G_tech Training Centre bgwavs@gmail.

com 0725048541

Contents
INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER SUPPORT AND MAINTENANCE ...................... 7

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER HARDWARE COMPONENTS ............................ 7

FUNCTIONS OF A PC ............................................................................................. 11

COMPONENTS OF A PC ............................................................................................ 12

Input Devices ............................................................................................................. 12

Mouse .................................................................................................................... 14

Processing .............................................................................................................. 17

Storage devices ...................................................................................................... 17

Output devices ........................................................................................................... 17

Cleaning other computer surfaces ....................................................................... 19

The System Unit Components ..................................................................................... 21

Power supply ............................................................................................................. 22

CD-ROM ................................................................................................................... 22

Input/Output Ports ..................................................................................................... 22

TYPES OF COMPUTERS .......................................................................................... 22

COMPUTER SAFETY ................................................................................................. 27

PC TOOLKITS .......................................................................................................... 27

ELECTRICAL SAFETY ........................................................................................... 29

FIRE SAFETY .......................................................................................................... 34

MATERIAL STORAGE AND DISPOSAL................................................................... 35

Batteries .................................................................................................................... 35

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Printer Toner cartridges and inks................................................................................ 36

Computer hardware.................................................................................................... 36

CLEANING AND SERVICING ................................................................................... 37

ELECTRICAL TESTING ............................................................................................. 39

Common Test Meter features ..................................................................................... 40

Taking a Voltage Measurement.................................................................................. 41

Taking a Resistance Measurement ............................................................................. 42

Maintenance .................................................................................................................. 44

Types of maintenance ................................................................................................ 44

Cleaning Tool and Hand Tools................................................................................... 46

Cleaning materials ..................................................................................................... 48

Cleaning other computer surfaces .............................................................................. 49

Safeguarding against malware .................................................................................... 50

The display screen ..................................................................................................... 50

DISPLAY ADAPTERS AND MONITORS .................................................................. 51

VIDEO MEMORY .................................................................................................... 55

Monitor specifications ............................................................................................... 57

TROUBLESHOOTING DISPLAY/MONITOR PROBLEMS ................................... 59

PORTABLE COMPUTERS & POWER MANAGEMENT ........................................... 61

POWER MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES ............................................................... 71

PRINTERS AND PRINTING ....................................................................................... 73

GENERAL PRINTER OPERATION ........................................................................ 74

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THE PRINTING PROCESS ...................................................................................... 80

TROUBLESHOOTING PRINTERS .......................................................................... 91

TIPS FOR SHOPPING FOR A PRINTER ................................................................. 96

PORTS AND CABLING .............................................................................................. 97

CONNECTOR TYPES .............................................................................................. 97

DB Connectors .............................................................................................................. 99

DIN connectors .......................................................................................................... 99

Audio Connectors .................................................................................................... 100

PARALLEL PORT .................................................................................................. 100

IEEE1284 ................................................................................................................ 101

Data skew ................................................................................................................ 103

SERIAL PORT ........................................................................................................ 105

KEYBOARD PORT ................................................................................................ 108

MOUSE PORT ........................................................................................................ 110

MONITOR PORTS ................................................................................................. 111

USB PORT (UNIVERSAL SERIAL BUS) AND HUBS ......................................... 113

IEEE 1394 (The Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers) ............................. 115

SCSI PORTS ........................................................................................................... 117

INFRARED PORTS ................................................................................................ 119

OTHER PORTS ...................................................................................................... 120

THE MOTHERBOARD.............................................................................................. 121

MOTHERBOARD COMPONENTS ....................................................................... 121

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CPU- Central Processing Unit .................................................................................. 122

Math Co-processor................................................................................................... 122

BIOS- Basic Input Output System............................................................................ 122

CMOS- Complimentary Metal Oxide Semiconductor .............................................. 123

Cache Memory ........................................................................................................ 124

Expansion Buses ...................................................................................................... 124

Chipset .................................................................................................................... 124

CPU Clock............................................................................................................... 124

Switches and Jumpers .............................................................................................. 124

Main Memory (RAM).............................................................................................. 125

MOTHERBOARD FORM FACTORS ........................................................................ 125

LPX and Mini LPX .................................................................................................. 128

NLX ........................................................................................................................ 129

EXPANSION BUS TYPES ..................................................................................... 135

PROCESSORS............................................................................................................ 153

PROCESSOR TERMS ............................................................................................ 156

OTHER PROCESSORS .......................................................................................... 179

CPU PACKAGING ..................................................................................................... 186

MOTHERBOARD CPU SOCKETS ........................................................................... 189

PROCESSOR UPGRADES ..................................................................................... 192

TROUBLESHOOTING THE PROCESSOR ........................................................... 198

INTRODUCTION TO PC MEMORY ......................................................................... 201

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PC MEMORY BLOCKS ......................................................................................... 207

MEMORY PACKAGES.......................................................................................... 212

MEMORY DIAGNOSTICS .................................................................................... 217

STORAGE MEDIA .................................................................................................... 221

REMOVABLE MAGNETIC STORAGE .................................................................... 221

FLOPPY DISK DRIVES ......................................................................................... 222

JAZ DRIVES ............................................................................................................ 225

ZIP DRIVES............................................................................................................ 225

LS-20 SUPERDISK................................................................................................. 226

COMPACT DISK DRIVES ..................................................................................... 226

WORM Drives......................................................................................................... 230

TAPE DRIVES ........................................................................................................ 234

Removable Hard Disk drives ................................................................................... 236

HARD DISK PERFORMANCE .............................................................................. 241

HARD DISK PREPARATION ................................................................................ 246

CLEANING AND PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE ................................................. 251

Determining When to Perform Maintenance ......................................................... 252

Automating Preventive Maintenance .................................................................... 253

DISASSEMBLY ROUTINE ....................................................................................... 253

(A) Procedure: ......................................................................................................... 253

GUIDELINES FOR RE-ASSEMBLING YOUR PC................................................ 255

TROUBLESHOOTING THE BOOT PROCESS ......................................................... 255

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SYSTEM CONFIGURATION .................................................................................... 260

SYSTEM BIOS ....................................................................................................... 260

POST ....................................................................................................................... 261

CMOS SETTINGS .................................................................................................. 261

CMOS /BIOS ADVANCED SETTINGS ................................................................. 263

JUMPER SETTINGS AND CABLE LAYOUT ....................................................... 266

INTERRUPTS ............................................................................................................ 267

Choosing an interrupt ............................................................................................... 268

Sharing Interrupts .................................................................................................... 269

Non-Maskable Interrupts (NMI) .............................................................................. 269

DIRECT MEMORY ACCESS (DMA) .................................................................... 269

Bus mastering .......................................................................................................... 270

I/O ADDRESSES OR BASE I/O PORTS ................................................................ 271

MEMORY ADDRESSES (BASE MEMORY ADDRESS) ...................................... 272

DETERMINING RESOURCES IN USE ................................................................. 273

RESOURCE CONFLICTS ...................................................................................... 275

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INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER SUPPORT AND MAINTENANCE
Definition of terminologies

Hardware

Computer hardware is the collection of physical parts of a computer system. This

includes the computer case, monitor, keyboard, and mouse. It also includes all the parts
inside the computer case, such as the hard disk drive, motherboard, video card, and many
others. Computer hardware is what you can physically touch.

Software

Software consists of carefully organized instructions and code written by programmers in

any of various special computer languages that instruct the computer what to do and how
to do it.

Memory

Computer memory is any physical device capable of storing information temporarily or

permanently. For example, Random Access Memory (RAM), is a volatile memory that
stores information on an integrated circuit used by the operating system, software, and
hardware.

Below is an example picture of a 512MB DIMM computer memory module.

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER HARDWARE COMPONENTS

Today we are living in the computer age. Computers today are virtually everywhere,
from banking, manufacturing, support, servicing and training where they are used in
computation. From the first computer ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator And
Computer) of 1942 which spanned 150 feet in width with twenty banks of flashing lights
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indicating the results of its computations, today’s computers are much smaller but with
the capacity of doing almost any imaginable job. The 1981 launch of Intel’s 16-bit 8086
processor paved the way for the original IBM PC, the computer that started to set
standards and spawned imitators that are being built in their millions today.

Although the technologies may have changed, the oldest IBM PC and the latest multi-
media computer all share common principles of operation and, to maintain and use a
computer properly, an understanding of basic concepts is required.

HARDWARE

Hardware is a term used to describe all the physical & tangible devices that make up a
computer system, i.e. it consists of the parts that can be touched and felt.

Hardware include all mechanical & electronic elements found in the computer, e.g., the
System Unit, Transistors, Diodes, bus systems such as electronic paths (channels), the
Input devices (e.g., Keyboard, Mouse), Output devices (e.g., Monitor) & the Storage
devices.

Hardware devices enable the user to enter information into a computer, view the output
on screen, print out the work, store and process the work.

The hardware elements of a computer are generally grouped/ sub-divided into 4 major
categories:-

1). Input devices.

Input devices are used to communicate with a computer. They enable the computer
user to enter data, information & programs into the computer. They also let the user
issue commands to the computer.

An Input device converts the input information into machine-sensible/ readable form.

Examples

* Keyboard. * Mouse.

* Key-to-disk. * Key-to-Tape.

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* Scanner. * Light pen.

* Trackball * Video digitizers.

* Graphics pads (Tablets). * Joystick / Game paddles.

* Speech Recognition devices. * Digital & Web cameras.

* Voice input devices, e.g. Microphones.

* Document readers, such as, Magnetic Ink Character Reader (MICR), Optical Mark
Reader

(OMR) & Optical Character Reader (OCR)

*Point Of Sale terminals, such as, Bar code readers, Kimball Tag readers, Card
readers, &

Badge readers

2). Central Processing unit – CPU (Processor).

The CPU is composed of the Main Memory, the ALU & the Control unit.

The CPU performs the necessary operations on the data held within the memory. It
interprets & processes all the instructions from the Input devices.

The CPU is housed in the computer casing (System Unit), which contains all the
major components of a computer system.

3). Output devices.

Output devices are used to extract/ disseminate processed data from the computer.
They display the results of all the information that has been processed.

They also convert machine-coded output results from the Processor into a form that
can be understood by people.

Examples.

* Screen (Monitor/ Visual Display unit – VDU). * Printers

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* Audio Response units. * Graph Plotters.

* Sound output devices, e.g. Speakers. * Microforms.

4). Storage devices.

These are devices used to store data & programs in computers. They include; Hard
disks, Floppy disks, Magnetic tape drives, Cassette Tapes, Optical disks (CD-ROMs),
and Random Access Memory (RAM).

Note. All these storage devices differ in the way (technology) they store data & the
capacities of data they can hold.

Characteristics of Computer Hardware

1. Hardware consists of parts that one can touch and feel.

2. Hardware determines what software will be used in the computer.
3. Computer hardware is expensive to acquire.
4. Hardware devices can only be made by specialist hardware engineers.
5. Not easy to change particular hardware components.

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SOFTWARE

 These are the programs & data used in a computer system that enable it perform a no.
of specific functions.
 Software is a set of computer programs that guides the computer in each and every
activity that happens inside the computer during data processing operations.
Software also includes the associated documentation (descriptions of the programs).

When used in a computer, Software instructs the computer to carry out specific
processing tasks, e.g. produce the year end Balance sheet.

Characteristics of Computer Software

1. They are the programs & data used in a computer system.

2. A Computer Program is usually a set of computer instructions written in any of the
computer programming languages, e.g. BASIC, PASCAL, etc.
3. It is not possible to see a program in memory as it exists in magnetic spots, however,
you can see & touch a listing of the program on the computer screen.
4. Software enables computer hardware to operate effectively. In other words, software
is meant to put ‘life’ into the hardware.
5. Software is flexible, i.e., the software used in a particular computer is relatively easy
to change.
6. Software is cheaper compared to hardware devices.
7. Computer software can be written by the user, a Programmer or a Software house.

FUNCTIONS OF A PC

The components that make up a computer can be classified

according to their functionality. Before looking at specific PC
components, it is worth taking a few moments to consider the key
functions which are performed by every single computer.

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PROCESSING

INPUT OUTPUT

STORAGE

The diagram above illustrates how a computer executes a command. The input device
receives the instruction which is then passed to the processor which does the
processing to determine what the command is supposed to do and communicates the
results of the processing through the output devices or stores them for future use.

COMPONENTS OF A PC
Input Devices
Input devices are used to enter raw data into a computer. They offer an interface between
the user and the computer.
They include: -

Keyboard

Various keys on the keyboard let

you enter information into a
computer

Cleaning the keyboard

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A dirty keyboard doesn't look nice and can cause your keyboard to not work properly.
Dust, food, liquid, and other particles can get stuck underneath the keys, which can
prevent them from working properly. Check your owner's manual to see if the
manufacturer has provided you with instructions for your specific keyboard. If so, follow
them. If not, the following steps are basic cleaning tips that can help keep your keyboard
clean.

1. Unplug the keyboard from the USB or PS/2 port. If the keyboard is plugged into
the PS/2 port, you will need to shut down the computer before unplugging it.
2. Turn the keyboard upside down, and gently shake it to remove dirt and dust.
3. Use a can of compressed air to clean between the keys.
4. Moisten a cotton cloth or paper towel with rubbing alcohol, and use it to clean
the tops of the keys. Do not pour alcohol or any other liquid directly onto the
keys.
5. Reconnect the keyboard to the computer once it is dry. If you are connecting it to
a PS/2 port, you will need to connect it before turning on the computer.

The keyboard

This should:

 Be tillable and separate from the screen to allow the user to adopt a comfortable
working position
 Have a space in front to provide support for the hands or arms of the user
 Have a matt surface
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 Have clearly legible symbols on the keys.

Dealing with liquids

If you spill liquid on the keyboard, quickly shut down the computer and disconnect the
keyboard and turn it upside down to allow the liquid to drain.

If the liquid is sticky, you will need to hold the keyboard on its side under running water
to rinse the sticky liquid away. Then turn the keyboard upside down to drain for two days
before reconnecting it. The keyboard may not be repairable at this point, but rinsing the
sticky liquid off of it is the only chance for it to be usable again. The best way to avoid
this situation is to keep drinks away from the computer area.

Mouse
A mouse is a hand-held device that lets you select and move items on
your screen. A mouse can come in various shapes, colors and sizes.

Cleaning the mouse

There are two main types of mice: optical and mechanical. Each is cleaned in basically
the same way, although the mechanical mouse requires a bit more work.

 Optical mice require no internal cleaning because there aren't any rotating parts;
however, they can get sticky over time as dust collects near the light emitter. This
can cause erratic cursor movement or prevent the mouse from working properly.

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 Mechanical mice are especially susceptible to dust and particles that can
accumulate inside the mouse, which can make it difficult to track or move
properly. If the mouse pointer does not move smoothly, the mouse may need to be
cleaned.

Before you clean your mouse, check the owner's manual to see if the manufacturer has
provided you with instructions for your specific mouse. If so, follow those instructions. If
not, the following steps are basic cleaning steps that will help keep your mouse clean.

1. Unplug the mouse from the USB or PS/2 port. If the mouse is plugged into the
PS/2 port, you will need to shut down the computer before unplugging it.
2. Moisten a cotton cloth with rubbing alcohol, and use it to clean the top and
bottom of the mouse.
3. If you have a mechanical mouse, remove the tracking ball by turning the ball-
cover ring counterclockwise. Then clean the tracking ball and the inside of the
mouse with a cotton cloth moistened with rubbing alcohol.
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4. Let all of the parts dry before reassembling and reconnecting the mouse. If you
are connecting it to a PS/2 port, you will need to connect it before turning on the
computer.

Scanner

A scanner is a device that reads graphics and text into a

computer.

Joystick

A joystick helps you control the movement of people and objects in

many games. Joysticks are used for arcade-type computer games
because they let you move quickly and accurately in any direction.

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Track point (1)

Mini-joystick device or button positioned within the keyboard layout
activated by finger pressure.

Track pad (2)

Small electro-magnetic sensitive plate activated by a single finger pressure

Other input devices include; Touch screen on special monitors and Microphone for voice
input.

Processing
The processor is the main chip in a computer it performs arithmetic &
logical operations. The processor manipulates raw data and manages
the flow of information through a computer system. It communicates
with input, output and storage devices to perform tasks. It also
controls the operation of other components in the system.

Storage devices
Holds information permanently until it is needed, for one day or one
year. This could be filing names and addresses in a database. There is no
point in processing or storing information unless it can be accessed
again.

Output devices
Information in information out, this could be the printing of mailing labels from the
database or displaying the picture on a web page. They include: -

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Monitor

A monitor displays text and images after being processed.

Cleaning the monitor

Dirt, fingerprints, and dust can make your computer screen difficult to read; however, it's
easy to clean your screen when needed. Although there are monitor-cleaning kits you
can buy, they may damage your monitor if they are designed for a different type of
monitor. For example, a monitor cleaner that is designed for glass screens may not work
with some non glass LCD screens. The safest method is simply to use a soft clean cloth
moistened with water.

Do not use glass cleaner to clean a monitor. Many screens have anti-glare coatings that
can be damaged by glass cleaner.

1. Turn off the computer.

2. Unplug the monitor from the power. If you are using a laptop, unplug the laptop.
3. Use a soft clean cloth moistened with water to wipe the screen clean.

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Do not spray any liquids directly onto the screen. The liquid could leak into the monitor
and damage the internal components.

Cleaning other computer surfaces

From time to time, you should clean your computer case and the sides and back of the
monitor to avoid buildup of dust and dirt. Here are a few tips you can use when cleaning
these surfaces.

Dust is your computer's main enemy. Use an antistatic wipe to lightly dust your
computer casing. Don't use furniture cleaners or strong solvents.

 Use a can of compressed air with a narrow nozzle to blow out debris from the air
intake slots.
 Spray cleaning solution like diluted ammonia cleaner or glass cleaner on a paper
towel or antistatic wipe. Clean the monitor housing and case not the monitor
screen by wiping in a downward motion.
 A safe cleaning solution for computer surfaces not computer screens is
ammonia diluted with water or glass cleaner comprised mostly of ammonia and
water (check the label). The milder the solution, the better.

Don't restrict airflow around your computer. A computer can generate a lot of heat, so
the casing has fans that keep it from overheating. Avoid stacking papers, books, and
other items around your computer.

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Many computer desks have an enclosed compartment for the computer case. If you have
this type of desk, you may want to position the case so it is not against the back side of
the desk. If the compartment has a door, you may want to leave it open to improve
airflow.

Safeguarding against malware

Malware is any type of software that is designed to damage your computer or gain
unauthorized access to your personal information. It includes viruses, worms, Trojan
horses, and spyware. Most malware is distributed over the Internet and is often bundled
with other software.

The best way to guard against malware is to install antivirus software such as Bit
defender, Norton, or Kaspersky. Antivirus software helps to prevent malware from being
installed, and it can also remove malware from your computer. New malware is being
created all the time, so it's important to update your antivirus software frequently. Most
antivirus programs can do this automatically, but you'll need to make sure this feature is
enabled.

It's also important to stay smart when you're browsing the Web or using email. If a
website or email attachment looks suspicious, trust your instincts. Keep in mind that your
antivirus program may not catch everything, so it's best to avoid downloading anything
that might contain malware.

