COMPUTER COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS

UNIT-I
2 MARK QUESTIONS:
1. Define computer network.
Ans: A computer network is a set of computers sharing resources located on or provided by
network nodes. The computers use common communication protocols over digital
interconnections to communicate with each other.

2. What are the different uses of computer network?

Ans: Computer Network provides several uses, both to organizations and individual users.
• Resource Sharing.
• Simultaneous Access.
• High Reliability due to Alternative Sources of Records.
• Cost Reduction.

3. Expand VPN, RFID.

• VPN : Virtual private network.
• RFID: Radio frequency identification.

4. Expand GPS, NFC.

• GPS: Global Positioning System.
• NFC: Near-field communication.

5. Expand DMCA, CAPTCHA.

• DMCA: Digital Millennium Copyright Act.
• CAPTCHA: Completely Automated Public Turing test to tell Computers and
Humans Apart.

6. Expand WiMAX, NSP.

• WiMAX: Worldwide Inter-operability for Microwave Access.
• NSP: Neighborhood Stabilization Program.

7. Expand ARPANET, ICMP.

• ARPANET: Advanced Research Projects Agency Network.
• ICMP: Internet Control Message Protocol.

8. Expand SMTP, RTP.

• SMTP: Simple Mail Transfer Protocol.
• RTP: Real-time Transport Protocol.

9. Expand HTTP, TELNET.

• HTTP stands for HyperText Transfer Protocol.
• TELNET stands for Teletype Network.
 10. Expand FTP, DNS.
• FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol.
• DNS stands for Domain Name System.

11. Expand TCP, UDP.

• TCP stands for Transmission Control Protocol.
• UDP stands for User Datagram Protocol.

12. Expand DSL, SONET.

• DSL stands for Digital Subscriber Line.
• SONET stands for Synchronous Optical Network.

13. Expand LAN, MAN, WAN.

• LAN stands for Local Area Network.
• MAN stands for Metropolitan Area Network.
• WAN stands for Wide Area Network.

14. What is peer-to-peer model?

Ans: Peer-to-peer (P2P) is a decentralized communications model in which each party has the
same capabilities and either party can initiate a communication session. Unlike the client-server
model, in which the client makes a service request and the server fulfills the request, the P2P
network model enables each node to function as both a client and server.

15. What is client-server model?

Ans: The Client-server model is a distributed application structure that partitions task or
workload between the providers of a resource or service, called servers, and service requesters
called clients. In the client-server architecture, when the client computer sends a request for data
to the server through the internet, the server accepts the requested process and deliver the data
packets requested back to the client. Clients do not share any of their resources. Examples of
Client-Server Model are Email, World Wide Web, etc.

16. List the different forms of e-commerce.

• B2C: Business-to-consumer
• B2B: Business-to-business
• G2C: Government-to-consumer
• C2C: Consumer-to-consumer
• P2P: Peer-to-peer

17. What is profiling and phishing?

• Profiling: The act or process of extrapolating information about a person based on
known traits or tendencies.
• Phishing: Is a type of cybersecurity attack during which malicious actors send messages
pretending to be a trusted person or entity.
18. What are the two types of transmission technology?
Ans: Transmission technology is basically divided into two categories:
• Broadcast Networks.
• Point-to-Point Networks.

19. What is unicasting and broadcasting?

• Unicasting is basically a single, direct request sent from one host to another, and only the
two hosts interact over the established route.
• Broadcasting is the distribution of audio or video content to a dispersed audience via any
electronic mass communication medium.

20. What are static and dynamic allocation methods?

• Static allocation is a procedure which is used for allocation of all the data objects at
compile time. It is possible only when the compiler knows the size of data object at
compile time.
• Dynamic allocation is when an executing program requests that the operating system
give it a block of main memory. It is used to add a node to a data structure.

21. What is communication subnet?

Communication subnet, or just subnet for short. A subnet, is a network inside a network.
Through subnetting, network traffic can travel a shorter distance without passing through
unnecessary routers to reach its destination.

22. List and explain the components of subnet.

Ans: The subnet consists of two distinct components: transmission lines and switching elements.
Transmission lines move bits between machines. They can be made of copper wire, optical fiber.
Switching elements, or just switches, are specialized computers that connect two or more
transmission lines.

