Definitions
• Evaluation is the process of assessing what has been achieved (whether
the specified goals, objectives and targets have been met) and how it has
been achieved.
-Simnett
• A process that attempts to determine as systematically and objectively as
possible the relevance, effectiveness and impact of activities in the light of
their objectives.
-John M. Last, A Dictionary of Epidemiology
• “Evaluation is the process of relating the actual achievement of a
programme to the results predicted in the plan. It also measures the
effectiveness of the program.”
- Michael D. Warren

Why evaluate?
1. To assess results and to determine if objectives have been met.
2. To justify the use of resources.
3. To demonstrate success in order to compete for scarce resources.
4. To assist future planning by providing a knowledge base.
5. To improve our own practice by building on our success and learning from
our mistakes.
6. To determine the effectiveness and efficiency of different methods of
Health Programs. This helps in deciding the best use of resources.
7. To inform other health workers so that they don’t have to reinvent the
wheel. This helps others to improve their practice.

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Steps of evaluation
1. Formulating the objectives of evaluation with suitable indicators
2. Considering the evaluation criteria and areas of evaluation (Adequacy,
relevancy, efficiency, appropriateness)
3. Determining proper techniques of evaluation (interview, observation etc)
4. Constructing appropriate measuring tools (Questionnaire, Checklist etc)
5. Processing, analyzing and interpreting the collected data and information
6. Presenting the findings
7. Making conclusions and providing recommendations and suggestions to
bring necessary improvement of health education programmes.
Methods of evaluation

Interview

Observation

Records and Reports

Meeting and Discussion
Tools of evaluation

Questionnaire

Checklist

Interview guideline

Phases of evaluation
1. Process evaluation:
Determines the degree to which project has achieved its planned activities
and overall objectives.
2. Outcome evaluation:
Determines the degree to which changes in outcomes, such as changes in
behaviour can be attributed to the intervention or programme.
3. Impact evaluation:
Determines the degree to which long term changes such as reduction of
HIV infection rates can be attributed to the intervention or programme.

Compiled by: Dinesh K Chaudhary 90

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Controlling
Control is one of the important functions of management. The main objective
of control is to bring to light the variations between the standards set and
performance and then to take necessary steps to prevent the occurrence of
such variations in future. So, it ensures that the right things are done in the
right manner at the right time. It is the process through which managers
assure that actual activities conform to planned activities.
Some definitions:
• According to Koonz and Weihrich:
“Controlling is the measurement and correction of performance in order to
make sure that enterprise objectives and the plans devised to attain them are
accomplished.”
• According to Robbins and Decenzo:
“Control is the process of monitoring activities to ensure that they are being
accomplished as planned and of correcting any significant deviations.”
• According to Ricky Griffin:
“Control is monitoring organizational progress toward goal achievement.”
Process of control
Controlling functions consists of four basic steps
1. Setting performance standards
2. Measuring individual and organizational performances
3. Comparing actual performance to planned standards
4. Taking corrective action

Setting
standard

Corrective Measuring
actions Control performance

Finding and
analyzing
deviations

Compiled by: Dinesh K Chaudhary 91

 Directing

Types of control system

1. Pre-control
They are initiated before the start of the activity. They focus on inputs. They
ensure that performance goals are clear and appropriate inputs are in place.
They are preventive controls. e.g.
• Quality specifications to control quality
• Recruitment and selection to ensure right personnel
• Budget to control financial resources
2. Concurrent control
They are initiated during the implementation of activities. They ensure that
operations are being conducted according to plans. It consists of action by
supervisors who direct the work of subordinates.
3. Post-control:
They are initiated after the activity is completed. They focus on outputs. They
correct problems after they occur. Post control is based on inspection of
completed activities and feedback of results. They are helpful in planning
future activities. e.g.
• Financial analysis after the end of the fiscal year
• Employee performance evaluation
• Quality control reports

Need for control

• To measure progress;
• To uncover deviations; and
• To indicate corrective action

Types of control in organization

a) Financial control
b) Quality control
c) Inventory control

Compiled by: Dinesh K Chaudhary 92

 Directing

Importance of controlling
1. Adjustment of operation
2. Policy verification
3. Managerial Responsibility
4. Psychological pressure
5. Coordination in action
6. Organizational effectiveness and efficiency

Relationship between planning and control

Planning is the prerequisite of control. Control is not possible without
planning. They both are interrelated.
• Planning provides direction for attaining goals. Control monitors activities
to reach those goals.
• Planning sets performance targets. Control monitors actual performance.
• Planning allocates resources. Control ensures effective and efficient
utilization of resources.
• Planning anticipates problems. Control corrects problems.
• Control monitors the effectiveness of planning.

Compiled by: Dinesh K Chaudhary 93