The display screen

This should:

 Display well-defined characters of adequate size and spacing

 Have a stable image
 Have easily adjustable brightness and contrast
 Tilt and swivel easily to suit the user
 Be free from glare and reflections
 Use a separate base for the screen, or an adjustable table.

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Printer

A printer produces a paper copy of the information displayed on

the screen.

The System Unit Components

They include:
 Motherboard  CD-ROM
 Expansion slots  Parallel ports
 Hard drives  Serial ports
 Floppy drive  Keyboard port
System unit
case  Video ports  Power supply

Power supply

Expansion slots

Motherboard Hard disk

CD-ROM drive

Floppy drive

Motherboard

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Sometimes called the system board or main board. The motherboard houses processor,
memory and expansion slots and is central to every PC. The type of motherboard
installed in a PC has a great effect on system speed and expansion capabilities.

Hard disk drive

High capacity magnetic data storage media with a volume (disk) that is usually non-
removable.
Floppy disk drive

Low capacity magnetic data storage media with a removable disk

Usually 3 ½ inch in size

Power supply
The power supply unit (PSU) is used to convert AC current from the main supply to the
different DC voltages required by PC system components.
CD-ROM
High capacity optical data storage with a removable disk

Input/Output Ports
There are several types of ports; serial, parallel, SCSI, keyboard and mouse. All are used

to communicate with the various input/output devices used by a PC.

TYPES OF COMPUTERS

There are different types of computers depending on the number of users it can support
simultaneously.

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1. Mainframe computers – more than 100 users on one computer
2. Mini computers – 50-100 users on one computer

Mainframe/Mini
computer

Dumb terminal

NB: Users connects to the mainframe or mini computers using dumb terminal.

3. Microcomputers (Personal computers) one user.

Microcomputers can be further classified as either; desktop or portable computer

Desktop computers
Desktop computers are not built to be mobile. They are
moved, but only to a new desktop location and with the power
supply inactive. There are a number of major differences
between computers that are intended to be used in one place as
a desktop and portables or mobiles that can be easily moved
from one location to another.

Desktop computers are large and heavy in comparison to portables. They can be carried
in specially manufactured cases, but only to assist a support engineer in moving, not as a
frequent procedure. The monitor, keyboard and mouse are all separate items on a
desktop; they would all be required to use modern day computers sited at another
location.

Desktop computer components and devices, although quite resilient to movement while
active, are not made to be constantly moved, even less so when they are operational. A
mains power supply is mandatory, as desktop computers cannot work without a constant
supply of electrical power.

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Portable or Mobile computers
Portable or mobile computers are manufactured specifically to be portable. They:
 are small, compact and light in weight;

 Can be accommodated in a carry case, produced with compartments for the computer
and for various portable computer attachments.

Portables are produced in a variety of sizes:

Laptop PDA

Palmtop

Generally the smaller computers have less functionality and may require specific
operating system software to operate. There are also very small hand size systems called
Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs) that use a special stylus for input and can be linked to
desktop or other portable systems for uploading and downloading data.

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PDAs, Palmtop, Handheld or Pocket PCs are some of the names that these small
computers are known as, but basically they provide the same types of functions and
features.
Typically PDAs offer standard applications such as a diary, calculator, To Do list,
address book and a contact list. Memory tends to be limited in the range from 4 to 32
MB RAM so there is little scope for large amounts of data storage. Most PDAs are
supplied with either a serial cable or an Infrared port to allow users to transfer data to and
from another computer such as a desktop or Notebook PC.

PDAs can be split into two basic types; those which use a proprietary operating system,
such as the Palm Pilot, and those that are basically PC compatible and use the Windows
CE operating system, such as the Philips Velo. Top of the range models often have
colour screens and have PC Card slots as with Notebook PCs.

Notebook (A4 size) or laptop computers tend to be fully IBM PC compatible with similar
specification levels for CPU, memory, hard disk capacity, and CD-ROM drives. As such
they are roughly equivalent to their desktop counterparts. In fact the modern Notebook
PC is quite capable of being used as a complete replacement for a traditional desktop
computer.

Typical Notebook PCs consist of a display panel, keyboard and pointer device are
integrated in to a portable computer casing. Components and devices are developed and
manufactured for portability, with many components being soldered directly to the
motherboard rather than being located in chip sockets. Power can be taken from a mains
power supply via a transformer or from an internal high power battery power pack.

Both modern desktop and portable computers now come with power saving features;
particularly on display and hard disk operation. These features are now becoming a
standard part of a computer BIOS, allowing automatic control of energy saving features
through inactivity time-outs.

Portables have an additional feature, where a complete memory copy is made of the

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operating environment and placed in a reserved place (partition) on the hard disk. This
allows the computer to suspend processor operation for an indefinite time. When
required the BIOS can swiftly re-load the complete environment from hard disk and
continue normal operation. This is called suspend mode.

Apart from a power cable with transformer, portable computers have a very small
footprint and weight profile, with additional fittings either supplied or optional extras.
These can enable a portable to be used in a desktop situation, giving access to all the
resources normally provided by a desktop computer. This would include a separate
monitor, keyboard and mouse pointer device.

The work surface

The work surface should:

 provide adequate space for the user

 have a low reflective surface
 be of adequate size to allow the screen, keyboard, etc to be flexibly arranged
 Have a stable, adjustment document holder, which should be at the same level as
the screen and at the same viewing distance.

The work chair

This should have a seat that is adjustable in height, with a seat back adjustable in height
and tilt. A footrest should be available.

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The workstation/environment

The workstation must do the following:

 provide sufficient space for the user or the operator to alter position comfortably
 lighting must be adequate with suitable contrast between the screen and
background
 glare and reflections on the screen should be avoided
 Windows should be fitted with adjustable coverings to alter the daylight level.

COMPUTER SAFETY
In order for an IT area to work safely and effectively, numerous ‘best practices’ should be
adopted. This section covers the basic workshop practice that every service technician
should know and understand – starting with safety first.
PC TOOLKITS
For all maintenance procedures, you should consider what tools and products are to be
used, where they can be kept securely and how to apply them safely. You should also
consider where the maintenance is to be carried out - at the computer equipment’s
location or in a separate technical work area. Some of the tools and products you might
utilise are listed here.

Grounded rubber mat - Static charge or ESD is one of

the greatest threats to electrical components. Very large
static charges can be accumulated and discharged through
equipment, creating permanent damage. If possible, place
the equipment to be maintained on a grounded rubber mat.

Grounded wrist strap - When handling components,

equalise the charge between yourself and the equipment
by wearing an earthling wrist strap connected directly to a clean metal part of the
equipment chassis.

Compressed gas canister (canned air) - Operate only in the upright position; this is
very effective at blowing away dust and debris from electrical components and
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keyboards. It can create static charges when the gas is expelled, but a wrist strap reduces
this risk. Remove parts from within the computer to be cleaned to allow dust and debris
to be blown away from sensitive moving parts and electronics.

Proprietary computer cleaners - There are a wide range of cleaners available in foam
and liquid form. You should not apply them directly, but douse or spray lint free cloths
and swabs before applying to equipment and component parts. You should only use
cleaners that are specifically for computers. The liquid cleaner should be able to dry
away quickly without leaving a residue. If in doubt, read the manufacturer’s instructions
for where and how they can be applied.

Anti-static solutions - of particular value where computer equipment is being operated in

dry, low humidity environments. This can be sprayed onto room carpets and hanging
fabrics to reduce the generation of static. You should not, of course, spray near live
equipment.

Brushes and swabs - dry brushes for removing more stubborn dirt; swabs can be dipped
or coated in cleaning solutions before applying to clean a surface. Move brushes and
swabs slowly and lightly to reduce risks of generating static charges.

Lint free dusters - apply foam or spray directly onto dusters before wiping larger
surfaces. Using these you limit any loose fibres being left on cleaned surfaces.

Electrical lubricants - these are normally multi-purpose: they are electrically

conductive, give additional corrosion protection to electrical connectors and supply a
lubricant to allow parts to be inserted or connected with much less physical pressure.

Vacuum cleaner - bulky to carry, but is a beneficial tool for removing and disposing of
dust, debris and other polluting material in one go. Be sure you use a rubber end fitting
to limit damage to equipment and to reduce static. Check first to ensure no small parts
are loose on or in equipment before starting to vacuum.

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ELECTRICAL SAFETY
Electricity kills. Electrical safety in the workshop is paramount; consider that when we
are repairing equipment’s at one time you may need to power up with covers removed so
that fault-finding procedure can be followed.

Basic rules of electrical safety

Do not work on any piece of equipment unless you have been trained to so.

Disconnect any equipment from the power source before removing any covers or
attempting any repair or upgrade work.

Remove or cover any exposed metal jewelry – rings, bracelet, necklaces, watches etc.
prior to working on ‘live’ equipment. The moisture that builds up underneath metal
jewelry increases the risk of a dangerous electrical shock. If you cannot, or do not wish
to, remove rings, cover them with electrical tape.

Certain items – such as PC power supplies and TV/Computer monitors – are still a shock
risk some time after they have been disconnected from their power source.

Check all power cable and connectors on a regular basis and do not use any that show
signs of damage or wear.

Never work alone – it’s usually law that employees do not place themselves in a position
where there is no-one to help in an emergency.

Find out where the nearest emergency cut-off power switch is located.

Do not work on industrial power (three phase) or high-voltage (HV) electrical systems
unless qualified to do so.

Never assume that any electrical item is safe to use without first conducting a visual
inspection of all power leads, insulation and safety covers.

ESD (ELECTROSTATIC DISCHARGE) PRECAUTIONS

ESD refers to Electrostatic Discharge and the problems related to the build-up of static
electricity and the damage it can cause to electronic components – especially individual

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chips and circuit boards. Complete assemblies (floppy disks, hard disks etc.), are not
quite as sensitive, but they can still be damaged.

Static electricity builds up as a very high voltage on insulated surfaces. The voltage itself
isn’t normally dangerous, because the amount of current that it can deliver is very low,
but discharging static electricity through an electron component, especially a
semiconductor such as computer memory, can destroy it or damage it so that it fails
immediately or some time in the future (a very difficult fault to diagnose). Static changes
as low as 30V can damage chips on motherboard and expansion cards.

We all generate static electricity because we often wear synthetic materials, such as
nylon, that act as insulating layers and assists static build-up. Human body can hold up to
200V static charge without you feeling anything. The problem of static build up is more
acute in dry, cool weather. This is because the dry air (low humidity) acts as a further
insulating layer, dump air would help dissipate the static charge.

Reducing Static Problems

There’s a threefold approach to preventing ESD-related problems:

1. Stop static build up in the first place.

2. Drain static charges on earth (ground).

3. Ensure that all affected components are at the same static potential so there’s no risk
of a discharge between them.

Environmental Precautions

In the workshop, several steps can be taken to reduce ESD issues:

 Workbenches can be fitted with antistatic mats and floor mats connected via
grounding leads to the power outlet’s earth circuit.

 Special antistatic carpeting might be laid.

 Humidifiers may be used to raise the moisture level of the air and hence make it more
conductive to the static charges.

Personnel can also take steps to reduce ESD problems:

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 Antistatic wrist straps can be worn both at the bench and when working on site.
 Portable antistatic mats can be taken on site to provide a static-free working area
ESD Earthing Considerations

Many antistatic precautions in the workshop involve earthing personnel and/or equipment
but connecting either directly to earth is also a hazard.

If we were to earth ourselves directly, and then receive an electric shock, the fault current
through our bodies would be maximised and this could lead to serious or fatal shock. In
order to reduce the risk of a serious shock, antistatic equipment includes current-limiting
resistors in the earthing arrangement.

These current-limiting resistors reduce any potentially dangerous current flow to a safer
level whilst still allowing static electricity to drain on earth.

If a service engineer does not have a full antistatic kit, only a wrist –
strap, the correct method of operation is as follows:

 Disconnect the equipment from the power outlet

 Clip the wrist strap to the metalwork of the equipment.
In this case there is no earthing, but because the equipment and wrist strap wearer are
connected together they are now both at the same electrical potential and there will be
little possibility of static discharge from one to the other.

OPTICAL SAFETY
Many very common IT-related devices contain visible or non-visible light
sources that have the potential to cause permanent or temporary damage to
the eyes or skin. The risk should not be underestimated. Lasers used in CD
and DVD drive devices are invisible to the human eye and are therefore particularly
dangerous. Any device using a laser should only be dealt with after all power has been

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removed. The optics involved in using lasers is best left alone as they are particularly
sensitive and in some cases very fragile.

The following table lists optical and non-visible radiation hazards that exist within some
devices:

Device Hazard

CD-ROM (CD-R, CD-RW etc.) Laser

Laser printers Laser

Laser pointers Laser

LCD projection panels Metal halide/halogen lamp – UV

Monitor/TV projectors High-powered CRT – Strong visible light

Barcode readers and scanners Laser

Scanners (some) Halogen lamp – UV

Optical fibre network devices Laser/High-powered infra-red

TV’s and Monitors (CRTs) X-Ray

A more serious hazard from laser equipment, such as laser printers, is in the form of heat.
Part of the printing process involves fusing (making permanent) print with paper, which
is achieved by fusing rollers with temperatures as high as 400 degrees centigrade. The
rollers can remain hot for some 20 minutes after the last print run, so allow a period of
cooling before undertaking any maintenance work.

SERVICING HIGH-POWERED OPTICAL EQUIPMENT

The following guidelines should be observed when working with any of the items
mentioned over:

 Observe basic electrical safety procedures.

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 Make sure you are qualified and fully trained before working on optical equipment.

 Never remove covers or interfere with safety locks, to operate equipment in a non-
standard way, unless directed to do so as part of a maintenance procedure.

 Never look directly into an optical beam – use appropriate safety tools & shields and
the proper test & calibration equipment.

 Always use manufacturers’ recommended spares, the wrong items may give off more
radiation than the original.

 When servicing monitors, always replace any X-ray shielding and earth wires before
powering up.

Servicing Equipment containing CRT (Cathode Ray Tubes)

Display tubes, hot surfaces and high voltages (both during and
after equipment is switched off) are the main hazards. CRT’s
operate a voltage up to around 25-30KV (thousand volts!) and this
obviously carries a severe risk of electric shock.

Wear goggles if you are experienced working with high voltages. Glass display tubes
contain a vacuum and if the tube is broken, the tube will implode with glass splinters
flying in all directions.

High working voltages and currents mean that surfaces can be very hot; touching a
surface could involve an involuntary jerk of the hand to either drop a tool or to touch a
high voltage connector. The electrical capacitor formed by the internal metal
components, glass and external conductive coating on a monitor can store a high voltage
charge for a long period of time, many hours in most circumstances. So allow equipment
to cool down.

The use of electrons (negatively charged particles) in displaying data means that the
screen builds up a large electrical charge which stays on the tube even after the power is
switched off. Inadvertently releasing this voltage by touching one of the screen
connectors is very dangerous and life threatening.

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NB: Never wear an antistatic wrist wrap when working on the inside of a monitor.

Have monitors serviced by experts and don’t try to solve operational problems that
require the monitor to be taken apart yourself, unless you have received training on
working with high voltage equipment. In these situations, you should work with other
colleagues present so that help is quickly available, should it be required.

Service engineers working on this inside of a monitor assembly will use a special CRT
discharge tool to reduce the risk of electrical shock when handling or working near the
tube. Such tools should only be used by trained personnel.
FIRE SAFETY
Computers do not generally catch fire by themselves, although monitors with
obstructed air vents can overheat and catch fire. If possible, remove power
to a burning electrical item; do not use a water or liquid based extinguisher,
as this can lead to electrocution. Look for extinguishers that can be used
specifically on electrical equipment; such as a gas or powder extinguisher.

Always be aware of basic fire safety rules, both in and outside the workshop. If a fire
breaks out in your vicinity try to tackle it only if it is safe to do so. In all other
circumstances, identify the safest exit route and take it.

If it appears safe to tackle the fire, locate the nearest fire extinguisher and prepare to use
it by reading the safety instructions and assessing whether it is suitable for the type of
fire.

Fires and fire extinguishers are placed in to one of five categories according to the nature
of the fire and whether the extinguisher is safe to use on that type of fire:

Class Description Extinguisher

A Fires involving combustible materials: Water, Dry powder,

wood, paper, plastic, cloth etc. Foam

B Fires involving flammable liquids: Oil, Dry Powder, Foam, CO2,

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Wax, petrol/gasoline, solvents, fuels etc. Vaporising liquids

C Fires involving gaseous materials Dry powder

D Metal fires: Magnesium, aluminium etc To be tackled by trained

fire fighters only

Live Electrical Fire involving live electrical equipment Dry powder, CO2,
Vaporising liquids

Tackling a fire

 Only tackle a fire if it is safe to do so and if you have suitable equipment/extinguisher.

 Be aware that fires give off toxic gas and smoke.

 Always maintain a safe escape route and don’t let the fire come between you and this
exit.

 Never tackle a fire with the wind blowing the fire towards you.

 Always keep an eye on the spread of the fire as you walk towards a safe exit.

MATERIAL STORAGE AND DISPOSAL

Many computer related items require proper storage and handling procedures for one of
the following reasons:

1. Sensitivity to ESD - Electronic components, RAM, boards.

2. Sensitivity to heat/light - Toners and inks, printer ribbons
3. Toxicity - Cleaning products, solvents
4. Fire risk - Batteries, cleaning products, solvents
5. Contamination damage - Toners, ribbons, motors, other moving
parts
Batteries
Batteries represent a fire hazard if accidentally shorted so always store them in
appropriate packaging. The compounds used in many batteries can also be very toxic and
so never cut open old batteries and be careful when handling leaky ones.
Portable computers have at least one battery associated with their use; such as Nickel
Metal Hydride (NiMH), Nickel Cadmium (NiCD) or Lithium Ion (Li-Ion). These are re-
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charged repeatedly, until either the computer is scrapped or the battery is no longer able
to hold an electrical charge. At this stage it may be necessary to safely dispose of the
battery.
In terms of toxicity, lead acid cells as used in most UPS’s are very hazardous to the
environment and many countries have made it illegal to dump old cells anywhere except
at approved disposal sites.
Do not dispose of batteries as normal waste and never dispose of batteries on fires; this
could lead to the battery exploding. Establish contacts with specialist companies handling
reclamation and hazardous material waste disposal.
Printer Toner cartridges and inks
These consumables have low toxicity and are usually classed as general business waste.

Toner and the silicone oil used on OPC drums (see chapter on
printers) can be an irritant and so it might be advisable to wear protective gloves when
handling. Some companies also insist that only IT staff change toner cartridges and are
issued with a special facemask to prevent inhaling the dust.

Many companies supplying toner cartridges offer a recycling service for old toner
cartridges. This can involve refurbishing and re-filling the cartridge with toner for a
number of re-sales before the cartridge completes its operational life. Cartridges are then
ultimately destroyed by disposal organisations in line with guidelines of Environmental
Protection Agencies (EPA).

Material created from the material destruction cycle may be used in creating new
products.

Computer hardware
Most computer hardware is recyclable to some degree, plastic, metals and some
components are all recoverable where facilities exist and this is becoming a popular
option rather than dumping old equipment.
There are few hazardous items of hardware, although the following do require special
consideration before dumping.