23. What are routing and forwarding algorithm?

• A routing algorithm is a procedure that lays down the route or path to transfer data
packets from source to the destination (How the network makes the decision as to which
path to use).
• A forwarding algorithm means to place the packet in its route to destination (How each
router makes the decision as to where to send a packet next).

24. What is addressing and flow control?

Addressing in the network lets the two remote nodes in the network to communicate with each
other. The communicating system in the network using TCP/IP protocols use four types of
addressing, one at each layer of TCP/IP architecture.
Flow control is the management of data flow between computers or devices or between nodes in
a network so that the data can be handled at an efficient pace. Too much data arriving before a
device can handle it causes data overflow, meaning the data is either lost or must be
retransmitted.
25. Differentiate connection oriented and connectionless service.
S.NO Connection-oriented Service Connection-less Service

Connection-oriented service is Connection-less service is related

1. related to the telephone system. to the postal system.

Connection-oriented service is Connection-less Service is

preferred by long and steady preferred by bursty
2. communication. communication.

Connection-oriented Service is Connection-less Service is not

3. necessary. compulsory.

Connection-oriented Service is Connection-less Service is not

4. feasible. feasible.

In connection-oriented Service, In connection-less Service,

5. Congestion is not possible. Congestion is possible.

26. What is store-and-forward switching and cut-through switching?

• Store-and-forward switching is a method of switching data packets by the switching
device that receives the data frame and then checks for errors before forwarding the
packets.
• Cut-through switching is a method of switching data packets by the switching device
that forwards the packets as soon as the destination address is available without waiting
for the rest of the data to arrive.

27. List the different service primitives.

LISTEN Block waiting for an incoming connection

CONNECTION Establish a connection with a waiting peer

RECEIVE Block waiting for an incoming message

SEND Sending a message to the peer

DISCONNECT Terminate a connection

28. What is service and protocol?
• A service is formally specified by a set of primitives (operations) available to user
processes to access the service. These primitives tell the service to perform some action
or report on an action taken by a peer entity.
• In networking, a protocol is a set of rules for formatting and processing data. Network
protocols are like a common language for computers. The computers within a network
may use vastly different software and hardware; however, the use of protocols enables
them to communicate with each other regardless.

29. Differentiate OSI and TCP/IP reference model.

Ans: Following are the differences between OSI and TCP/IP Reference Model −
OSI TCP/IP

OSI represents Open System Interconnection. TCP/IP model represents the

Transmission Control Protocol /
Internet Protocol.

The OSI model was developed first, and then The protocols were created first and
protocols were created to fit the network then built the TCP/IP model.
architecture’s needs.

It provides quality services. It does not provide quality services.

It is difficult as distinguished to TCP/IP. It is simpler than OSI.

It uses a horizontal approach. It uses a vertical approach.

The smallest size of the OSI header is 5 bytes. The smallest size of the TCP/IP header
is 20 bytes.

3 OR MORE MARK QUESTIONS:

1. List and explain the uses of computer network.

Ans: Computer networks have become invaluable to organizations as well as individuals. Some
of its main uses are as follows −
1. Information and Resource Sharing − Computer networks allow organizations having
units which are placed apart from each other, to share information in a very effective
manner. Programs and software in any computer can be accessed by other computers
linked to the network. It also allows sharing of hardware equipment, like printers and
scanners among varied users.
2. Retrieving Remote Information − Through computer networks, users can retrieve
remote information on a variety of topics. The information is stored in remote databases
to which the user gains access through information systems like the World Wide Web.
 3. Speedy Interpersonal Communication − Computer networks have increased the speed
and volume of communication like never before. Electronic Mail (email) is extensively
used for sending texts, documents, images, and videos across the globe. Online
communications have increased by manifold times through social networking services.
4. E-Commerce − Computer networks have paved way for a variety of business and
commercial transactions online, popularly called e-commerce. Users and organizations
can pool funds, buy or sell items, pay bills, manage bank accounts, pay taxes, transfer
funds and handle investments electronically.
5. Highly Reliable Systems − Computer networks allow systems to be distributed in nature,
by the virtue of which data is stored in multiple sources. This makes the system highly
reliable. If a failure occurs in one source, then the system will still continue to function
and data will still be available from the other sources.
6. Cost–Effective Systems − Computer networks have reduced the cost of establishment of
computer systems in organizations. Previously, it was imperative for organizations to set
up expensive mainframes for computation and storage. With the advent of networks, it is
sufficient to set up interconnected personal computers (PCs) for the same purpose.
7. VoIP − VoIP or Voice over Internet protocol has revolutionized telecommunication
systems. Through this, telephone calls are made digitally using Internet Protocols instead
of the regular analog phone lines.

2. Write a note on the following:

i. Business application
ii. Home application

i. Business Applications:
• Resource Sharing: The goal is to make all programs, equipment (like printers etc), and
especially data, available to anyone on the network without regard to the physical
location of the resource and the user.
• Server-Client model: One can imagine a company's information system as consisting of
one or more databases and some employees who need to access it remotely. In this
model, the data is stored on powerful computers called Servers. Often these are centrally
housed and maintained by a system administrator. In contrast, the employees have
simple machines, called Clients, on their desks, using which they access remote data.
• Communication Medium: A computer network can provide a powerful communication
medium among employees. Virtually every company that has two or more computers
now has e-mail (electronic mail), which employees generally use for a great deal of daily
communication.
• eCommerce: A goal that is starting to become more important in businesses is doing
business with consumers over the Internet. Airlines, bookstores and music vendors have
discovered that many customers like the convenience of shopping from home. This
sector is expected to grow quickly in the future.
The most popular forms are listed in the below figure:
 ii. Home Applications:
➢ Access to remove information.
➢ Person to person communication
➢ Interactive entertainment and electronic commerce
Here are the usage of computer network in home application:
1. Internet Connectivity:
 Without computer network at home , home user are unable to serve the internet
 Computer network provides internet access to have users with remote computer
connection similar to the network use at companies
 A user at home can access and interact with information from other people in a different
place , place an order by online and buy products and services with e-commerce
2. Electronic News:
 Many newspaper companies have turn part of their work into online- based system.
Eg:- It is sometimes possible to tell newspaper that you have everything correction big
fires, scandals involving celebrities epidemics and also possible to have the elected article
for downloading to your computer.
3. Peer to peer communication:
It is a popular model for accessing information similar to a client –server model that allow
each individual form of a loose growth and communicate with one another
4. Electronic Mailing System:
E-mail is used by millions of people all over the world on a daily basis and its usage is
growing rapidly. The attachment in the e-mail system allows the transfer of text files,
computer file programs, audio, video and other important computer files.
5. Social Networking :
 Both adults and teenagers have become addicted to instant messaging.
 Social networking application allows sharing of information b/w person to person and
also let people to build strong relationship on the internet one of the most popular site is
facebook , instagram, WhatsApp etc.
6. Internet of things :
 Now a day, many consumers’ electronic devices are networked. For example, a person with a
camera that has a wireless network is capable of sending photos to a nearby display for
viewing or storage on the internet through the aid of network.
7. E-commerce:
A computer network allows home shopping enables users to inspect online catalogues from
thousands of companies. Some of these catalogues are interactive showing products from
different view point and personalize configuration.
8. Security system:
 A technology called RFID (Radio Frequency Identification ) locates and communication with
items over a distance of up-to several meters RFID tags have no battery and their chips (micro-
controller) have the size of stamp they can be attached to books, passport ,pets ,credit card and
other items at home.

3. Write a note on the following:

i. Mobile user
ii. Social issues

i. Mobile user: Mobile computers, such as laptop and handheld computers, are one of the
fastest-growing segments of the computer industry. Their sales have already overtaken those of
desktop computers. People on the go often want to use their mobile devices to read and send
email, tweet, watch movies, download music, play games, or simply to surf the Web for
information. They want to do all of the things they do at home and in the office. Naturally, they
want to do them from anywhere on land, sea or in the air.

1. Connectivity: the Internet enables many of these mobile uses. Since having a wired
connection is impossible in cars, boats, and airplanes, there is a lot of interest in wireless
networks. Cellular networks operated by the telephone companies are one familiar kind of
wireless network that blankets us with coverage for mobile phones.

2. Wireless hotspots: They are another kind of wireless network for mobile computers. They
have sprung up everywhere that people go, resulting in a patchwork of coverage at cafes,
hotels, airports, schools, trains and planes. Anyone with a laptop computer and a wireless
modem can just turn on their computer on and be connected to the Internet through the
hotspot, as though the computer were plugged into a wired network. Wireless networks are of
great value to fleets of trucks, taxis, delivery vehicles, and repairpersons for keeping in
contact with their home base

3. Short Message Service: It is very profitable since it costs the carrier but a tiny fraction of
one cent to relay a text message, a service for which they charge far more. The long-awaited
convergence of telephones and the Internet has finally arrived, and it will accelerate the
growth of mobile applications.