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CRT – Cathode Ray Tubes are sealed with a vacuum and should not be thrown into
skips or broken except under controlled circumstances. Cracking a CRT can cause an
implosion that throws glass in all directions.
Some older monitors, TV sets and other high-voltage equipment may contain a
compound called Beryllium Oxide, which was used to produce insulating washers for
high-voltage devices. This compound is extremely hazardous and requires special
disposal. Since it is difficult to identify whether an old monitor may contain this
compound without taking the unit apart, it is best to not dismantle ancient equipment
unless you know what to look for. It is very unlikely that this compound will be found in
any monitor produced within the last few years.
The most recent concern is for the LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) display because the
chemical used in the panels are toxic and not easily broken down naturally. Check with
the manufacturer, or local environmental department, to see whether they have guidelines
for disposal.
Swabs, wipes, dusters and pressurized containers can be disposed of with general waste.
Unless redundant computer equipment cannot be of value to other charity or educational
establishments, then disposal is best handled by experienced waste handling
organizations. Note that you should ensure that all company data and information has
been fully removed from any disk storage devices before disposal or decommissioning
takes place - otherwise there is the potential for sensitive information about your
company to be made public.
CLEANING AND SERVICING
A build up of dust and debris within a computer can form a good thermal insulation layer
over electrical components. This layer cuts down the effectiveness of any cooling airflow
over component surfaces, forcing components to work at a higher temperature. Over a
period of time this could lead to component failure or, more annoyingly for support
personnel, temperamental failures. Cleaning a computer system or other piece of
hardware might be done for three reasons:

1. To make it look less dirty.

2. To cure a problem.

3. To prevent a problem from occurring.

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Cleaning for appearance’s sake

Always use the correct cleaning material. Using the wrong type of cleaning material
could scratch the surface or melt plastic. Domestic sprays polishes can be used on cases
with caution because most spray polishes contain ‘antistatic’ agents; they leave a
conductive film on surfaces of whatever they clean. This is fine for cases but can be a
serious problem if the spray gets onto switch contacts (keyboard), or if it finds its way
into the ventilation grilles on high voltage equipment (monitors), where it can cause
arcing (sparks). The best way to use this type of polish is to spray it onto a cloth first.

Another reason for not using domestic polishes directly is because they contain silicon.
This gives a nice shine to surface but can cause problems if it gets into switch
mechanisms.
Take care when cleaning notebooks and other flat panel displays. The screen is often
plastic and certain solvents will melt the top layer and leave behind a foggy film.
Also take care when cleaning monitor screens, the surface of some CRT’s are acid etched
or coated with a material to reduce glare. Using the wrong cleaning materials can affect
the coating or clog the etching.
Cleaning to cure or prevent a problem

This may involve:

 Cleaning ventilation grilles to prevent overheating:

Use a soft bristle brush to gently remove dust build-up. If necessary, supplement
this with an aerosol duster or a computer vacuum cleaner. Nylon brushes and
standard vacuum cleaners can generate a lot of static electricity and are not
recommended near IT equipment.

 Cleaning contacts to ensure a good electrical connection:

Low voltage contacts such as edge connectors on expansion cards can be cleaned
with a plastic fiberglass pencil but take care not to rub too hard as they can remove
the thin gold or tin plating. Some technicians favour pencil erasers for the same
job, but this can leave behind a residue that attracts dust and plastic erasers can
present a small risk of static damage.

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Switch cleaning solvents can also be used on electrical power contacts but do make
sure that the solvent is safe for such applications.

 Cleaning a device to make it work or to avoid future problems:

This might be cleaning the read/write heads of a floppy disk drive or tape streamer
or the optical system of a CD-ROM unit.

Where possible, use the proper cleaning kits for tape heads and other magnetic
media; use an all-in-one cartridge or floppy cleaning kit.

Cotton buds are not suitable for cleaning tape heads because they can leave behind
fibers that clog the heads. Use special form swabs.
ELECTRICAL TESTING
A number of quick electrical tests can be performed with a multimeter to test that certain
items are working correctly.
Multimeters

Multimeters are able to measure three basic electrical characteristics:

Parameter Symbol Base unit Other common unit values

MV (10–3) millivolt
Voltage V Volt
KV (103) Kilovolt
A
Current Ampere (Amp) mA (10–3) milliampere
(‘I” in calculations)
K 103) Kilohm
Resistance R or Ohm
103) Megohm

Some models can also perform other types of checks in the IT world; the two most
common tests will be for voltage and resistance. Below are diagrams showing a typical,
low cost analogue multimeter, the type with a moving pointer and a digital multimeter,
with LCD readouts. Digital multimeters are generally more robust and easier to read but
the basic principles of operation are very similar.

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Analogue multimeter Digital multimeter

Basic Principles of Operation
The simple steps to taking a reading are given below, more specific instructions follow.
Always observe standard electrical procedures when using a test meter. Practice taking
voltage readings with low voltage batteries if you have never used a meter before.

1. Connect the two leads to the meter:

The Red lead goes to the active terminal (+)
The Black lead goes to the common terminal (-)

2. Set the meter switch for the type of measurement to be made i.e. DC or AC Volts, DC
or AC Amps, Ohms.
3. Disconnect the equipment to be tested from the power source (If applicable).
4. Apply the leads to the measuring points on the equipment.
5. Power up the equipment (If applicable)
6. Note down the reading.
7. Switch off the power before removing the leads (If applicable).
Common Test Meter features
Using a multimeter takes practice; there are several things to remember:
1. The meter shown on page (X) can measure:
Ohms in one range: x1K
DC Volts in 3 ranges: 0-10, 0-50 and 0-250 volts
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AC Volts in 4 ranges: 0-10, 0-50, 0-250 and 0-500
DC Current in 3 ranges: 0-0.5aM, 0-250mA
NB: Digital meters and more expensive analogue meters will have different
arrangements.

2. In the centre of the dial are three scales – 0-10, 0-50 and 0-250. One of these scales
will be used to take a reading according to the rotary switch setting: the 0-10 scale
when set for 0-10V, 0-50 scale for 0-50mA and so on.

3. A separate scale at the top of the dial is used for Ohms measurement; note that the
scale runs right (0) to left (1K) the way round compared to all other scales.
NB: Because the Ohms switch position is marked x1K, the reading taken on the scale
must be multiplied by 1000 to give the correct value.

4. A knob on the side of the meter, adjacent to the Ohms switch position, is used to
calibrate the meter when reading Ohms. To calibrate the, meter, switch to the Ohms
position, hold the two probes together and turn the kno until the meter reads exactly 0
Ohms. If the meter cannot be set to zero Ohms, the internal battery needs replacing.
NB: Digital multimeters do not have to be calibrated manually.
5. The multimeter will have an internal fuse to protect it from overloads. If the pointer
on the meter does not move when performing the Ohms calibration then either
internal battery is completely flat or the internal fuse has blown.

6. The white ‘screw’ at the bottom of the scale is used to set the pointer exactly against
the 0 position of the main scales. This screw should not be adjusted often.

Taking a Voltage Measurement

1. Check the test leads for damage before using them. Do not use leads with cracked
probes or faulty insulation.

2. Set the meter to the correct voltage scale (If analogue) and the correct range (If it has
a range switch). If in doubt set the meter reading for the highest scale first to avoid
overloading the meter.
NB: Do not use a standard multimeter to test the high voltage components inside a
computer monitor unless it is suitable for the purpose or has been fitted with special
high voltage probes.

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3. Make sure that the reading is set to AC or DC as required.

4. Apply the probes to the items being tested; if possible, keep the items to be tested
powered down whilst connecting the probes.
NB: when measuring voltage, the Black (-) probe is connected to a reference point
(0V) on a battery. On a PC power supply, this is one of the back ground wires. On
many PC’s the metal case is also a reference point. The Red (+) probe is connected
to the point of the circuit to be tested.

5. Check the reading on the meter. If the scale if the scale being used seems incorrect,
remove the probes, change the switch and reapply the probes.
NB: analogue meters: If the pointer moves the wrong way, the probes should be
transposed.
6. Power down the equipment being tested and remove the probes.
Typical measurement:
 Testing PC power supply outputs (DC)
 Testing CMOS battery (DC)
 Testing modem power adapter (some DC other AC)
 Testing power switch (AC)
 Testing power leads (AC)
Taking a Resistance Measurement
All electrical circuits, leads and components have electrical resistance, they resist the
flow of electricity.
If a device lets electricity flow through it easily, it is said to have a low resistance.
Components that are poor conductors of electricity are said to have a high resistance.

NB: An example of a component that exists in either state is an electrical fuse.

If a fuse is intact, electricity will flow though it easily. It will have a low resistance very
close to 0 Ohms for all intents and purposes. When a fuse blows no electricity can flow
across the break and so the fuse will have a very high resistance usually classed as
‘infinito resistance’ shown on an analogue multimeters with the infinity sign:
1. Check the test leads for damage before using them. Do not use leads with cracked
probes or faulty insulation.

2. Set the meter to read Ohms and set the correct range.

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3. Analogue meters only: short the test probes together and calibrate the meter.

4. Make sure that the item to be tested is Isolated from the surrounding circuitry,
resistance reading will be affected by unwanted components in the circuitry. For
example always remove a fuse from its holder or disconnect a switch from its leads.

NB: Do not test anything that still has a voltage applied to it or items that generate
voltage (batteries). Ohms reading must be taken on electrically ‘dead’ items only.
If there is a voltage present on the item to be tested, the meter fuse may blow.

5. Make sure a good electrical connection is made by both probes.

For passive components (cables, fuses etc.), ohms reading have no polarity so the
leads can be connected either way round.
6. Check the reading on the meter. If the scale being used seems incorrect (pointer
hardly moves), remove the probes, change the range switch and reapply the probes.
7. Remove the probes and switch off the meter (If applicable).

Parallax Errors (analogue meters)

To read an analogue meter correctly, look through one eye at the pointer and move your
head until the pointer refection in the mirror on the scale is hidden behind the pointer
itself, this means that you are looking squarely down at the pointer.
This procedure ensures that the reading is not affected by looking at the pointer from the
wrong angle. This is called parallax error and the mirror behind the pointer is known as
the parallax mirror.

Typical measurements:
Testing fuses. Good fuse = 0 Ohms (or close), bad fuse = Infinite Ohms.
Testing cables. Results as above
Testing switches. Results as above
Testing PC speakers. Good speaker is between 4 and 32 Ohms
Testing network terminators – 50 Ohms

NB: Components to be tested must be isolated from all other items that may affect
reading. Do not test anything that still has a voltage present.

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Maintenance
Maintenance, including tests, measurements, adjustments, parts replacement, and
cleaning, performed specifically to prevent faults from occurring. Computer maintenance
describes various steps to keep your computer functioning at an optimal performance
level from a software and hardware point of view.

Types of maintenance

a) Corrective maintenance
Activities undertaken to detect, isolate, and rectify a fault so that the failed equipment,
machine, or system can be restored to its normal operable state. Corrective maintenance
is performed when it is necessary to correct or repair any problems on our PC which may
correspond to hardware or software, respectively.

Corrective maintenance refers to changes made to repair defects in the design, coding, or
implementation of the system. Most corrective maintenance problems surface soon after
installation.

When corrective maintenance problems surface, they are typically urgent and need to be
resolved to continue normal business activities.

Corrective maintenance adds little or no value to an organization; it simply focuses on

removing defects from an existing system without adding new functionality.

Hardware

 When we need to replace a mouse, keyboard, power supply, speakers, memory

card or expansion.
 Changing RAM
 Installing expansion cards
 Corrective maintenance can be considered because it is necessary to insert the
card directly into the respective board, and if not careful it can be damaged.

Software

 Possible formatting the hard drive

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 Possible virus problems
 Installation CDs for your operating system to either complete reinstallation or
restoration
 Blank CDs in the case of having to make backups

b) Preventive maintenance

The care and servicing by personnel for the purpose of maintaining equipment and
facilities in satisfactory operating condition by providing for systematic inspection,
detection, and correction of incipient failures either before they occur or before they
develop into major defects.

Preventive maintenance tends to follow planned guidelines from time-to-time to prevent

equipment and machineries breakdown.

Preventive maintenance is the work carried out on equipment in order to avoid its
breakdown or malfunction. It is a regular and routine action taken on equipment in order
to prevent its breakdown

The primary goal of maintenance is to avoid or mitigate the consequences of failure of

equipment. This may be by preventing the failure before it actually occurs.

c) Adaptive maintenance

Modification of a software product performed after delivery to keep a software product

usable in a changed or changing environment.

Adaptive maintenance involves making changes to an information system to evolve its

functionality to changing business needs or to migrate to a different operating
environment.

Adaptive maintenance adds enhancements to an operational system, such as new features,

increased capability, or changes that improve efficiency or maintainability.

An adaptive maintenance project is like a mini-SDLC project, and that adaptive

maintenance can be even more difficult than new systems development because the
enhancements must work within the constraints of an existing system.

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Adaptive maintenance is usually less urgent than corrective maintenance because
business and technical changes typically occur over some period of time.

Adaptive maintenance is generally a small part of an organization’s maintenance effort,

but does add Value to the organization.

d) Perfective maintenance

Modification of a software product after delivery to improve performance or

maintainability

Perfective maintenance involves making enhancements to improve processing

performance, interface usability, or to add desired, but not necessarily required, system
features.

The objective of perfective maintenance is to improve response time, system efficiency,

reliability, or maintainability.

During system operation, changes in user activity or data pattern can cause a decline in
efficiency, and perfective maintenance might be needed to restore performance.

Usually, the perfective maintenance work is initiated by the IT department, while the
corrective and adaptive maintenance work is normally requested by users

Cleaning Tool and Hand Tools

a) Cable Ties

Used to bundle cables neatly inside and outside of a computer

b) Flat Head Screwdriver

Used to loosen or tighten slotted screws

c) Lint-free Cloth

Used to clean different computer components without scratching or leaving debris

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d) Philips Head Screwdriver

Used to loosen or tighten cross-head screws

e) Torx Screwdriver

Used to loosen or tighten screws that have a star-like depression on the top, a feature that
is mainly found on laptop.

Parts Organizer

Used to hold screw, jumpers, fasteners and other small parts and prevents them from
getting mixed together.

Hand Tools
A hand tool is a device for performing work on a material or a physical system using only
hands. Hand tools can be used manually or electrically powered, using electrical current.
Cleaning Tools

Having the appropriate cleaning tools is essential when maintaining or repairing

computers. Using these tools ensures that computer components are not damaged during
cleaning.

Compressed Air

Used to blow away dust and debris from different computer parts without touching the
components
Cleaning Tool

i. Hex Driver
Sometimes called a nut driver, is used to tighten nuts in the same way that a
screwdriver tightens screws
ii. Needle-Nose Pliers
Used to hold small parts
iii. Wire Cutter
Used to strip and cut wires.

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Cleaning materials

i. A No.2 Philips cross-head screwdriver.

ii. A small flat-bladed screwdriver.
iii. One can of compressed air (more if you suspect the PC is really filthy)- from
your local supermarket or electronics/computer store.
Do NOT use compressor air - it often has a high moisture content which will
cause corrosion
and may contain aerosol lubricants which can cause electrical shorts.
iv. Five or six kitchen paper-towels or napkins to wipe down the case.
v. One small paintbrush with long natural bristles. 1/2inch (12mm) size is ideal.
vi. One packet of Q-Tips or Cotton Tips.
vii. One Window/Glass Cleaner spray pack.
viii. A short length of insulating tape.
ix. One plain Pencil at least 4"(100mm) long.
x. A pair of Scissors.
xi. A flashlight.
xii. An old Newspaper.
xiii. A Vacuum cleaner with a hose and nozzle (if available).

Optional Items

i. A dust mask - from your local hardware store.

ii. A Static Strap - from your computer store or possibly supermarket.
iii. One 3volt Battery type CR2032 or equivalent.
iv. Assorted coloured stickers.
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v. A CDROM Lens cleaning disk - available at computer stores or supermarkets.

Cleaning other computer surfaces

From time to time, you should clean your computer case and the sides and back of the
monitor to avoid buildup of dust and dirt. Here are a few tips you can use when cleaning
these surfaces.

 Dust is your computer's main enemy. Use an antistatic wipe to lightly dust your
computer casing. Don't use furniture cleaners or strong solvents.
 Use a can of compressed air with a narrow nozzle to blow out debris from the air
intake slots.
 Spray cleaning solution—like diluted ammonia cleaner or glass cleaner—on a
paper towel or antistatic wipe. Clean the monitor housing and case—not the
monitor screen—by wiping in a downward motion.
 A safe cleaning solution for computer surfaces—not computer screens—is
ammonia diluted with water or glass cleaner comprised mostly of ammonia and
water (check the label). The milder the solution, the better.

Don't restrict airflow around your computer. A computer can generate a lot of heat, so
the casing has fans that keep it from overheating. Avoid stacking papers, books, and
other items around your computer.

Many computer desks have an enclosed compartment for the computer case. If you have
this type of desk, you may want to position the case so it is not against the back side of
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the desk. If the compartment has a door, you may want to leave it open to improve
airflow.

Safeguarding against malware

Malware is any type of software that is designed to damage your computer or gain
unauthorized access to your personal information. It includes viruses, worms, Trojan
horses, and spyware. Most malware is distributed over the Internet and is often bundled
with other software.

The best way to guard against malware is to install antivirus software such as
Bitdefender, Norton, or Kaspersky. Antivirus software helps to prevent malware from
being installed, and it can also remove malware from your computer. New malware is
being created all the time, so it's important to update your antivirus software frequently.
Most antivirus programs can do this automatically, but you'll need to make sure this
feature is enabled.

It's also important to stay smart when you're browsing the Web or using email. If a
website or email attachment looks suspicious, trust your instincts. Keep in mind that your
antivirus program may not catch everything, so it's best to avoid downloading anything
that might contain malware.

The display screen

This should:

 display well-defined characters of adequate size and spacing

 have a stable image
 have easily adjustable brightness and contrast
 tilt and swivel easily to suit the user
 be free from glare and reflections
 use a separate base for the screen, or an adjustable table.

The keyboard

This should:
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 be tillable and separate from the screen to allow the user to adopt a comfortable
working position
 have a space in front to provide support for the hands or arms of the user
 have a matt surface
 have clearly legible symbols on the keys.

The work surface

The work surface should:

 provide adequate space for the user

 have a low reflective surface
 be of adequate size to allow the screen, keyboard, etc to be flexibly arranged
 Have a stable, adjustment document holder, which should be at the same level as
the screen and at the same viewing distance.

The work chair

This should have a seat that is adjustable in height, with a seat back adjustable in height
and tilt. A footrest should be available.

The workstation/environment

The workstation must do the following:

 provide sufficient space for the user or the operator to alter position comfortably
 lighting must be adequate with suitable contrast between the screen and
background
 glare and reflections on the screen should be avoided
 Windows should be fitted with adjustable coverings to alter the daylight level.

DISPLAY ADAPTERS AND MONITORS

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Monitors do not affect the performance
of the computer, but have a significant
impact on the usability of the PC. A
bad quality monitor can hamper the use
of an otherwise high-tech PC. Despite
the fact that they don’t have a direct
impact on performance, many people
spend almost as much on their monitor
as they do on the computer itself.
When we think about our computers,
we often think of the monitor first. The
monitor is what we interact with most
of the time. Monitors may be driven either from a video subsystem integrated directly on
a motherboard or from a dedicated video PC expansion card. The
PC card may either be installed in a standard ISA or PCI slot on the
Video Card motherboard bus or in a separate AGP slot.