4. M-commerce: Short text messages from the mobile are used to authorize payments for food
in vending machines, movie tickets, and other small items instead of cash and credit cards.
The charge then appears on the mobile phone bill.

ii. Social issues: The widespread introduction of networking has introduced new social, ethical,
and political problems. A popular feature of many networks are newsgroups or bulletin boards
whereby people can exchange messages with like-minded individuals. As long as the subjects
are restricted to technical topics or hobbies like gardening, not too many problems will arise.
The trouble comes when newsgroups are set up on topics that people actually care about, like
politics, religion, or sex. Views posted to such groups may be deeply offensive to some people.
Furthermore, messages need not be limited to text. High-resolution color photographs and even
short video clips can now easily be transmitted over computer networks. Many people read and
 write e-mail at work. Manyemployers have claimed the right to read and possibly censor
employee messages, including messages sent from a home computer after work. Computer
networks offer the potential for sending anonymous messages. In some situations, this
capability may be desirable. For example, it provides a way for students, soldiers, employees,
and citizens to blow the whistle on illegal behavior on the part of professors, officers,
superiors, and politicians without fear of reprisals. Computer networks have also introduced
new kinds of antisocial and criminal behavior. Electronic junk mail (spam) has become a part
of life because people have collected millions of e-mail addresses and sell them on CD-ROMs
to would-be marketers.

4. Write a note on the following:

i. LAN ii. MAN.
i. LAN (Local Area Network): A LAN is a privately owned network that operates within
and nearby a single building like a home, office or factory. LANs are widely used to
connect personal computers and consumer electronics to let them share resources (e.g.,
printers) and exchange information. When LANs are used by companies, they are called
enterprise networks. Wireless LANs are very popular these days, especially in homes,
older office buildings, cafeterias, and other places where it is too much trouble to install
cables. In these systems, every computer has a radio modem and an antenna that it uses to
communicate with other computers. In most cases, each computer talks to a device in the
ceiling. This device, called an AP (Access Point), wireless router, or base station, relays
packets between the wireless computers and also between them and the Internet.

ii. MAN (Metropolitan Area Network): is a high-speed network (broadband) that covers
larger geographic area such as city (tens of kilometers) or districts than local area
network (LAN) but smaller than wide area network (WAN) and providing the ability to
integrate multiple services through the transmission of data, voice, and video, on
transmission media such as copper, fiber optics, and microwaves. The term is applied to
the single network such as a cable television network, or it can be a way of connecting a
certain number of LANs in a more extensive network so that resources can share from
LAN to LAN and from device to device.
 5. Write a note on WAN.
Ans: A wide area network (WAN) is a computer network that covers a large geographical area
comprising a region, a country, a continent or even the whole world. WAN includes the
technologies to transmit data, image, audio and video information over long distances and among
different LANs and MANs. WANs have a large capacity, connecting a large number of
computers over a large area, and are inherently scalable. Communication links are provided by
public carriers like telephone networks, network providers, cable systems, satellites etc.
Typically, they have low data transfer rate and high propagation delay, i.e.they have low
communication speed.
6. Write a note on LAN.
Ans: LAN (Local Area Network). A LAN is a privately owned network that operates within and
nearby a single building like a home, office or factory. LANs are widely used to connect
personal computers and consumer electronics to let them share resources (e.g., printers) and
exchange information. When LANs are used by companies, they are called enterprise networks.
Wireless LANs are very popular these days, especially in homes, older office buildings,
cafeterias, and other places where it is too much trouble to install cables. In these systems, every
computer has a radio modem and an antenna that it uses to communicate with other computers.
In most cases, each computer talks to a device in the ceiling as shown in Fig. 1-8(a). This device,
called an AP (Access Point), wireless router, or base station, relays packets between the wireless
computers and also between them and the Internet.