Common principles
The principles in these screen types are quite different, but the screen image
design rests on the same concepts:
Pixels. The screen image is made of pixels (tiny dots), which are arranged in
rows across the screen. A screen image consists of between 480,000 and
1,920,000 pixels.

Refresh rate. The screen image is "refreshed" many times per second. Refresh
rates are measured in
Hertz (HZ), which means "times per second".

Color depth. Each pixel can display a number of different colors. The number of
colors, which can be
displayed, is called color depth. Color depth is measured in bits.

Video RAM. All video cards have some RAM. How much depends on the desired
color depth. Video cards usually have 1, 2 or 4 MB RAM for normal usage.

These concepts are central to the understanding of the video system.

Display modes

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There are two types of display mode; text and graphic. The standard PC text is 80
columns x 25 rows of characters. The other modes, such as 132 x 25 are available with
most graphic adapters.

In graphics mode, images are made up from individual dot patterns displayed on the
monitor. The individual dots that form the graphics image are known as Picture Cells or
simply pixels.

Video standards
Resolution is a term often used when referring to the sharpness, or detail, of the visual
image. An image is created when a beam of electrons strikes phosphorous which coat the
internal surface of the monitor’s ‘screen’. A pixel represents the smallest piece of the
screen that can be controlled individually, and each pixel can be set to a different colour
and intensity.

A complete screen image is composed of thousands of pixels and the screen's resolution -
specified in terms of a row by column figure - is the maximum number of displayable
pixels. The higher the resolution, the more pixels that can be displayed and therefore the
more information the screen can display at any given time.

Resolutions generally fall into predefined sets and the table below shows the series of
video standards. In chronological order CGA standard was the first to support
colour/graphics capability:

Standard Description Resolution No. of colours

MDA Monochrome Display Adapter: Could only 80 x 25 1
display text and will only be found on very
early IBM PCs and compatibles.
HGC Hercules Graphics Controller: retained 720 x 348 1
MDA compatibility but also offered dot
addressable (pixel) graphics modes but on
monochrome.
CGA Colour Graphics Adapter: a low-resolution 320 x 200 4
video display standard, invented for the first 640 x 200 2

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IBM PC. By today’s standards the
resolution is extremely poor
EGA Enhanced Graphics Adapter: The IBM 640 x 400 16 from 64
standard for colour displays prior to the
VGA standard.

VGA Video Graphics Array: Offers better 640 x 480 16 from 256
resolution than both CGA and EGA. VGA 320 x 200 256
was the first analogue PC video standard (all
earlier standards used digital signals). VGA
is backwards compatible with both EGA
and the CGA graphics modes, but requires a
different (analogue) monitor.
MCGA Multi-Colour Graphics Array: this was an 320 x 200 256
enhanced (analogue) CGA standard
developed by IBM, introduced with the PS2
models. Based on MCA design.
8514/A At the time, this was IBM’s ‘high 1024 x 768 256 from
specification’ video standard. It was 262144
introduced in 1987 with the PS/2 range.
Based on MCA design.
XGA Extended Graphics Array: the IBM XGA 1024 x 768 65,000
standard superseded 8514/A supporting the
same resolution but more simultaneous
colours and non-interlaced monitors.

SVGA Super VGA offers a better resolution than 800 x 600 256
VGA and has now become the standard on 1280 x 1024 16 million
all new PCs. The standard is supported by
the Video Electronics Standards
Organization.

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SXGA Super Extended Graphics Array 1280 x 1024 16 million

UXGA Ultra XGA 1600 x 1200 16 million

VIDEO MEMORY
The memory that holds the video image is also referred to as the frame buffer and is
usually implemented on the graphics card itself. Early systems implemented video
memory in standard DRAM. However, this requires continual refreshing of the data to
prevent it from being lost and cannot be modified during this refresh process. The
consequence, particularly at the very fast clock speeds demanded by modern graphics
cards, is that performance is badly degraded hence modern graphics card are fitted with
VRAM, SGRAM or WRAM for higher performance.

An advantage of implementing video memory on the graphics board itself is that it can be
customised for its specific task. The amount of RAM fitted to a display adapter will help
determine the maximum display resolution and maximum displayable colours. The table
below illustrates this:

Video memory Resolution No. of colours

1MB 1024 x 768 256

800 x 600 65,536

2MB 1280 x 1024 256

1040 x 768 65,536

800 x 600 16.7 million

4MB 1024 x 768 16.7 million

6MB 1280 x 1024 16.7 million

8MB 1600 x 1200 16.7 million

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MONITORS (CATHODE RAY TUBE-CRT)

There is a wide range of monitors, both colour and monochrome available for PCs. The
most important factor when selecting a monitor is to ensure that it is compatible with the
display adapter card installed in your computer and that it is suitable for your
requirement.

How a monitor works

A CRT is a sealed glass bottle with no air inside.
The base is the monitor’s ‘screen’ and is coated on
the inside with a matrix of thousands of tiny
phosphor dots. Phosphorous is a chemical that
emits light when excited by a stream of electrons.
Different phosphorous emit different coloured
lights. Each dot consists of three blobs of coloured phosphor, one red, one green and one
blue. These groups of three phosphor dots make up what is known as a single pixel.

Inside the CRT there is an electron gun, which is composed of a cathode, heat source and
focusing elements. Colour monitors have three separate guns, one for each phosphor
colour. Combinations of different intensities of red green and blue phosphorous can
create the illusion of millions of colours and is the basis for all colour CRT displays.
Images are created when electrons, fired from the electron gun hit the phosphor –coated
screen. When this happens, light is emitted, in the colour of the individual phosphor
blobs. The gun radiates electrons when the heater is hot enough to liberate electrons
(negatively charged) from the cathode, which are then narrowed into a tiny beam by the
focus elements. The electrons are drawn toward the phosphor dots by a powerful,
positively charged anode, located near the screen. The anode has voltages in excess of
15000V, and big capacitors retain the charge, weeks after switching off the monitor. This
makes monitors very dangerous when servicing. Leave any such servicing to qualified
personnel.

The most important aspect of a monitor is that it should give a stable display at the
chosen resolution. A screen that shimmers or flickers, particularly when most of the
picture is showing white (as in Windows), can cause itchy or painful eyes, headaches and

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migraines. It is also important that the performance characteristics of a monitor be
carefully matched with those of the graphics card driving it. It’s no good having an
extremely high performance graphics accelerator, capable of ultra high resolutions at high
flicker-free refresh rates, if the monitor cannot lock onto the signal.
Monitor specifications
There is a wide range of monitors to choose from and below are some of the factors to
consider when selecting a monitor.

Compatibility: The monitor must be capable of displaying the pictures that the display
adapter card generates. Older monitors only work with the digital standards i.e. CGA,
EGA whilst modern displays adapters use analogue signals and hence require ‘analogue’
monitor.

Resolution: The total number of pixels per desktop area of a monitor. A display with a
finer grid contains more pixels and has a higher resolution, capable of reproducing more
detail in an image. Most monitors will work at a number of supported resolutions, but
will only be able to do so if the video card to which they are attached also support the
same standards.

Refresh frequency: Expressed in Hertz (Hz), in interlaced mode this is the number of
fields written to the screen every second. In non-interlaced mode it is the number of
frames (complete pictures) written to the screen every second. The picture displayed by
the monitor is updated (refreshed) many times a second. Users who work for long
periods of time in front of a computer monitor will benefit from a unit that has a high
refresh rate. VGA/SVGA monitors have a minimum refresh rate of 60Hz i.e. they the
draw the picture 60 time per second. A low refresh rate result in an image that flickers,
resulting in eyestrain.

Interlacing: Low cost monitors display high-resolution images in two passes, this is
known as interlacing. Interlaced monitors are cheaper to produce but the picture quality
is low and has a noticeable flicker especially at higher resolutions.

Dot pitch: A measurement of distance between the centres of two same-colour phosphor
dots on the screen. The closer the dots, the smaller the dot pitch, and the sharper the
image. Most ‘st andard’ monitors have a dot pitch of 0.28mm –high-quality monitors

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have .26mm or better. Cheap monitors have dot pitches of 0.29 –0.31mm.

Dot pitch

Monitor size: This is the distance diagonally across the face

of the monitor. The larger the monitor size, the more the
viewable picture area.

AGP

Short for Accelerated Graphics Port, a new interface specification developed by Intel
corporation. AGP is based on PCI, but is designed especially for the throughput demands
of 3D graphics. Rather than using the PCI bus for graphics data, AGP introduces a
dedicated point-to-point channel so that the graphics controller can directly access main
memory. The AGP channel is 32 bits wide and runs at 66 MHz. This translates into a
total bandwidth of 266 MBps, as opposed to the PCI bandwidth of 133 MBps. AGP also
supports two optional faster modes, with throughputs of 533 MBps and 1.07 GBps. In
addition, AGP allows 3-D textures to be stored in main memory rather than video
memory.

AGP has a couple of important system requirements:

 The chipset must support AGP.

 The motherboard must be equipped with an AGP bus slot or must have an
integrated AGP graphics system.
 The operating system must be the OSR 2.1 version of Windows 95,Windows 98
or Windows NT 4.0. And currently, many professional Macintoshes suport AGP.

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AGP-enabled computers and graphics accelerators hit the market in August, 1997.
However, there are several different levels of AGP compliance. The following features
are considered optional:

Texturing: Allows textures to be stored in main memory.

Throughput: Various levels of throughput are offered: 1X is 266 MBps, 2X is 533

MBps; and 4X provides 1.07 GBps.

Sideband Addressing: Speeds up data transfers by sending command instructions in a

separate, parallel channel.

Pipelining: Enables the graphics card to send several instructions together instead of
sending one at a time.

TROUBLESHOOTING DISPLAY/MONITOR PROBLEMS

This section discusses problems related to the system monitor. The monitor displays the
video signals sent by the video card in the PC. The monitor is in some ways easier to
troubleshoot than other parts of the PC simply because it is not inside the system unit. It
interacts only with the video card (or cards in a multiple-video-card system) and therefore
there are fewer places for problems or conflicts to occur.

Display adapter problems (Basic checks)

If the monitor is functioning well, then the problem could be with the adapter. Perform
the following checks on the adapter:

Substitution: Try another monitor or display adapter just to make sure that it is not the
screen that is faulty.

Compatibility: Check whether the display adapter is set to a resolution supported by the
monitor. Try rebooting the host PC and see whether the PC diagnostics screen can be
seen. If it is displayed properly until the system boots into windows, then there may be a
problem with the video driver(s).

Video drivers: Try setting the system to use a basic ‘VGA’ driver to see whether this
cures the problem. Do not re-use existing drivers as they may be corrupted.

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Troubleshooting common display adapter problems

NB: Do not open up a monitor if you are not qualified to do so. There are high voltages
present in monitors, if you can't resolve the problem with the cover on, take the monitor
to a professional.

I have no video at all:

First check the monitor. Is it plugged in, turned on, and hooked up right? Is the
brightness and contrast knobs turned on full. If this is ruled out, make sure the video card
is seated correctly in the bus. If you’ve been fiddling with it, make sure the jumper
settings are correct. Finally, install the video card in another system and see if it woks at
all or install another monitor card and see if your video monitor cranks up.

There’s snow on the screen:

This is most likely caused by an incompatible video card. The card is sending signals,
but the monitor is built for another kind of card, and it doesn’t know what to do.

All I see is a cursor:

In old computers, you can have a flashing cursor, but nothing else. In this case. Check
the DIP switches on the motherboard. DIP switches control the video addresses that the
motherboard uses. Usually, the monitor is smart enough to throw a cursor on the screen,
but wrong DIP settings won’t let anything else go to the video memory.

The picture is horrible. Bad colors, dots and streaks:

Consult the company about ‘wait states’ for your bus. Your bus may be running out of
sync with the card. If you have a series of vertical line across the screen which move
around, this could also be a problem with the video memory.

There are random characters on screen during my graphics program:

There might be a memory conflict on the video card. On some, you will need to get the
video memory out of the control of EMM386.EXE. Edit the CONFIG.SYS file. Make
sure the EMM386.EXE line reads ‘EMM386.EXE X=A000-C7FF’. Remove
HIGHSCAN from the line if it’s there. Some card require that you disable the BIOS
‘Video Shadow’ or ‘Video Cache’ RAM. You will have to consult you manual.

Random, changing characters on the screen:

Probably a failure of the video memory

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The screen rolls upward or to the side:
If the picture seems to roll, such as the letters are too high, make sure the vertical sync
knob is adjusted correctly. If the picture seems fat, adjust the horizontal sync knob.

The top lines are larger than the bottom lines:

Probably misalignment of vertical linearity on monitor. It needs repair.

The screen goes blank after a period of inactivity:

First, check to see if this option is turned on in windows 95 under screen savers. Screen
blank is an option. If this is not the case, check your BIOS and see if your power down
option is enabled.

I added more memory to my video card, but it doesn’t run any faster:
This is normal. Adding more video memory beyond say 2MB does not improve
performance at all. It only allows more frame buffer, thus higher resolution images. But,
performance, or speed, will not improve.

When I change the screen settings, the mouse pointer goes away:
This is usually because you have ancient video drivers. Upgrade to the latest from the
manufacturer.

Screen is blank and power indicator is off:

This possibly means that there is no power to monitor. Ensure that the electrical and
monitor are switched on. Check if the power cord is firmly plugged into the monitor and
the electrical outlet. If nothing happens, try another power cord. Also you can try
another electrical outlet before calling the service technicians.

PORTABLE COMPUTERS & POWER MANAGEMENT

OVERVIEW OF PORTABLE PCs

No area of personal computing has changed more rapidly than

portable technology. With software programs getting bigger all the
time, and portable PCs being used for a greater variety of
applications, manufacturers have had to have their work cut out
attempting to match the level of functionality of a desktop PC in a
package that can be used on the road. This has led to a number of rapid advancements in

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both size and power. By mid-1998 the various mobile computing technologies had
reached a level where it was possible to buy a portable computer that was as fast as a
desktop machine and yet capable of being used in the absence of a mains electricity
supply for over five hours.

Portable or Mobile Computers

When used to describe hardware, portable means small and lightweight. A portable
computer is a computer small enough to carry. Portable computers include notebook and
subnotebook computers, hand-held computers, palmtops, and PDAs. When used to
describe software, portable means that the software has the ability to run on a variety of
computers. Portable and machine independent mean the same thing ‘the software does
not depend on a particular type of hardware’.

Laptop (Notebook)
An extremely lightweight personal computer.
Notebook computers typically weigh less than 3
kg and are small enough to fit easily in a
briefcase. Notebooks are designed to enable some
of the major components to be easy to remove or
exchange. They are not manufactured to easily
replace memory cards, motherboard, processor
cooling fans or other embedded components.

Unlike desktop computers, upgrading a laptops is

not a simple procedure as parts tend to be customised and are often quickly superseded
by new technology and development releases.
Desktops systems are inherently easy to access, each component can be removed,
replaced or checked. Upgrading any desktop PC is generally straightforward and there
are many suppliers of compatible parts to ease this procedure.

Major components of a laptop that you might well be able to see are:
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 Lightweight casing - these have plastic flaps or slides protecting a wide variety of
connectors for external resources:

 compartments for battery;

 hard disk;

 floppy disk;

 CD-ROM;

 credit card size slots for modem and network resources;

 electronic on/off switch with various casing locks.

 Display screen - high resolution colour, flat display panel specially designed for each
manufacturer’s laptop computer, generally contained within the hinged top of the
laptop computer casing.

 Hard disk drive - enclosed within the casing and not normally accessible. Some
laptops are designed to allow the hard drive unit to be easily removed or replaced by
another unit via a customised plug in module. These are not standard hard drive
connectors.

 Floppy disk drive - older laptops still have this device within the casing, optionally so
that it can be replaced with a CD-ROM drive as required. Each device has the same
physical characteristics with a special module socket allowing an easy change of
module. To minimise their size, modern laptops often provide an external cable to a
separate unit that can contain either a floppy diskette or CD-ROM device.

 Keyboard - integrated into the lower half of a laptop casing, this can only be active
when the top casing has been hinged back. It is usually a full function keyboard but
with a non-standard key layout. Extra feature keys are supplied to extend the
operation of a single key, which may have up to three different key operation
functions.

 CD-ROM drive - often required on portables for installing software packages, this
device commonly shares an enclosure with the floppy disk drive on many portables.

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This implies that it is not possible to utilise both devices at one time. Exchanging CD-
ROM and floppy diskette device modules requires the computer to be powered down.

 Pointing device - this may be:

 a trackpoint mini-joystick device or button positioned within the keyboard layout

activated by finger pressure;

 a trackpad small electro-magnetic sensitive plate activated by a single finger

pressure;

 a trackball integrated with the keyboard or attached separately on to the display.

Left and right mouse button clicks with click and drag operations are supported
through many types of flat plate buttons on the keypad or using combinations or
single and double finger taps on a Trackpad.

 Battery pack - enclosed in a special bay within the casing, this is normally trickle
charged while the computer is powered from a transformer. A battery can be easily
replaced and there may be an additional, but separate, charging unit allowing the
battery to be rapidly re-charged.

 PSU - this has a mains power input cable and a DC low voltage output cable
connecting to the computer. It supplies an output power, voltage and current
combination, specific to each laptop computer's requirements

 Carrying case - a weather proof material case, that has a space and securing straps for
the laptop computer and individual pockets and zipped enclosures for the transformer
and range of communication cables.

 PC card - portable computers have credit card sized slots that can contain specialised
cards. These could be used to provide extra memory, or a network communication
interface or telephone modem interface. For many portables they can be left in the
computer during transit and use on the move.

PDA (Personal Digital Assistant)

A PDA is effectively a handheld PC, capable of handling all the
normal tasks i.e. address book, notepad, appointments diary and

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phone list. However, most PDAs offer many more applications besides, such as
spreadsheet, word processor, database, financial management data storage. Most PDAs
are supplied with either a serial cable or an Infrared port to allow users to transfer data to
and from another computer such as a desktop or Notebook PC.

PDAs can be split into two basic types; those which use a proprietary operating system,
such as the Palm Pilot, and those that are basically PC compatible and use the Windows
CE operating system, such as the Philips Velo. Top of the range models often have
colour screens and have PC Card slots as with Notebook PCs.

Because of their size, entering data into a PDA requires either a tiny keyboard or some
form of handwriting recognition system. The problem with the former is that they're too
small for touch-typing. The problem with the latter is the difficulty in making it work
effectively. The solution to the handwriting recognition problem has proven to be the
Graffiti handwriting system. This relies on a touch-screen display and a simplified
alphabet for data entry. Typically, PDAs with the Graffiti system provide the option to
write directly onto the display which translates the input into text, or to open up a
dedicated writing space which also provides on-line examples and help.

A PDA come installed with one of the following operating system.

 Windows CE (Microsoft)
 EPOC (Psion)
 PalmOS (Palm Computing Inc.)

Without the capability to transfer and synchronise data back to a desktop system, there's
little benefit in having a word processor or similar feature on a PDA - particularly as
relatively few devices support printing via a parallel printer port. Most PDAs provide
employ a similar docking design which enables the device to be slotted into a small
cradle connected to the desktop PC via a serial cable. As well as facilitating connection to

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the desktop device, many cradles also provide a source of power, recharging the PDA's
battery whilst the device is docked.