7. Explain protocol hierarchies.

Ans: Most networks are organized as a stack of layers, one on the top of another. The number of
layers and their names vary from network to network. Each layer has a specified function and
adheres to specified protocols. Thus we obtain a stack of protocols.
The following figure illustrates a four-layer network −

The above figure represents communication between Device A and Device B. The data stream
from one device to the other is not sent directly but has to pass through a number of layers. The
layers in the same levels are called peers and have a set of protocols for communication.
Between each adjacent layer is an interface that defines the services that are being offered by a
lower layer to the next higher layer. The dotted arrows depict virtual communication between
peer layers, while the solid arrows represent the physical communications between the adjacent
layers.
Let us consider a situation where Device A wants to send a message to Device B. Device A
passes its information to the highest layer. As soon as a data stream reaches a layer, it performs
some specified functions on it and passes it to the layer below. This continues until the data
stream reaches the lowest layer. Layer 1 passes a bit stream of 0s and 1s to the physical medium
that communicates it to the Layer 1 of the receiving end. Each layer in the receiving end
performs certain functions on the data stream adhering to the protocol with its peer and passes it
to the layer above. This continues until the information reaches the highest layer. The highest
layer then conveys the message to Device B in the same format sent by Device A.

8. Explain design issues for the layers.

Ans: The network layer focuses on getting packets from the source to the
destination, routing error handling, and congestion control.
The network layer also has various design issues stated as follows:
• Reliability: The components and the networks might be unreliable, causing loss of
bits during data transfer and the information transferred may be distorted.
• Addressing: There might be a difficulty in addressing, as a large number of
messages are being transferred to an equally large number of computers.
• Flow control: A proper flow mechanism needs to be implemented, as if the rate at
which the data is produced by the sender is higher than the rate at which the data
is received by the receiver, then there will be an overflow of data.
• Error control: The layers need to agree upon a common error detection and
correction method, as the unreliable channels introduce a number of errors in the
data streams that are communicated and that may cause problems in protecting the
packets.
• Security: There should be adequate mechanisms to prevent unauthorized access to
data through authentication and breach of data.
• Statistical multiplexing: The data channel needs to be multiplexed so as to allocate
a fraction of bandwidth.
• Resource allocation: The allocation and the deallocation should happen with
minimal interference.
• Routing: It is the most important functionality. The network layer chooses the
most relevant and best path for the data transmission from source to destination.
• Inter-networking: It works to deliver a logical connection across multiple
devices.

9. Differentiate connection oriented and connectionless service.

Ans:
S.NO Connection-oriented Service Connection-less Service
1. Connection-oriented service is Connection-less service is related to the
related to the telephone system. postal system.
2. Connection-oriented service is Connection-less Service is preferred by
preferred by long and steady bursty communication.
communication.
 3. Connection-oriented Service is Connection-less Service is not
necessary. compulsory.
4. Connection-oriented Service is Connection-less Service is not feasible.
feasible.
5. In connection-oriented Service, In connection-less Service, Congestion
Congestion is not possible. is possible.
6. Connection-oriented Service gives Connection-less Service does not give a
the guarantee of reliability. guarantee of reliability.
7. In connection-oriented Service, In connection-less Service, Packets do
Packets follow the same route. not follow the same route.
8. Connection-oriented services require Connection-less Service requires a
a bandwidth of a high range. bandwidth of low range.
9. Connection-oriented requires Connection-less Service does not
authentication. require authentication.
10. Ex: TCP (Transmission Control Ex: UDP (User Datagram Protocol)
Protocol)

10.Write a note on service primitives.

Ans: A service is formally specified by a set of primitives (operations) available to a user
process to access the service. These primitives tell the service to perform some action or report
on an action taken by a peer entity. If the protocol stack is located in the operating system, as it
often is, the primitives are normally system calls. These calls cause a trap to kernel mode, which
then turns control of the machine over to the operating system to send the necessary packets. The
set of primitives available depends on the nature of the service being provided. The primitives
for connection-oriented service are different from those of connection-less service. There are five
types of service primitives:

1. LISTEN: When a server is ready to accept an incoming connection it executes the

LISTEN primitive. It blocks waiting for an incoming connection.
2. CONNECT: It connects the server by establishing a connection. Response is awaited.
3. RECIEVE: Then the RECIEVE call blocks the server.
4. SEND: Then the client executes SEND primitive to transmit its request followed by the
execution of RECIEVE to get the reply. Send the message.
 5. DISCONNECT: This primitive is used for terminating the connection. After this
primitive one can't send any message. When the client sends DISCONNECT packet then
the server also sends the DISCONNECT packet to acknowledge the client. When the
server package is received by client then the process is terminated.
11. Explain in brief different layers of OSI reference model.
Ans: OSI or Open System Interconnection model was developed by International Standards
Organization (ISO). It gives a layered networking framework that conceptualizes how
communications should be done between heterogeneous systems. It has seven interconnected
layers. The seven layers of the OSI Model are a physical layer, data link layer, network layer,
transport layer, session layer, presentation layer, and application layer, as shown in the
following diagram −