Expansion devices
Many laptop PCs are proprietary designs, sharing few common, standard parts. A
consequence of this is that their expansion potential is often limited and the cost of
upgrading them high. Whilst most will use standard CPUs and RAM, these components
are generally fit in unique
motherboard designs, housed in
unique casing designs. Size
precludes the incorporation of
items like standard PCI slots or
drive bays, or even relatively
small features like SIMM slots.
Generally the only cheap way to upgrade a notebook is via its native PC Card slots.

A port replicator is not so much an expansion device - but more a means of facilitating
easier connectivity between a notebook PC and external peripherals and other devices.
The main reason for the existence of port replicators is the fragility of PC connectors -
which are designed for only so many insertions. The idea is for the replicator to remain
permanently plugged into a desktop PC, and to make the repeated connections often
necessary maintain synchronisation between mobile computing devices such as
notebooks and PDAs and a desktop PC via the more robust connections provided by the
port replicator.

A desk-based docking station takes the concept a stage further - adding desktop PC-like
expansion opportunities to
mobile computing devices.
A full docking station will
generally feature

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expansion slots and drive bays to which ordinary common-or-garden expansion cards and
external peripheral devices may be fit. It may also provide additional, higher performance
interfaces such as SCSI and come complete with an integrated monitor stand.

Flat panel display

To fit the ergonomic needs of a portable computer, screen
displays are flat screen Liquid Crystal Displays (LCD).
Displays offer a screen size effectively equal to the size of
the portable, measured diagonally on the display.
There are two main display types:
 passive matrix;

 active matrix.

Both incorporate technologies that are not effectively

repairable and any failure usually requires a complete screen change.

Passive matrix displays, also known as dual scan due to half screen refresh cycles:

 use transistor logic across the width and depth of the screen with a mesh of
intersecting electrical connections at a liquid crystal element, which represent
every single pixel of the screen.

 an electrical charge is then transmitted along these connections.

 its value then determines the red, green and blue colour displayed at intersecting
points.

Although cheap to produce, brightness and contrast suffer due to the limited refresh rate
and power loss for each signal. Displays can be difficult to view from some angles and if
one transistor fails a complete line is lost from the display.

Active matrix displays use a technology known as Thin Film Transistor (TFT):

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 each pixel on a display is controlled by its own embedded transistor, which
provides more power direct to each pixel producing bright, high contrast
displays;

 failure of any one transistor gives dead spots on the display and requires a much
higher quality of manufacture than for passive matrix displays, this factor leads
to an increase in the cost of active matrix displays.

For a standard VGA display of 640 x 480 pixels, in excess of 320,000 transistors are
incorporated. (For a passive display this would be 640 plus 480, or 1,120 transistors.)
But, displays are now being manufactured with resolutions of 800 x 600 (SVGA), 1,024
x 768 (XGA), and even 1280 x 1024 (SXGA). This leads to a very high density of
transistors and is an indication of the improving technical capabilities of the
manufacturers when displays are fabricated with very low spot errors.

Despite the fact that TFT display technology is moving towards higher screen resolutions
there are two areas where TFTs are at a distinct disadvantage when compared to
conventional Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) monitors. First, TFTs tend to have a very narrow
viewing angle which means that they cannot easily be viewed from the side. Second,
they have a fairly slow refresh rate which can seriously compromise the display of fast
moving images such as video.

In order to improve the viewing angle a technique known as Multi-domain Vertical

Alignment (MVA) is used. With this technique multi-domains are formed by the use of
protrusions which are not completely vertically aligned. As a result the image can be
viewed at an angle of up to 170 degrees.

When it comes to improving the display speed the most significant development is the
introduction of digital display interfaces. Traditionally TFT displays like their CRT
counterparts use an analogue signal which is generated by the video card or circuitry.
This is very cheap to implement but results in a significant loss of quality, as the
analogue signal has to be converted back to digital format in order to actually drive the
display.

Therefore it is logical that if a completely digital interface was utilized then there would
be no loss of quality and the speed of the display could be radically improved. Such

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digital interfaces are available but at present they tend to be rather expensive and it will
be some time before they are commonplace.

NB: Video controllers are an embedded feature of portable computers and therefore
display software drivers tend to be generic to each manufacturers equipment. Any
replacement parts should only come from an original end manufacturer or a wholly
compatible supplier.

Typical Notebook PCs consist of a display panel, keyboard and a pointer device
integrated into a portable computer casing. Components and devices are developed and
manufactured for portability, with many components being soldered directly to the
motherboard rather than being located in chip sockets. Power can be taken from a mains
power supply via a transformer or from an internal high power battery power pack.

Both modern desktop and portable computers now come with power saving features;
particularly on display and hard disk operation. These features are now becoming a
standard part of a computer BIOS, allowing automatic control of energy saving features
through inactivity time-outs.

Portables have an additional feature, where a complete memory copy is made of the
operating environment and placed in a reserved place (partition) on the hard disk. This
allows the computer to suspend processor operation for an indefinite time. When
required the BIOS can swiftly re-load the complete environment from hard disk and
continue normal operation. This is called suspend mode.
Modern operating system software has the ability to save multiple hardware
configurations. Microsoft Windows 95, 98 and 2000 manage this configuration
automatically using Plug and Play techniques, recognising different working
environments and setting up hardware configurations for each. Microsoft Windows NT
provides a manual configuration procedure for
establishing different hardware situations.

PC Card
In the early 90’s, the rapid growth of mobile
computing drove the development of smaller, lighter,
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and more portable tools for information processing. One of the most exciting of these
innovations was PC Card technology. When a portable is being used as a mobile
computer, PC card slots are used to provide extended peripheral support. These card
slots are a PC card standard originally established by the Personal Computer Memory
Card International Association (PCMCIA) which specifies credit card size devices that
can slot in to special bays on a portable computer.

First released in 1990, the PC Card Standard defines a 68-pin interface between the
peripheral card and the socket into which it gets inserted. It defines three standard PC
Card form factors, called Type I, Type II and Type III. The only difference between the
card types is thickness, this being 3.3, 5.0, and 10.5 millimetres for Type I, Type II, and
Type III cards respectively. Because they differ only in thickness, a thinner card can be
used in a thicker slot, but a thicker card can not be used in a thinner slot.

The card types each have features that fit the needs of different applications. Type I PC
Cards are typically used for memory devices such as RAM, Flash and SRAM cards. Type
II PC Cards are typically used for I/O devices such as data/fax modems, LANs, and mass
storage devices. Type III PC Cards are used for devices whose components are thicker,
such as rotating mass storage devices e.g. Harddisks. Extended cards allow the addition
of components that must remain outside the system for proper operation, such as antennas
for wireless applications.

In addition to electrical and physical specifications, the PC Card Standard defines a

software architecture to provide plug and
play' capability across the widest range of
products. This software is made up of Socket
Services and Card Services, and it is these
that allow for interoperability of PC Cards.

Socket Services is a BIOS-level software

layer that isolates PC Card software from the
system hardware and detects the insertion and
removal of PC Cards. Card Services
describes an Application Programming
Interface (API) which allows PC Cards and sockets to be shared by multiple clients -
devices drivers, configuration utilities or application programs. It manages the automatic
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allocation of system resources such as memory and interrupts once Socket Services
detects that a card has been inserted.

Derived from the Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI) Local Bus signaling protocol,
CardBus is the 32-bit version of PC Card technology. Enabled in the release of the PC
Card Standard, CardBus features and capabilities include 32-bits of address and data,
33MHz operation and busmaster operation.

The range of PC Cards available has expanded enormously and now it is possible to buy
cards which enable you to find your physical location using the Global Positioning
Satellite (GPS) system, to scan Barcodes, attach a Firewire (IEEE-1394) peripheral,
connect to a mobile phone or even allow you to use a PDA or Notebook PC as if it were a
cellular telephone.

Wireless communication with portable computers is available using Infra Red (IR)
communication. A standard established by the Infra Red Device Association (IrDA)
allows cabling needs for portables to be reduced. Many supplied portables have built in
IrDA ports that can be used for communicating with desktops and printers. Note that
desktop and printer equipment require an IR module with cable to an IR transceiver in
order to work.

POWER MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES

To benefit from power management, the monitor must be used in conjuction with a
computer that implements the Video Electronics Standards Association (VESA) Display
Power Management System protocol (DPMS). The power management feature is
invoked when the computer recognises that you have not used your mouse or keyboard
for a user-definable period of time. To restore monitor operation, simply press a key or
move the mouse.

DPMS is used to selectively shut down parts of the monitor’s circuitry after a period of
inactivity. With a motherboard and monitor that support DPMS, power consumption can
be greatly reduced. Motherboards that support DPMS often have a BIOS setting to
enable it.

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The operating system or application software you are using must normally also be set to
activate DPMS after a defined idle period. Many monitors have two low-power settings;
stand-by mode uses less power than the normal operational state, and then an even lower
suspend or ‘shut down’ mode turns turns the monitor off completely to save even more
power. The system monitors the PC for activity and after the determined time, sends the
appropriate signal to the monitor. When activity is detected again the monitor is ‘woken
up’ by the system.

One problem with the DPMS is that if used improperly (such as telling the system to shut
down after 1 minute of idle time) it can result in a lot of wear and tear on the monitor’s
internal components reducing the monitors life. Even if you are not using DPMS, at the
very least no monitor should be left on for hours at a time if not in use, and especially not
attended overnight.

NB: Using a screen saver only, with no other power conservation features, has no
significant impact on energy use of the monitor.

There are two types of power management techniques in desktop and laptop computers

Advanced Power Management (APM)

APM specification involves software that supports power management in computers with
power manageable hardware. In this way, it is possible to extend the life of system
batteries without degrading performance.

System Management Mode (SMM) & System Management Interrupt (SMI)

SMM – This gives compliant CPU’s a mechanism that allow them to interrupt current
processor operation, bring themselves into a low mode and then resume processing at a
time without loss of data or program/operating system functionality.

SMI – This is a high priority, non-maskable interrupt that allows CPU operation to be
diverted towards power-management process. Activating the SMI invokes a sequence
that saves the operating state of the processor into a separate SMM memory address
space, independent of the main system memory. After the state is saved, the processor
can then reload the saved processor state and resume execution of the main system
memory space.

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PC power saving modes
Most desktop and portable computers have the following power saving stages:-
ON: Normal functioning of the computer without the power saving function.
DOZE: CPU speed is slowed down, unused devices (e.g. hard disks) are powered down.

STAND BY: The monitors (in case of desktops) or LCD displays (in case of laptops)
enter a standby mode.
SUSPEND: Power supply to the motherboard is reduced, CPU enters power-saving
mode, unused devices are powered down and monitors/LCD enter suspend mode.

Resumption of power from power saving modes

To resume full power, the following conditions must occur: -
 Upon the detection of any activity in the system. The user may choose in the BIOS
setup, which activity/devices are to be detected and which are to be ignored.
 Upon a pre-set (in the BIOS) wake up time.

PRINTERS AND PRINTING

No computer system is complete without a way of putting data onto paper. The humble
desktop printer is a marvel of modern technology. Modern business, small office and
home printers generally fall into one of the following categories:

 Dot matrix
 Inkjet
 LaserJet

Each of these technologies uses different methods to get the image on paper. For instance
dot matrix printers form characters by firing a row of tiny pins against the ribbon to mark
the paper. Inkjets work by squirting liquid ink at the paper. Laser printers are similar to
photocopiers i.e. a laser beam is used to apply an electrical charge to a drum. This charge
attracts the toner, which is then transferred onto the paper.
Both inkjets and dot matrix printers have a component known as a printhead.

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GENERAL PRINTER OPERATION

Printers can generally operate in one of two modes:
Text mode

In text mode, each piece of data received at the printer’s data port represents either an
individual character e.g. ASCII code for a certain letter, or a formatting command such as
bold, underline etc.

When the printer receives a character code, it will use a look up table to find the image
pattern for the character in its character generator ROM.
The image pattern tells the printer mechanism how to form the shape of that character
using whatever printing mechanism it supports i.e. pin firing for dot matrix, a dot image
pattern for a laser printer and a squirting pattern for an inkjet printer.

Graphics mode

In graphics mode, the instructions sent to the printer directly control the operations of the
imaging system. This allows the production of graphics, pictures or custom characters
that are not present in the character generator ROM.
Windows print both text and graphics in this way allowing any printer capable of printing
graphics to use a whole range of TrueType fonts.

DOT MATRIX PRINTERS

Dot matrix is the oldest print technology in the

computing market.
Dot matrix printers produce output by firing pins
at an inked ribbon placed close to the paper.
When the pins are fired, it leaves a mark on the
paper.

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These are the printers that are used to print mailing labels, multipart forms, receipts and
even ATM printouts.

They are relatively cheap and they can withstand very harsh environments such as
factories or retail shops, where there is a lot of dust and vibrations. They can print to
continuous stationery (tractor- fed or perforated paper) in addition to single-sheet paper,
something that is not possible with laser and inkjet printers.

However, they produce low-quality output, are slow and very noisy. In some places,
replacement printer ribbons are hard to find.

Key components of Dot Matrix printers

The print head

The pins are contained in a device known as the print head. The pins form an image when
they strike the ribbon against the paper.
The first generation of print heads had 8 or 9 pins; the most modern printers have
between 24 and 48 pins. The more the pins the finer the quality of the characters and
graphics
The pins are moved or ‘fired’ by coils of wire called solenoid. When a coil is energized,
it forms a strong electromagnetic force that causes the metal firing pin to move strongly
forward hence striking the ribbon over the paper.

Return springs and permanent magnets ensure that pins go back to their rest positions
immediately after firing.

Note: Print heads can become very hot after use. The heat is generated by friction of
the moving pins and by the electric currents passing through the solenoids.

Dot matrix printer quality depends largely on the number of pins. The greater the number
the higher the quality
Paper feed mechanism (components)

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Most dot-matrix printers have a mechanical switch that will change the paper type from
single sheet to the perforated paper (tractor feed). At least one motor will be used to
operate the paper feed.
Print head carriage

The print head has to move back and forth across the length of the platen so the head is
mounted on a carriage that is pulled backwards and forwards on a belt by a stepper
motor.

Platen motor

The platen rotates to draw the paper through the mechanism and to ensure that one
section does not get worn out by the constant hammering of the print head.
When using cut sheet paper, it is just a fraction of the platen that pulls the paper through
but when continuous (perforated) paper is used, additional guides help feed the paper.

Platen gap adjustment

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This is the gap between the platen and the print head. It can be adjusted to accommodate
different thicknesses of paper or multi-part stationery. Incorrect adjustment of the platen
gap can cause faint printing (gap too wide) or smudging (too narrow).

On the more sophisticated printers the platen gap is adjusted automatically.

INKJET PRINTERS

The inkjet printer mechanism is quite similar to the dot

matrix’s, except that for inkjets the print head consists of a
series of small holes or nozzles with an ink reservoir behind
them.

Under normal conditions, the ink cannot flow through the

nozzles because of their small gap size and because the ink reservoir is kept at a pressure
slightly below the ambient pressure.

When printing, a small controlled amount of ink is forced through the tiny gaps onto the
paper. By synchronizing this action together with the movement of the print head across
the paper, text and images can be built up in the same way as with a dot matrix.

There are two categories of inkjet print heads whose names define the nature of the print
heads:

 Thermal inkjet print heads

 Electrostatic (Piezoelectric) inkjet print heads

Thermal inkjet print heads

This type of technology is used by Hewlett Packard for their DeskJet printers. It is also
used by Canon for their Bubble jet printers.

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For thermal print heads, each ink nozzle has a heating element built around it, and when
the ink behind the nozzles is heated, it expands and is forced through the holes in a
controlled squirt i.e. spraying a mark on paper. Each nozzle squirts a dot, which forms
part of a character.
Thermal print heads produce strong colors but the heads do not last too long because the
rapid heating and cooling eventually causes the nozzles element to break up. They have
to be replaced often and are usually packaged together with the ink cartridge such that the
print head is replaced when the ink is being replaced.

Electrostatic (Piezoelectric) inkjet print heads

These are also referred to as crystal print heads. This is the type used by Epson in their
Stylus range of printers.
With these print heads, the ink is forced out by an electrostatic charge being applied to a
piezoelectric element built into each nozzle. This element changes shape when charged
and so acts as a small pump forcing the ink out through the nozzle.

Electrostatic inkjet print heads do not need hating elements around each nozzle and so the
nozzles can be made smaller- therefore these tend to produce finer detail.

Advantages of Electrostatic (piezoelectric)

There are several benefits of the piezoelectric method over thermal print head
technology.
 The piezoelectric method allows more control over the shape and size of ink droplet
release. This means the precise droplets of ink are let out resulting in very limited
bleeding.
 The ink does not have to be heated and cooled between each cycle and there is no
need to wait for cooling of print head. This saves time, and so such printers are faster.

In general, the advantages of inkjet printers is that they have a high resolution thus
producing good quality printouts, with them you can print both black and white and color

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at a reasonable cost and they are cheaper than laser printers. Inkjets are quiet and usually
compact.

Some of their shortcomings are that they are slow as compared to laser printers, they are
expensive to maintain as the refill ink cartridges are expensive and must be replaced
often. They are prone to ‘bleeding’ which is a print distortion where adjacent colors run
and merge into one another, sometimes caused by excess ink or paper which is too
absorbent.

LASER PRINTERS

The laser printer was introduced by Hewlett-Packard in

1984, based on technology developed by Canon. It worked in
a similar way to a photocopier, the difference being the light
source. With a photocopier a page is scanned with a bright
light, while with a laser printer the light source is a laser
beam.

After that the process is much the same, with the light creating an electrostatic image of
the page onto a charged photoreceptor, which in turn attracts toner in the shape of an
electrostatic charge.

Like inkjet printers, they produce their output in a series of dots, but the size of dots is
much smaller.
These printers provide better throughput and quality than any printer discussed so far
does. They do not use either an inked ribbon or liquid ink; instead they use what is
termed as a toner (rather like a fine black dust).

Laser printing mechanism is much more sophisticated than the rest and they are as below:

1. Imaging/image processing

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2. Electrostatic charging
3. Laser imaging
4. Image development
5. Image transfer
6. Fusing
7. Cleaning

Key components of a laser printer

A laser printer has a number of key components:

 The OPC (Organic Photoconductor) drum or cartridge. This is a light sensitive
cylinder or belt that can hold an electric charge on its surface.
 The toner- is a fine metallic compound bound together with powdered dyestuff.
 The fuser- uses heat and pressure to set the toner.
 The corona wires are charged to a high voltage to help with the print process.

 The developer is a magnetized roller that holds the toner material before it is
transferred to the OPC drum. Toner is ferrous (attracted to a magnet) and so the inside
of the developer is magnetized to make the toner ‘stick’ to it.

THE PRINTING PROCESS

The laser print process is a combination of optics, heat, pressure, electrostatics and
magnetism.

It involves several stages:

 Image processing
 Charging (conditioning)
 Writing (imaging)
 Image development
 Image transfer

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 Fusing
 Cleaning

Image Processing

Unlike a dot matrix or inkjet printer that treats any printed image as a series of dots, a
laser printer operates on the whole image as a single item.
As soon as all the data for one page has been received, it is broken down into a series of
single-dot strips (rasters) in a process known as rasterising. This is like the processing
used to generate a TV picture from a series of scan lines.

Charging (Conditioning)

The OPC drum and developer are charged to a negative voltage of around -500 to 600V.
Since the developer is magnetized, the toner sticks readily to it. This is done using the
primary corona wire and this process is known as conditioning.

Imaging (Writing)

The surface coating of the OPC drum can be made to lose its charge by being exposed to
light. A laser is used to remove the charge selectively, line-by-line according to the
scanned image- as the drum rotates.

As the laser receives the image information, it fires a short pulse of light for each dot in
the raster. The pulsing light beam is reflected onto the OPC drum by a rotating mirror
that spreads the dot information across the drum- the OPC ends up with a whole series of
raster lines with charge/no-charge areas that represents an electrostatic picture of the
image to be printed.
Because the picture being produced on the drum’s surface is an invisible version of the
required image, it is known as a latent image.

Note: The OPC drum can be damaged by strong light, therefore if the OPC unit is
removed during servicing it should be placed in a light-proof bag or in a dark area and
replaced as soon as possible.
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Image development

The developer is located very close to the OPC drum and is also charged to the same
negative polarity which means that under normal circumstances there will be no
interaction between the two parts. This is because ‘Opposite charges attract, like charges
repel’.
Once the charge has been selectively removed from the OPC drum by the laser, the toner
is attracted and sticks to the surface of the OPC in the shape of words and letters. It then
rotates past the developer until it reaches the paper.

Image transfer

The paper, after being picked up from the paper tray and pulled through the printer by a
system of wheels and rollers, passes between the OPC drum and a positive high-voltage
wire known as the secondary or transfer corona.
The transfer corona generates a strong positive electrostatic charge on the paper. The
charged paper attracts the toner off the OPC drum and onto the paper.

Soon after, the detac corona wire removes the static charge to stop the paper from
sticking to the OPC drum or the fuser.

Fusing

The paper continues past the OPC drum and passes between a hot roller and a pressure
roller in the fuser unit. The fuser heats the toner to around 200 0 for a fraction of a second
so that the toner is fused or melted onto the surface of the paper.

Cleaning

To complete the printing cycle, the OPC drum is cleaned to remove any remaining
charges and excess toner particles. This is performed by the discharge lamp.

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Inside diagram of a laser printer

ROUTINE MAINTENANCE OF LASER PRINTERS

 Unplug the printer before cleaning or performing routine maintenance.

 Use a damp cloth only for cleaning exterior surfaces.
 Do not use volatile liquids such as thinners or benzene to clean the interior or exterior
of the printer, use only approved cleaning solutions and solvents that are specifically
designed for the job.
 The corona wire is very delicate so clean it with care.
 The OPC drum is light sensitive, if removed place it in its storage bag or in a dark
area.

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 Remove the OPC drum for as short a time as possible.
 The inside of the printer may be very hot- take care.
 Wipe dust and toner away using a soft cloth. Do not use a domestic vacuum cleaner-
instead use an approved ‘laser vacuum’ if necessary.

OTHER PRINTING TECHNOLOGIES:

LED PRINTERS

LED (light-emitting diode) printers are in the same printer family as lasers, but their use
is not widespread.
The technology produces the same results as conventional laser printing and uses the
same fundamental method of applying toner to the paper.

The difference between the two technologies lies in the method of light distribution.
LED printers use light-emitting diodes (a special type of semiconductor that illuminates
when an electric charge passes through) instead of lasers.

The LED print head uses tiny light bulbs. LED printers function by means of rows of
LEDs built into the cover of the printer - usually more than 2,500 covering the entire
width of the drum. These will create an image when shining down at 90 degrees.

A 600-dpi LED printer will have 600 LEDs per inch, over the required page width. The
advantage is that a row of LEDs is cheaper to make than a laser and mirror with lots of
moving parts and, consequently, the technology presents a cheaper alternative to
conventional laser printers. The LED system also has the benefit of being compact in
relation to conventional lasers.

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The main disadvantage of LED printers is that they have a fixed horizontal resolution,
and while some resolution improvements can be made, laser printers still offer much
better resolutions.

Moreover, an LED printer's drum performs at its best in terms of efficiency and speed
when continuous, high-volume printing is called for. When used often for small printing
jobs, an LED printer's drum lifetime is shortened because of the constant switching on
and off of the lightbulbs.

THERMAL PAPER PRINTERS

These are cheap, portable printers which are used in specialized applications such as
faxes, point of sale invoices and other small portable systems. This makes them popular
nowadays.

 They require special thermal paper and work on the same principle as a dot matrix
printer, using heat at the print head to make characters.
 They are limited to about 75 dpi.
 They can be used with serial and parallel interfaces and they operate quietly.
 Paper quality is fragile and deteriorates when stored.
 Characters are usually black or blue.

THERMAL HOT WAX PRINTERS

These printers use specially treated wax paper and are relatively expensive. They are
developed for the printing industries and give high resolutions of 300dpi.

They are very good for graphics and draft copies but are very slow in printing.

COLOR PRINTING

Some printers will support color printing. The method used in color printing is similar to
that of ‘color separations’ that is used by printing companies for various kinds of outputs.
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Three colors, cyan, magenta and yellow are mixed in varying quantities to produce
different colors. Almost all colors and shades can be produced from these three colors.

Color dot matrix printers use a ribbon that is divided into three colored stripes of cyan,
magenta and yellow; or four colored stripes of cyan, magenta, yellow and black.

Color laser printers use 3 separate toners (cyan, magenta and yellow), held in different
cartridges. The black toner is used separately.

Some inkjet printers use discrete cyan, magenta and yellow cartridges but others use an
integrated or tri-chamber, three-color cartridge that contains 3 compartments and print
heads in one package.
Even though you can produce black text using the color cartridges, this would be very
wasteful. Most of the printing is done in black and white anyway and so most color
printers adopt one of the following techniques:

 A single ‘integrated ‘cartridge which also includes a black ink reservoir.

 A second print head holder is used for a black ink cartridge.
 The whole unit can be replaced with a black-only cartridge when required.

PRINTER COMMAND LANGUAGES

The ASCII character set defines little text formatting and no graphics commands (it was
designed before they came into common use). The problem of how to instruct a printer to
perform any of its 'advanced' functions is addressed by using printer command
languages.
There are three main printer languages and most print data will be sent in any of them:

 Escape code sequences (ESC P)

 Printer Control Language (PCL)
 PostScript

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ESC-P or ESC-P2

Epson dot matrix printers (and those that emulate them) use Escape codes embedded into
the text to select a printer operation.
Some laser printers can also support ‘Epson emulation as a fall-back if they are connected
to a system that cannot run more sophisticated print software.

PCL

Most laser printers support a page description language. Printer Control Language (PCL)
is a protocol designed by Hewlett-Packard to allow PCs to communicate with its laser
printers. PCL has become a de facto standard for laser and ink jet printers and is
supported by virtually all printer manufacturers. 'HP compatible' or 'LaserJet compatible'
means that a printer supports the PCL command set.
HP-PCL has undergone several revisions and so a printer may support PCL-3, PCL-4 or
PCL-5 etc. The drivers are usually backward compatible so finding a print driver for a
‘HP compatible’ printer is not a problem.

PostScript

A page description language developed by Adobe. Generally used by laser printers,

PostScript is becoming increasingly common in high-end inkjets too.
The main benefit of PostScript is that it is device and resolution independent, the same
data works on a wide range of devices and each device will decide exactly how to cope
with the data.
For example, using a PC and a laser printer, you can print data at 300dpi, but then the
same data can be sent to a printing company that can use it to print it on 2500dpi printer
in full color.

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PostScript is capable of performing all complex printing functions such as scaling or
rotating. However, PostScript printers take long to produce the final output because they
have to do a lot of data processing.
Print compatibility

PCL and ESC-P printers can read and print raw ASCII (plain text) information as well as
data sent in their native languages.

PostScript printers may not be able to tread anything except PostScript.

If there is a need to print plain text data to a PostScript printer, conversion software like
Ghostscript can be used.

Sending PostScript data to a non-PostScript printer will usually result in a mega-page

printout listing all the PostScript print commands used.

PDF

Portable Document Format was developed by Adobe as a way to PostScript information

into a package that can be read by PostScript, non-PostScript compatible printers as well
as PDF viewing software.

This is an ideal way to send documents and images over the Internet and via email.
Provided the recipient has PDF viewing software e.g. Adobe Acrobat Reader ©, they
should be able to read and print what you send them.

PDF documents can also be made read-only which makes it difficult for unauthorized
persons to make changes to them.

PRINTER CONSUMABLES

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Obviously for all printers, paper is a consumable. But there are also some other items that
are considered consumable because the user has to replace them often, and they are not
covered by any warranty.

Dot matrix

 Ribbons
The ribbons on a dot matrix are normally replaced at frequent intervals when the print
quality deteriorates. It is normally replaced as a whole (i.e. the ribbon holder together
with the contents), even though some printers use a re-usable cartridge.

 Print heads
Are treated by some manufacturers as consumables and they will not replace them
under warranty. Some dot matrix print heads are very expensive.

Inkjet

 Ink
The ink cartridge may need replacing when the print output is of poor quality. An ink
cartridge can also be refilled although this is can be messy.

 Print heads
These are considered consumable items because the printhead is built into the ink
cartridge.

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Laser printer

 Toner cartridge
The cartridge is the other big consumable item in a laser printer. Its lifetime
depending on the quantity of toner it contains. Most laser printers will inform the user
when they are running low on toner.

When the toner runs out, the cartridge is replaced. Replacement cartridges are simple
to install but costs can vary considerably between models.

 The OPC drum

During the lifetime of the printer The OPC drum needs to be periodically replaced as
its surface wears out and print quality deteriorates..

Note: Sometimes the toner cartridge and the OPC drum are housed separately, but
sometimes the drum is located inside the cartridge e.g. in HP laser printers. This
means that when the toner runs out, the whole drum containing the OPC cartridge
needs to be replaced, which adds considerably to the running costs of the printer and
produces large amounts of waste.

 Corona Wires
During the operation of a printer, high voltages are used to induce electrostatic
charges on the OPC drum, developer and paper. These fine wires eventually break
down due to the high voltages. They are often installed in removable housings.
Most corona wires are actually built in to the OPC/toner cartridge, and so are replaced
when the cartridge is replaced.

 Ozone filter
Since the high voltages generated by a laser printer ionize the air inside, this leads to
the production of ozone, a corrosive and irritating gas, that can damage the printer or
affect the users.

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Some printers have a small fan with a carbon-based filter which is designed to
remove this gas. However, most modern printers are designed in such a way that they
do not produce ozone. Such printers do not have a filter.

PRINTER DRIVERS

A printer driver provides the interface between a software application and the printer. it
translates the information displayed on the screen into a form which can be understood
by the printer.

DOS applications require printer drivers to be installed for each application. In Windows,
you just install a single driver that can be used by all applications.
If a printer driver is unavailable, it is sometimes possible to emulate printer drivers for a
different printer to work with your available printer.
For example, many laser printers can emulate the HP LaserJet.

TROUBLESHOOTING PRINTERS

Troubleshooting Guidelines

When troubleshooting the following general guidelines should be followed:

 Always switch off the printer before troubleshooting.

 Always seek advice from qualified source if the cause of the problem is not easily
found.
 Never operate a printer with protective covers removed-this is for your own safety.

The section below describes some common faults likely to be encountered for all types of
printers discussed as well as their likely solutions.

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The manufacturer’s documentation and troubleshooting notes specific to the printer
should always be consulted first.

Problem Possible cause Likely Solution

Dead printer Printer not plugged in/not Check and correct

switched on situation

Blown fuse Check with multimeter

Paper jam Wrong brand / 'cheap' paper Use recommended paper

Paper badly stored

Unable to print from an Data cable disconnected i.e. Connect cables properly
application printer not online

Corrupted output Wrong printer drivers Check printer setup within

installed application

Poor quality printouts with Wrong type of paper or poor Check paper specification
spots or smudging quality paper type

Common Dot Matrix Problems

Most dot matrix printer problems are mechanical as the examples below show:

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Problem Possible cause Likely Solution

Faint Ribbon worn out Replace ribbon

printing

Ribbon is not spooling correctly Tighten the spooling gauge

Platen gap too high Use the platen gap lever to reduce
it

Printhead cable disconnected Connect the cable

No printing Print head is torn through ribbon

Platen gap too high, cannot reach

ribbon

Print head cable is disconnected

Paper jam Wrong brand or cheap paper Try new paper stock

Paper badly stored

Debris caught in paper feed Remove debris

mechanism

Incorrect paper setting (using cut Change setting to the correct one
sheet paper with printer set for
'tractor feed').

Printhead Bent /broken pin Check main logic board

failure

Solenoid burnt out

Printhead pins stuck with dust or ink Clean using solvent e.g.
build-up denatured/ isopropyl alcohol

Ribbon cable disconnected Check ribbon cable

Common inkjet printer problems

Inkjet printers usually have the same sort of mechanical problems like dot matrix, for
example the platen motor could fail or the paper sensors could stop working.

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However on most inkjet printers the platen gap is not adjustable and so faint or smudged
printing is usually associated with paper or ink problems.

Problem Possible cause Likely Solution

Paper jam Paper not loaded correctly

Too much paper loaded into Reduce paper in tray

tray

Skewed printing Paper not loaded correctly

Too much paper loaded into

tray

Poor printing Unsuitable paper Check manufacturer’s manual

quality for procedures

Print cartridge needs re- Check manufacturer’s

activation recommendations for paper

Incomplete letters Print cartridge may need Check manual for instructions
reactivation

Print cartridge incorrectly Check manual for instructions

installed

Fading print Print cartridge has insufficient Check manual for instructions
ink

Faint print Paper may be unsuitable Check manufacturer’s

recommendations

Common laser printer problems

Laser printers are usually quite reliable, most problems relate to the paper feed
mechanism or the OPC drum.

Problem Possible cause Likely Solution

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Faint printing Out of toner Replace toner and/or OPC
drum

OPC drum worn out

Toner density setting too low Adjust density setting

Blank pages being Out of toner Replace toner

ejected

Incorrect software settings Check software

‘Memory full’ errors Not enough RAM especially Check manufacturers

when printing graphics and recommendations for memory
complex pages received or increase RAM

White stripes on Image scanner window is dirty Clean window

paper

Black stripes on Dirty corona wire Refer to manufacturer’s

paper instructions

Poorly seated toner/OPC drum

Whole page black Dirty corona wire Visual check

Poorly seated corona wire/OPC

mechanism

Light leakage to OPC system

Toner brushes off The fuser is not working Replace fuser

paper

Random spots on Spilt toner in mechanism Clean all paper paths and
page rollers using a ‘laser vacuum’.

Fainter printing on Out of toner Replace toner

one side of paper

Printer is not on a completely flat Place printer on flat surface

surface

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Light leakage on OPC drum Move printer out of direct
sunlight

TIPS FOR SHOPPING FOR A PRINTER

Before purchasing a (laser) printer, there are several things you should take into
consideration:

 Compatibility - Make sure the printer you want to buy is compatible with the
operating system you use. For instance, if you buy a Windows-only printer, you will
never be able to print Windows NT, OS/2 or Internet documents.
 Reliability – Check the number of pages per month that the printer is expected to
print. It may be worthwhile to pay more and get a printer with a longer lifespan.
 Image quality – Look closely at the printer’s output. Watch for jagged edges on the
big letters, and bleeding together of small letters.
 Speed - This is the number of pages per minute it can print, also test the printer to see
how long it takes from the time you send the file to the printer until you can resume
working on the PC.

 Paper Handling- make sure the printer allows you to print on heavy stationery and
envelopes. Find out how many paper trays it has, how much each can hold, and
whether the printer has a priority feed slot.

Beyond this, it is also a good idea to check out the manufacturer or distributor. Find out
their support hours, their reputation and their customer services.

BASIC TERMINOLOGY

Some terminology associated with printers is shared among all printers, while some
terms apply to only a specific printer type:

 Dots Per Inch (dpi): a unit of measure used to describe the resolution of images
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produced by printers or other output devices. The printed dots from a 600dpi printer
are far smaller than the dots created by a 300dpi printer.
A typical laser printer has about 600 dpi; a good dot matrix printer offers about
180dpi to 360 dpi while inkjets produce as good quality as laser printers. High quality
inkjet printers could have resolutions of upto 1440dpi.

 Letter quality (LQ): this denotes a higher resolution setting for printing text suitable
for business letters. This term is usually associated with dot matrix printers and this
setting slows down a printer because of the way the letters are ‘filled in’ by the
printer.

 Draft mode is the fastest method of printing. You cannot print graphical images
when this mode is on, and the text print quality is poorer.
Draft mode is quicker and does not deplete the ink supply as quickly as high quality
print modes.

 Pages per minute (ppm) this indicates the number of pages a printer can print in a
minute. Laser printers have the highest ppm rate of any printer while still offering
high quality document.
A typical laser printer prints about 4ppm to 6ppm, while an inkjet is slower and
produces about 2ppm to 3ppm.
For dot matrix printers, the term characters per second (CPS) refers to how many
characters the printer can print in one second. In draft mode, this number can be high,
but when you increase the resolution, this slows considerably.

PORTS AND CABLING

CONNECTOR TYPES
The following chapter will describe the nature of each of the main external PC ports, their
connector types and common usage. A port is a connector at the back of a computer
where you plug in an external device such as a printer, scanner, modem etc. This allows
instructions and data to flow between the computer and the device. There are several
types of external ports:
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Port Symbol

1. Parallel port

2. Serial port

3. USB port

4. SCSI port

5. Mouse

6. Keyboard port

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CONNECTOR TYPES

A number of different connector types are used on the back of a PC, the following are the
most common:

DB Connectors
This connector type is most often associated with the serial, parallel and display monitor
ports. DB stands for ‘D Bucket’ connector and the full connector designation e.g. DB25
male refers to the number of pins in the connector and whether the connector is male
(plug) or female (socket) type.
NB: If a DB-type port uses a female connector, the cable associated with the port will
require a male connector to ‘mate’ correctly and vice versa.

The standard 15-pin VGA connector was derived from an older 9-pin design,
consequently, the plugs have 15 pins in a connector shell originally designed for 9. The
only way to make more pins fit was to make them thinner, this also makes them more
prone to bending so always take care when plugging in video leads because bent pins are
hard to straighten without them breaking off.

DB connectors 13
1

14
25

1 5 1 5

6 10

DIN connectors
DIN represents
6
a range
9
of German standards and there are a number of connectors that
11 15
come under this heading. On a PC, the keyboard and mouse ports are DIN connectors.

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5-pin DIN 6-pin mini-DIN

The smaller mini-DIN plugs have fairly small pins and these can be easily broken if the
plug is inserted into its socket and then turned to make the pins/holes line up, always try
to push the connector straight in at the correct orientation without twisting.
Audio Connectors
Most of the audio connectors on a PC are 3.5mm mono and stereo jack plugs as used on

most portable domestic audio equipment.

PARALLEL PORT
The PC’s parallel port (invented by Centronic Corporation) is based upon the centronics
parallel interface and is the most common method of connecting a printer to a computer.
The port uses a 25-way female ‘D’ connector sometimes known as a DB25 connector.
As the name would suggest, the parallel port transmits data using an 8-bit parallel
interface (one physical wire per data bit), with the flow of information controlled by
hardware handshaking signals between the printer and the computer.
Parallel ports are termed as LPT (Line Printer Terminal) and start with LPT1. Most
computers only have a single LPT port, which by default is known as LPT1 and has an
I/O address of 378H and interrupt of 07H. Other LPT port names, LPT2 and LPT3, can
be assigned to parallel port expansion cards and provided with both I/O addresses and
possible interrupts.
The ‘standard’ PC parallel port was originally designed just for sending information to
printers – known as uni-direction but recent designs have turned the parallel port into a
bi-directional interface hence being able to be used with a wide range of devices, from
tape streamers to scanners.