The physical layer, data link layer and the network layer are the network support layers. The
layers manage a physical transfer of data from one device to another. Session layer, presentation
layer, and application layer are the user support layers. These layers allow communication
among unrelated software in dissimilar environments. Transport layer links the two groups.
The main functions of each of the layers are as follows −
• Physical Layer − Its function is to transmit individual bits from one node to
another over a physical medium.
• Data Link Layer − It is responsible for the reliable transfer of data frames from
one node to another connected by the physical layer.
• Network Layer − It manages the delivery of individual data packets from source
to destination through appropriate addressing and routing.
• Transport Layer −It is responsible for delivery of the entire message from the
source host to destination host.
• Session Layer − It establishes sessions between users and offers services like
dialog control and synchronization.
• Presentation Layer − It monitors syntax and semantics of transmitted
information through translation, compression, and encryption.
• Application Layer − It provides high-level APIs (application program interface)
to the users.
 12. Explain in brief different layers of TCP/IP reference model.
Ans: TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol/ Internet Protocol. It is a set of
conventions or rules and methods that are used to interconnect network devices on the Internet.
The internet protocol suite is commonly known as TCP/IP, as the foundational protocols in the
suite are Transmission Control Protocol and Internet Protocol.
It chooses how the information will be traded over the web through end-to-end
communications that incorporate how the information ought to be organized into bundles
(bundles of data), addressed, sent, and received at the goal.
This communication protocol can also be utilized to interconnect organize devices in a private
network such as an intranet or an extranet. It contains four layers, the layers are:
• Application Layer: An application layer is the topmost layer within the TCP/IP
model. When one application layer protocol needs to communicate with another
application layer, it forwards its information to the transport layer.
• Transport Layer: It is responsible for the reliability, flow control, and correction
of data that is being sent over the network. There are two protocols used in this
layer are User Datagram Protocol and Transmission control protocol.
• Internet/Network Layer: It is the third layer of the TCP/IP Model and also known
as the Network layer. The main responsibility of this layer is to send the packets
from any network, and they arrive at the goal irrespective of the route they take.
• Network Access Layer: It is the lowest layer of the TCP/IP Model. It is the
combination of the Physical Layer and the Data link layer which present in the OSI
Model. Its main responsibility is to the transmission of information over the same
network between two devices.

13. Differentiate OSI and TCP/IP reference model

Ans: Following are the differences between OSI and TCP/IP Reference Model −
OSI TCP/IP

OSI represents Open System TCP/IP model represents the Transmission

Interconnection. Control Protocol / Internet Protocol.

OSI is a generic, protocol independent TCP/IP model depends on standard

standard. It is acting as an interaction protocols about which the computer
gateway between the network and the network has created. It is a connection
final-user. protocol that assigns the network of hosts
over the internet.

The OSI model was developed first, and The protocols were created first and then
then protocols were created to fit the built the TCP/IP model.
network architecture’s needs.

It provides quality services. It does not provide quality services.

The OSI model represents defines It does not mention the services,
administration, interfaces and conventions. interfaces, and protocols.
 OSI TCP/IP

It describes clearly which layer provides

services.

The protocols of the OSI model are better The TCP/IP model protocols are not
unseen and can be returned with another hidden, and we cannot fit a new protocol
appropriate protocol quickly. stack in it.

It is difficult as distinguished to TCP/IP. It is simpler than OSI.

It provides both connection and It provides connectionless transmission in

connectionless oriented transmission in the the network layer and supports connecting
network layer; however, only connection- and connectionless-oriented transmission
oriented transmission in the transport in the transport layer.
layer.

It uses a horizontal approach. It uses a vertical approach.

The smallest size of the OSI header is 5 The smallest size of the TCP/IP header is
bytes. 20 bytes.

Protocols are unknown in the OSI model In TCP/IP, returning protocol is not
and are returned while the technology difficult.
modifies.