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The number of confusing ‘improved’ mode that were being developed for the ‘standard’
parallel port prompted the Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers – a US
standard body – to come up with a standard that encompasses the more common designs
– this standard is called IEEE1284.
IEEE1284
The IEEE1284 defines the following modes of operation:

Transmit
Receive speed DMA
Mode speed Typical use/Notes
(Max) Support
(Max)

Compatibility 200KB/Sec Output only No Original parallel port design

4-bit (Bi- Developed by HP as an

200KB/Sec 60KB/Sec No
tronics) enhancement for their printers

8-bit (Bi-
300KB/Sec 300KB/Sec No Printers, scanners, tape etc.
directional)

Can handle up to 64 disk

EPP
drives, tape drives, CD-
(Enhanced 2MB/Sec 2MB/Sec No
ROM drives, and other
Parallel Port)
mass-storage devices.

ECP
Support a wide range of
(Extended
2MB/Sec 2MB/Sec Yes devices – most popular fast
Capabilities
mode
Port)

Parallel port capabilities

Not every PC on the market supports the full range of IEEE parallel port modes and
several factors will determine exactly what functionality can be achieved through the
port.
Hardware and BIOS support

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The hardware design of the port will determine which modes can be used, a quick check
of the CMOS settings for a PC parallel port may identify which modes are supported.
Note that plugging a new ‘enhanced port’ I/O card into an older PC may not work if the
BIOS cannot handle the new modes.
Operating system and driver support
Even if the PC’s BIOS and hardware supports ECP/EPP mode, they will only function
correctly if the software and device drivers being used on the PC understand these modes
of operation.

External device support

Enabling ECP/EPP modes will only increase performance if the devices fitted to the port
support them too.

Cable quality
In any of the enhanced modes, the quality of the cable is of utmost importance. If the
cable is of poor quality or not to IEEE1284 specifications, then all sorts of problems can
be encountered from data errors on tape units to corrupted printouts. There are two
solutions to this problem:
1. Buy a new IEEE1284 compatible cable

2. Disable ECP/EPP mode in the PC’s BIOS and use SPP (Standard Printer Port) mode
although in some PC’s, Windows 95 seems to have the capability to turn this back on.

Parallel Printer Leads

PC 25-pin ‘D’ connector (Male)

The IBM Compatible lead has a 25-pin Male

‘D’ (DB25) connector at one end and a 36-pin
male Centronics plug at the printer end.

Parallel connections are not suitable for long-

distance operation; the ‘official’ maximum
length for a standard parallel cable is 5m. Some
Printer 36-pin Centronics plug high-quality, screened cables will work over greater
distances but devices known as “line drivers” are

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required for reliable, long cable runs.

Although electrical noise and signals loss become more of a problem with long cables,
the major factor that affects the maximum length of a parallel cable is a characteristic
called data skew.
Data skew
Within a parallel cable, each of the 8 bits is carried by a separate wire and unless each
wire is 100% identical in overall diameter, length and electrical characteristics, the data
bits will arrive at the remote end of the cable out of alignment even though they were sent
at exactly the same time.
The effect of data skew

Data load
window

Data bit

Received data

A small degree of skew is allowed for in the parallel port specification but if the data bits
arrive spread out too far apart some of them may be ‘missed’ by the printer interface and
so the wrong information will be processed for printing and this will cause errors on the
paper.

Data skew can affect both parallel ports and SCSI ports (which also use a parallel data
stream). Good quality, long parallel printer leads pass through more rigid quality control
checks and the material used in the construction of the cables are also of better quality to
reduce the skewing effects. High-quality leads are also often individually tested to ensure
proper operation.
Parallel pin assignments:
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Signal
directi Printe
PC Name ID Function/notes
on r

Used by PC to send data to

1 1 -strobe STROBE
printer

2 2 Data bit 0 DB0

3 3 Data bit 1 DB1

4 4 Data bit 2 DB2

5 5 Data bit 3 DB3

6 6 Data bit 4 DB4

7 7 Data bit 5 DB5

8 8 Data bit 6 DB6

9 9 Data bit 7 DB7

- ACK
Printer acknowledges receipt
10 10 Acknowledg
of data
e

11 11 Printer busy BUSY

12 12 Paper Error PE

Indicate whether printer is

13 13 Select SLCT
‘online’

14 14 -Auto feed AUTOFD

15 32 -Error ERROR

-Reset
16 31 INIT
printer

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17 36 Select input SLCT IN

5v available from some

- 18 5v
printers

16,
19- Sometimes also to printer pin
19- Ground GND
25 17
30,33

Parallel port data

Connector: DB25F

Use: Printers

Secondary use: Scanners, Tape, CD-ROM, Network adapters (old laptop PC’s),
other storage devices – ZIP, JAZ etc.

Category: Input/Output port

Max speed (typ): 60KB/Sec –2MB/Sec (ECP/EPP)

SERIAL PORT
Most PC’s are now fitted with two serial ports. Serial ports
are generally associated with modems, mice, printers and
slow speed connections to minicomputers and mainframes.
The main difference between the serial and parallel ports is
their method of data transmission;

Parallel port – one line per data bit (8 lines). Data

transmitted byte –by-byte.

Serial port – One data line. Data transmitted bit-by-bit sequentially.

Because serial port send data down one wire, bit-by-bit, this eliminates the problem of
data skew associated with parallel ports and so serial data leads (cable) can be longer than
parallel leads – up to around 50ft is possible at reasonable speeds. Serial ports are fairly
electrically robust, but if they are used with very long cables there is a risk that electrical
spikes can find there way through the cable, into the port and then blow the input/output
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driver chips. If this happens it may be possible to replace the chips if they are socketed,
otherwise a new I/O card or motherboard may be required.
As well as data transmission lines, serial ports have control signal lines that can manage
(stop-start) data flow and signal certain events to the host device (PC).
The serial port on a PC are based on a data communication standard known as ‘EISA-
RS232-C’, usually abbreviated as just RS232. This standard defines an ‘Asynchronous
communication port’ Most PCs use a male DB9 9-pin connector for at least one of their
ports – these 9-pin connectors support the major data and handshake (data flow control)
lines needed for mice and modems but do not include the ‘advanced’ signals required for
some more specialist devices. The EISA RS232-C standard attempts to make serial port
wiring simpler to understand by splitting equipment with serial ports into two categories:
 DTE (Data Terminal Equipment)
 DCE (Data Circuit-Terminating Equipment)

DTE (Data Terminating Equipment)

A PC is classed as DTE equipment as are most data terminals and other devices which
interact with users.
DCE (Data Circuit-Terminal Equipment)

DCE equipment is defined as those items that provide an interface between DTE
equipment and other communication system/networks i.e. modems.

The RS232-C standard allows for DTE equipment to be connected to DCE equipment
with a straight-through wired cable, pin 1 on one end of a cable joins to pin 1 on the other
end, pin 2 to pin 2 etc. This cabling form works as DTE equipment uses pin 2 (TD) to
transmit data, and DCE equipment uses pin 2 (RD) to receive data. A “straight” cable
will therefore link TD to RD correctly. This principle is extended to all other signal and
handshake lines on the connector.
Null-modem wiring

Where two pieces of DTE equipment are to be linked together (perhaps two PCs), a
special cable or adapter is needed to compensate for both ends having identical serial port
connections. If a “straight” cable is used, then TD would link to TD, RD to RD, etc., and
no communication would be made.
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An adapter or cable that is ‘cross-wired’ to allow two DTE devices to communicate is
called a null modem adapter or cable. The figure below shows the wiring used for a
typical null-modem cable or adapter – note the cross-over of all data and handshake lines.

Null modem cable with full handshaking

Serial pin assignments:

25- 9-pin Signal Name ID Function/notes

pin Male directi
Male on
1 Shield

2 3 Transmitted Data Tx Data being sent from PC

3 2 Received Data Rx Data being sent to PC

4 7 Request To Send RTS PC is ready to send

‘other end’ is ready to

5 8 Clear To Send CTS
receive

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‘other end’ is ready to
6 6 Data set Ready DSR
receive

7 5 Signal Ground SG Sometimes called ‘GND’

Modem has detected a

8 1 Carrier Detect DCD
signal from another modem

Data Terminal
20 4 DTR PC is ready to send
Ready

22 9 Ring Indicator RI Modem detects line ringing

Serial Port Data

Connector: DB25M or DB9M

Use: Mouse, UPS monitoring, modem

Category: Input/Output port

Max speed (typ): 300bps –230Kbits/Sec (newer PC’s only)

KEYBOARD PORT
The original IBM PC uses a round 5-pin DIN connector for its keyboard, although still in
use today, the larger 5-pin DIN connector has largely
been superseded by the smaller 6-pin ‘mini-din’ plug
and socket introduced by IBM with their PS/2 range
of machines. The smaller plug is also known as a
‘PS/2 keyboard connector’ and the larger plug is now referred to as the ‘PC-XT’ or ‘PC-
AT keyboard connector’.

5-pin DIN and 6-pin mini-DIN (PS/2) keyboard sockets

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Electrically, the 5-pin and 6-pin keyboard connector interfaces are identical and a PS/2
keyboard can be fitted with an adapter to make it work in a 5-pin DIN connector (and
vice versa). Care should be taken when dealing with very old 86-key keyboards because
the first generation of IBM PC’s and compatibles, produced different keystroke data

codes. Plugging an old keyboard into a newer PC (102/105-key) will confuse the system
and probably cause a ‘keyboard error’ during POST.

5-pin DIN 6-pin mini-DIN

Bar code reading equipment can often be connected to the keyboard port and then the
keyboard plugs into a secondary port on the bar code reader module. This arrangement is
known as a Keyboard wedge.
Keyboard fuse
Some keyboard interfaces have a motherboard fuse in the 5v-power line to protect the
keyboard, motherboard and power supply from faults. This fuse may be in a socket or
soldered directly to the board – in which case replacement is a major job.

Keyboard port data

Use: Keyboard, bar code reading equipment (wedges)

Category: Input/Output port

Max speed (typ): N/A

Connectors: 5-pin DIN (‘PC-AT’) female or 6-pin mini-DIN female

(‘PS/2’)

Keyboard port wiring

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6-pin Mini-
Pin 5-pin DIN
DIN

1 Clock Data

2 Data No Connection

3 Reset Ground

4 Ground 5V

5 5V Clock

6 - NC

MOUSE PORT
IBM also introduced a built-in dedicated mouse port with their PS/2 range
of computers hence they are often known as PS/2 mouse ports. Prior to
this, all mice were connected to either a serial port or to a plug-in (‘bus
mouse’) card.

Although a mouse device will have one of these cable types, there are
mice that have internal circuitry that determines whether a serial port or dedicated PS/2
port is in use. These mice are purchased with a converter that allows connection into
either socket. Note that unless the documentation with a newly purchased mouse states
this capability, a mouse without this detection capability will not work with a converter
connector.

Some UPS monitoring system use the mouse port to signal the host server PC when there
is a power failure or when the UPS batteries are about to finally lose power. This
arrangement is not so common these days because some operating systems like Windows
NT server need the mouse port for a mouse.

Mouse port data

Use: Mouse, Trackball, UPS monitoring (not so common)

Category: Input

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Max speed (typ): N/A

Connector: 6-pin mini-DIN

6-pin mini-DIN

MONITOR PORTS
The two most common connectors used for monitors are the 9-pin ‘D’ connector (DB9F)
that is used for MDA, CGA, EGA and some VGA screens and the 15-pin ‘Hi-D’
connector used for most VGA and all SVGA displays. Note that not all pins are in place
within the molded plug, for example, pin 9 is always removed, often pins 15 and 5 are
also missing.

PC monitor sockets (DB9F and Hi-DF)

Both connectors are the same physical size but the Hi-D has 3 rows of pins rather than 2.
In order to fit the extra pins into the connector shell, each pin has been made thinner than
normal. If any pins get bent, stopping the plug from connecting correctly, then you could
try using thin nosed pliers or a small screwdriver to gently put the pin back into position.
If it breaks, then the cable will need to be cut to remove the damaged plug and replaced
with a new soldered snap connector. These cables are not easily repaired.

VGA-15
CGA VGA-9 VGA-15
MDA EGA VESA DDC

1 GND GND GND Red Red Video Red Video

Green Green
2 GND GND Red (2) Green Video
Video Video

3 NC Red Red (1) Blue Video Blue Video Blue Video

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4 NC Green Green (1) Sync (H) Monitor ID-2 Reserved

5 NC Blue Blue (1) Sync (V) GND GND

Green (2)
6 Intensity Intensity GND (Red) GND (Red) GND (Red)
Intensity

Mono
7 Reserved Blue (2) GND (Gm) GND (Gm) GND (Gm)
video

GND
8 Sync (H) Sync (H) Sync (H) GND (Blue) GND (Blue)
(Blue)

GND
9 Sync (V) Sync (V) Sync (V) Key (no pin) +5v DC
(Sync)

10 - - - - GND (Sync) GND (Sync)

Monitor ID-
11 - - - - Monitor ID-0
0

DDC Serial
12 - - - - Monitor ID-1
data

Sync (H) or Sync (H) or

13 - - - -
composite composite

14 - - - - Sync (V) Sync (V)

15 - - - - Monitor ID-3 DDC clock

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Monitor pin-outs
The original monitor standard (MDA, CGA and EGA) used digital signals to drive the
display but this only allowed for a limited number of colour combinations. From VGA
onwards, PC displays have used analogue signals, therefore it is not possible to interface
and older-style monitor with a newer adapter or vice versa.

The most recent VGA designs incorporated a serial data channel known as VESA DDC
(Display Data Channel), which allows DDC-compliant operating systems to
intercommunicate with the display for remote configuration, set-up and control of power-
saving features.

USB PORT (UNIVERSAL SERIAL BUS) AND HUBS

USB serial port interfaces are set to replace conventional
parallel and serial port peripheral support technologies by
providing a high speed data communication cable that can
be daisy chained between devices and special USB hubs.
Developed jointly by Compac, DEC, IBM, Intel,
Microsoft, NEC and Northern Telecom, the Universal
Serial Bus supports a wide range of desktop peripherals
from keyboards to digital cameras.

Not all PCs have USB ports, although they are now fitted to most ATX motherboards and
mid-to-upper-range notebook computers. The USB port is suitable for all but the most
data-intensive tasks, such as streaming video or high-speed CD-ROM devices. USB
devices are divided into two categories:
USB host The PC. Only one host is allowed per USB bus

USB device A hub or function:

A hub provides a connection point and power for multiple devices.

A function is any device (other than a hub) connected to the USB.

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The cable fitting is a simple 4 wire plug that snaps into a USB socket. Only a single bit
of data is sent at a time, but line speeds can be very high; between 1.5M bps and 12M
bps. Quality of the cable defines what line speed and cable length can be achieved, a
shielded high quality cable maximizes the cable length. Maximum length of USB cable
is 0.8m to 5m maximum with shielded cables.
Additional sockets provided on some devices; such as USB monitors and keyboards will
allow other peripherals to connect to the common USB serial bus. This should ultimately
reduce the existing cable need and tidy up the mass of cables currently required to
connect all resources to a computer. Also, as power can be supplied down the USB
cable, some USB devices will not require separate power leads.
Although it is possible to create a network of USB hubs that will provide 1024 ports, the
maximum number of devices supported on one USB root hub (the PC) is 127 and the
maximum number of tiers in the configuration is limited to 5 – that is, the data signal
from any device in the USB configuration can only pass through a maximum of 5
intermediate hubs on its way back to the host PC.

Possible USB configuration

Host

(Root Tier)

USB modem with built-

Tier 1 USB hub
in daisy chain port

Tier 2 USB hub

USB hub USB camera

Tier 3 USB hub

Tier 4 USB hub

Tier 5
USB hub USB joystick

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USB port data

Connectors: USB Type A and Type B plugs/socket

Type A connectors plug into hubs and always ‘point’ back

towards the root hub

Type B connectors plug into devices (functions) and always

‘point’ away from the root hub

Use: Almost any peripheral device

Category: Input

Max speed (typ): 1.5 or 12 Mbits/sec

Wiring: USB Type A USB Type B

Pin
Description

1 5V

2 Data +

3 Data -

4 Ground

IEEE 1394 (The Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers)

An international high-performance serial-bus standard that offers
the real-time data transfer of video, audio and peripheral

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applications through a universal I/O interface. With this technology, digital cameras,
CD-ROMs, printers, hard-disk drives and audio/stereo equipment can move data at high
speeds to desktops and portable computers through a single cable. Also known as
FireWire and iLink.
Originally designed by Apple in the late eighties, the concept behind the 1394 bus was to
develop a high speed serial bus that could provide higher data transfer rates yet remain
simple enough to be affordable. One of its key characteristics is that it can deliver
“Isochronous” data which means “guaranteed delivery” critical for audio/video data type.
You can mix 100, 200 and 400 Mbps devices on a single bus. The current 1394
specification aims to adopt a different coding and data transfer scheme that will scale to
800 Mbps, 1.6 Gbps and beyond. 1394 devices can be connected via branching or daisy-
chaining up to a maximum of 63 devices to a single 1394 port.
IEEE 1394 cable connectors are constructed with the
electrical contacts inside the structure of the connector
thus preventing any shock to the user or contamination to
the contacts by the user's hands. This small and flexible
connector is very durable and are easy to use even when the user must blindly insert them
into the back of PC. There are no terminators required, or manual IDs to be set.
IEEE 1394 uses a six-conductor cable (up to 4.5 metres
long) which contains two pairs of wires for data transport,
and one pair for device power. Each signal pair is
shielded and the entire cable is shielded. Cable power is
specified to be from 8Vdc to 40Vdc at up to 1.5 amps and
is used to maintain a device's physical layer continuity
when the device is powered down or malfunctioned - a unique and very important feature
for a serial topology - and provide power for devices connected to the bus. As the
standard evolves, new cable designs are expected to allow longer distances without
repeaters and with more bandwidth.

PCI IEEE 1394

adapter card

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EEE1394 bus can be implemented in a PC without the IEEE 1394 port by purchasing a
IEEE1394 Fire Wire adapter card.

SCSI PORTS
The SCSI (Small Computer Systems Interface) cabling system operates using a parallel
data stream together with hardware handshaking and control signals. It allows multiple
devices to be connected to one SCSI controller. Each device in a SCSI chain is attached
with a ribbon cable or an external SCSI cable.

The SCSI standard also defines a ‘command language’ that allows the SCSI controller to
identify which devices are connected to the bus and how they may be accessed.

The SCSI interface has two types of interface – internal and external:

Internal SCSI connectors

SCSI devices fixed inside a system unit will generally be connected together using either
a 50 or 68-way ribbon cable –depending upon whether they are SCSI or wide SCSI
devices. The internal 50-way SCSI connector is a standard 50-way IDC (Insulation
Displacement Connector) crimped onto a ribbon cable. Wide SCSI devices sometimes
use a 68-way Micro-Centronics type connector.
External SCSI connector

External SCSI devices can be connected back to the PC-based controller through a
variety of different types of connector – the most popular being: 25 pin D, 50 way micro
D and 50-way centronics connector.
Older SCSI system have also used a large 3-row, 50-pin ‘D’ connector. Wide SCSI
connectors are usually 68-pin ‘Micro-Centronics’ connectors.
NB: It is easy to get the 25-pin SCSI port mixed with the PC parallel port becaause they
use the same connector – always double-check before attaching any cables.
SE, HVD and LVD

These terms refer to the manner in which the SCSI interface places signals on the SCSI
cabling. The original SCSI specifications defined only the single ended (SE) interface.

Single Ended (SE)

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 SE interface drives each signal line against ground.
 Narrow (8-bit) SCSI has 18 signal lines plus a few others for term power and some
reserved pins.
 Signals are susceptible to noise
 Do not offer very long cable lengths.
1. Slow SCSI has a maximum recommended cable length of 6 meters (20 feet)
2. Fast SCSI is 3 meters (10 feet)
3. Ultra SCSI is only 1.5 meters (5 feet)

NB: This limitations led to the introduction of differential SCSI (now called HVD for
High Voltage Differential).

High Voltage Differential (HVD)

 HVD interface drives two lines for each SCSI signal, one line is the inverse of the
other line and the SCSI signal is the difference (hence, the term differential) between
these two lines.
 Signal is more robust and not as susceptible to noise as the SE interface.
 Offers SCSI cable lengths of 25 meters (82 feet) regardless of the speed of the bus.
 HVD interface is more expensive than the SE interface
 Maximum data throughput of the SE and HVD interface:
1. Ultra SCSI (also called Fast-20) offering 20 Mbytes/sec throughput for narrow
SCSI.
2. 40 Mbytes/sec throughput for wide SCSI.

NB: The HVD interface is more expensive than the SE interface.

Low Voltage Differential (LVD)

 LVD uses 3.3 volt range logic enabling faster signal change as opposed to HVD 5v
range.
 Signal is more robust and not as susceptible to noise as the SE interface.
 Enabled the use of longer cable lengths that differential signals offer.

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 Lower voltage and lower current requirements of LVD SCSI drivers means lower
heat dissipation hence increased reliability.
 LVD SCSI is not compatible with the signal levels of previous forms of SCSI.
 Made compatible to SE by incorporating a "multimode" (called LVD/MSE in the
SCSI specs for Multimode Single Ended) which is an LVD interface that switches
from LVD to SE when it is connected to a SE bus.
Points to note:

 SCSI system use a parallel data path, hence they can also suffer from data skew. This
limits cable length to 3m for fast SCSI, 6m for standard SCSI or 20m for differential
SCSI.
 Differential SCSI uses two signal paths for each data line and the method by which
data is transmitted makes it much less susceptible to corruption. Differential and
single-ended (standard) SCSI devices cannot be mixed on the same SCSI bus. Both
types require different terminators to work properly.
 Although both ends of the SCSI bus need to be terminated, most modern SCSI
controllers support ‘active termination’ – the controller can sense when it is at the end
of the bus and will automatically activate its terminations. When an external device is
attached, the controller disables its terminators and the external unit at the end of the
bus takes over this function.

INFRARED PORTS
Wireless communication with portable computers is available using Infra Red (IR)
communication. A standard established by the Infra Red Device Association (IrDA)
allows cabling needs for portables to be reduced. Many supplied portables have built in
IrDA ports that can be used for communicating with desktops and printers. Note that
desktop and printer equipment require an IR module with cable to an IR transceiver in
order to work.
Portables may have one parallel and up to two serial communication ports integrated in to
their structure, or if they are notebook or smaller then it is likely that these are provided
either on a docking station or port replicator. But, these ports and their associated device
driver software are not very flexible or extendable for additional peripheral use.

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The IrDA (Infra red Devices Association) has released a series of specification relating to
IR ports, offering speeds of between 9600bits/sec and 4Mbits/sec.

OTHER PORTS
A number of other peripheral connections may be found on modern PCs, including:

Audio Ports

Many PC’s are now supplied with multimedia capabilities. Multimedia specs will
support the following connections:

Audio out

Audio out is supposed to be a low-level (1v) signal for feeding into an

amplifier, it does not have enough power to drive speakers directly unless
they have built in amplifiers.

Audio In

Audio in is a low-level (1v) signal – as supplied by most tape decks, video

players, turners, CD players, etc. It is the signal normally sent to a hi-fi
amplifier via phono connectors.

Speaker out

This is an output connector for external speakers. Some PC sound systems

include the speaker amplifier internally in which case a pair of passive
speakers will work correctly from this interface. If the sound system has
no internal amplifier, ‘active’ or ‘powered’ speakers must be used.

Microphone Input

This is generally a mono-only input. Most microphone ports will support a

low-cost, moving coil microphone with an input resistance (impedance) of
600-2,000 ohms or high-resistance condenser microphone – but always check if planning
to use the latter.

Headphones/speakers

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Generally used for headphones or for feeding into active speakers.

NB: Most audio connectors are 3.5mm mono or stereo jack sockets.
Joystick/Midi ports
Many sound cards and built in multimedia system include a joystick/midi port. The port
uses a 15-pin female (DB15F) connector and should not be confused with the AUI
(Attachment Unit Interface) port on a Network card. The AUI port will normally have a
slide-lock connector rather than the two – axis (X and Y) analogue devices rather than the
simple switch-type units with many games consoles and home computer and so the two
types are not interchangeable.

THE MOTHERBOARD
The main printed circuit board in a computer is known as the Motherboard. It is also
known as System Board, Main Board or Printed Wired Board (PWB).
It holds the processor, memory and expansion slots and connects directly or indirectly to
every part of the PC.
The type of motherboard installed in a PC has a great effect on system speed and
expansion capabilities.

MOTHERBOARD COMPONENTS
The motherboard holds all the major logic components of the PC. These components
include:
 The CPU
 Main Memory (RAM)
 Math Co-Processor
 BIOS
 CMOS memory
 CMOS Battery
 Level 2 cache RAM
 CPU Clock
 Expansion Bus
 Chipset
 Parallel printer port
 Serial ports

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 Keyboard interface
 Floppy disk controller
 Hard disk controllers

The main memory, serial and parallel ports, keyboard connectors and the disk
controllers may be found on expansion cards in older systems.

Some other motherboards may have added functionality including sound/multimedia, a

SCSI controller, a network controller or USB ports.

CPU- Central Processing Unit

It is also known as the microprocessor. It is the ‘brain’ of the computer, and it executes
program instructions as well as performing mathematical and logical calculations.

The processor chip is identified by the processor type and the manufacturer; and this
information is usually inscribed on the processor chip e.g. Intel 386, Advanced Micro
Devices (AMD) 386, Cyrix 486.
If the processor chip is not on the motherboard, you can identify the processor socket as
Socket 1 to Socket 8. This can help you identify the processor that fits in the socket. For
example a 486DX processor fits into Socket 3.
Math Co-processor
Math co-processors are microprocessors that are optimized to execute complex
mathematical calculations e.g. irrational numbers and arrays.
The 486DX processor was the first processor to include an in-built math co-processor.
BIOS- Basic Input Output System
All motherboards include a small block of Read Only Memory (ROM) which is separate
from the main system memory used for loading and running software. The ROM
contains the PC’s Basic Input/Output System (BIOS).
This means that the code and data in the ROM BIOS need not be reloaded each time the
computer is started, and they cannot be corrupted by wayward applications that write into
the wrong part of memory.

The BIOS performs the following routines and functions:

1. As soon as the machine is powered on, it inspects the computer to determine what
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hardware is fitted and then conducts some simple tests to check that everything is
functioning normally - a process called the power-on self test (POST).
2. If any of the peripherals are plug and play devices, the BIOS recognizes them and
assigns their resources.
3. Allows the PC’s set-up configuration to be viewed and edited. A user can choose
an option to enter the Setup program and from there be able to view or edit the
PCs hardware configurations.
If all the tests are passed, the ROM tries to boot (start) the machine from the hard disk.
Failing that, it will try the CD-ROM drive, then the floppy drive, finally displaying a
message that it needs a system disk.

Like the processor it can be identified by:

 The name BIOS printed on the chip.
 Manufacturer name e.g. AMI, Phoenix etc on the chip.

Note: BIOS code is manufacturer-specific, therefore BIOS chips cannot be exchanged

between different motherboards.

CMOS- Complimentary Metal Oxide Semiconductor

Motherboards also include a small separate block of memory made from CMOS RAM
chips, which is kept ‘alive’ by a battery (known as a CMOS battery) even when the PC’s
power is off. This prevents reconfiguration when the PC is powered on.

CMOS devices require very little power to operate.

The CMOS is used to store basic information about the PC’s configuration: number and
type of hard and floppy drives, how much memory, what kind and so on.

The other important data kept in CMOS memory is the time and date, which is updated
by a Real Time Clock (RTC).

NB: The clock (RTC), CMOS RAM and battery are usually all integrated into a single
chip. If the CMOS battery fails, all the CMOS configurations are lost.

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Cache Memory
A small block of high-speed memory (RAM) that enhances PC performance by pre-
loading information from the (relatively slow) main memory and passing it to the
processor on demand.
Most CPUs have an internal cache (in-built in the processor) which is referred to as
Level-1 Cache memory or primary cache.
This can be supplemented by external cache memory fitted on the motherboard. This is
Level-2 Cache memory or secondary cache. Even though Level-2 cache is optional, it
results in a major improvement in performance.

Expansion Buses
Buses carry signals, such as data, memory addresses, power and control signals from
component to component.
The different types of buses include PCI, ISA, EISA, I/O bus.
Chipset
A chipset is a group of small circuits that coordinate the flow of data to and from key
components of a PC. This includes the CPU itself, the main memory, the secondary
cache and any devices situated on the buses. The chipset also controls data flow to and
from hard disks, and other devices connected to the IDE channels.

Chipset manufacturers include SIS, VIA and Opti, but Intel’s ‘Triton’ chipsets are by far
the most popular.

CPU Clock
The clock synchronizes the operation of all parts of the PC and provides the basic timing
signal for the CPU.

Switches and Jumpers

DIP (Dual In-line Package) switches are small switches found on the circuit board that
can be turned on or off just like a normal switch. They are very small and so are usually
flipped with a pointed object such as a screwdriver, bent paper clip or pen top. Care
should be taken when cleaning near DIP switches as some solvents may destroy them.

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Jumpers are small pins on the board with plastic or metal devices that go over the pins.
This device is called a bridge. When the bridge is connected to any two pins via a
shorting link, it completes the circuit and a certain configuration has been achieved.
Both DIP switches and jumpers store configuration settings of a specific component e.g.
CMOS. In case you forget your power-on password you need to short the CMOS jumper
to erase the password.
Most jumper settings and DIP switches are done manually.

Main Memory (RAM)

Random Access Memory is the working space for all programs and data.

Most modern PCs have at least 16MB RAM and other computers now have 64 MB
upwards.
Most PC memory is socketed to make it easily upgradeable although on some
motherboards you will find some RAM fixed directly on to the board.

Memory is packaged in the form of SIMM (Single Inline Memory Module) or DIMM
(Dual Inline Memory Module) modules.

MOTHERBOARD FORM FACTORS

The Form Factor of the motherboard describes its shape, physical layout and the type of
case and power supply that can be used. For example, a company can make two
motherboards that have the same functionality but use a different form factor. The only
major difference will be the layout of the components on the motherboard.
The most common form factors found in modern PCs are:
 AT and Baby AT
 ATX and Mini ATX
 LPX and Mini LPX
 NLX

Match to Case and

Style Width Depth Where Found
Power Supply
Full AT 12” 11-13” Very old PCs Full AT, Full Tower
All but Slimline,
Baby AT 8.5” 10-13” Older PCs
ATX

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ATX 12” 9.6” Newer PCs ATX
Mini ATX 11.2” 8.2” Older retail PCs ATX
LPX 9” 11-13” Slimline

AT and Baby AT
The AT and Baby AT motherboards were the most common form factor of 1980 and
early 90’s. The difference between the two is primarily width; the Full AT board is 12”
wide and therefore will not fit into the mini-desktop or mini-tower cases.
Baby AT motherboards can be recognized by their shape
and the presence of a single full-size keyboard connector
soldered on the board.

Older AT and baby AT boards locate the processor

socket and the memory sockets at the front of the
motherboard.
The Baby AT motherboard is only 8.5” wide and the
reduced width means much less overlap with the drive
bays (although there is usually still some overlap at the
front of the case).
With the BAT design the processor socket is located at the front of the motherboard, and
full-length expansion cards are intended to extend over it. This means that removing the
processor requires the removal of some or all expansion cards first.
Advantages of the Baby AT design

1. The size of 8.5” by 10” makes it easier to design smaller desktop PCs, although the
board can be used in tower PCs and server etc.
2. Most of the board is easily accessible for upgrades and expansion etc.
With the full size boards, some connectors and components could be hidden beneath the
PC power supply and hard/floppy disk drive bays.
Disadvantages of the Baby AT design

1. CPU location- with the processor and heat sink in place, it is difficult to fit a long

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expansion card into one of the expansion slots. This is the main problem encountered
with the AT-style motherboard- the CPU can get in the way of the expansion cards.
2. Motherboard mounting-some system cases are not drilled or punched to support all
the mounting holes on a Baby AT motherboard. Therefore, the front edge of the
system board tends to be left unsupported and over time this edge can warp (bend),
leading to loose components and expansion cards causing intermittent problems. One
would have to use some self-adhesive mounts to support the front edge under the
circumstances.

ATX and Mini ATX

In 1997, Intel introduced a new motherboard form

factor called the ATX. Combining build and
component qualities from the Baby-AT with new
board design features, this motherboard is the basis
for the current most popular standard.

The ATX specification allows PC manufacturers to

build products more cheaply, improve ease of use
and serviceability and incorporate new I/O features.
The ATX design is based around a small AT style
motherboard rotated through 90 degrees within the case and given a new mounting
configuration for
the power supply. The processor is relocated away from the expansion slots, allowing
each of them to hold full-length cards.
Key features of the ATX specification include:

 Processor located away from expansion slots to allow full-length boards to be

installed.
 On-board PS/2 mouse connector
 Hard and floppy drive connectors moved to the front of the board to reduce cable
length and consequently cost.
 New power supply design with improved cooling and lower noise.
 ‘Soft power’ switch- power supply can be switched off/on under motherboard or
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software control by using low-voltage switches on the system case.
 Power supply fan relocated to side of unit so that it provides cooling airflow across
the processor and expansion boards.
 Integrated I/O port connectors
 3.3V power support.
The ATX specification was slowly adopted by a large number of manufacturers and most
new PCs sold today have the ATX-style cases and motherboards.

Note: ATX motherboards will not fit into AT-style cases (and vice versa).

The ATX form factor was the precursor of the LPX, NLX and MicroATX and designs.

MicroATX

The microATX specification was designed by Intel in 1997 and further improves the
original ATX motherboard design.

It can be mounted in a number of ways, and this

means that it can be used for both ATX and NLX
(low-profile) designs.
It is also designed for use with the modern, low
voltage CPUs.
The maximum size of the board is 9.6” square, and
can fit into a standard ATX case or one of the new
micro-tower desktop designs.

However, there is only provision for up to four

expansion slots as opposed to the seven that ATX allows. The MicroATX
also allows use of a smaller power supply, both size and power output.

LPX and Mini LPX

The LPX motherboard form factor is used in the small slimline or low profile cases. The
most distinguishing feature of this design is the ‘riser card’ that is used to hold expansion

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slots. This allows cards to be mounted horizontally. However, this arrangement can make
it difficult to remove the motherboard.

Again, the internal layout of the LPX makes access much more difficult so installing
more memory for example can be difficult resulting in limited expansion capacity and
difficult upgrades.

The riser card also prevents good airflow within the system case and so LPX systems
tend to suffer from cooling problems additional fans are almost always needed.
A major difference with these motherboards is that PC expansion cards cannot be
installed vertically because of the limited computer casing height.
NLX
Intel's NLX design, introduced in 1997, is an improvement on the LPX design. The NLX
format uses the same general design but with a smaller motherboard.

It seeks to overcome some of the LPX designs’ heat and space problems by moving the

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riser card to the edge of the board.

Characteristics of the NLX include:

 Support for larger memory modules and modern DIMM memory packaging.
 Support for the newest processor technologies, including the new Pentium II.
 Support for AGP video cards.
 Improved airflow design.
 More optimal location of CPU on the motherboard i.e. the riser card is mounted at the
edge of the motherboard.
 The motherboard is mounted on rails allowing for simple removal i.e. it can easily
slide in or out of the system case. All expansion slots, power cables and connectors
are attached to the riser card instead of the motherboard itself.
 Support for desktop and tower cases.

Diagram showing the components of the Baby AT motherboard:

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Notice the Socket 7 processor connector, which is prevalent in BAT
motherboards.

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Diagram showing the components on the ATX motherboard:

On the ATX motherboard, notice the Pentium II Slot 1 type processor connector.

Multi Processor Support

In order to improve performance some motherboards are capable of supporting more than
one processor. These are generally more expensive and they are only used in very high-
end workstations or in network file servers where processing speed is essential.
Whilst some highly specialist motherboards can support 4, 8 or even 16 processors the
most common type is the Dual processor motherboard.
Apart from the additional processor socket and some extra control circuitry these dual
processor motherboards are basically the same as single processor designs. Some
motherboard designs allow you to run the system with a single processor initially and
then upgrade by adding an extra processor when demand requires the additional
performance.

One important factor to bear in mind when it comes to dual and multi processor
motherboard systems is that in order to take advantage of any additional processors the
appropriate operating system must be used. Most early operating systems, such as, MS-
DOS, Windows 3.x, and Windows 9x can only recognize and use a single processor.
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However, both Windows NT and Windows 2000 are capable of recognizing more than
one processor fitted in a system and will automatically make use of the additional
processing capabilities.
Windows NT and Windows 2000 use a system known as Symmetrical Multi Processing
(SMP) which not only allows multiple processors to share the same memory but will
balance the load between them so that they each share the operations often demanded in
processor intensive applications.

BUS ARCHITECTURE

PCs comprise many internal components and in order for these components to
communicate with each other a ‘bus’ is used.

A bus is a common pathway through which information is connected from one

component to another. This pathway is used for communication and can be established
between two or more computer elements.

The functions of buses can be summarized as below:

FUNCTIONS OF BUSES

1. Data sharing- the expansion bus must be able to transfer data between the computer
and the peripherals connected to it.
The data is transferred in parallel, which allows the exchange of 1,2,4 or even 8 bytes
of data at a time. (A byte is a group of bits used to represent a character, normally 8
bits.)

Buses are classified on how many bits they can move at the same time, which means
that we have 8-bit, 16-bit or even 32-bit buses.

2. Addressing- A bus has address lines, which match those of the processor. This
allows data to be sent to or from specific memory locations.
3. Power- A bus supplies power to various peripherals that are connected to it. This is
unlike a disk drive that needs to be connected to the Power Supply unit.
Older motherboards provide 3v to 12v power supplies.

4. Timing- The bus provides a system clock signal to synchronize the peripherals

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attached to it with the rest of the system.
Buses connect all the PC's internal components and external devices and peripherals to its
CPU and main memory (RAM).

The fastest bus of all is the connection between the processor and its primary cache, and
this is kept within the CPU chip. The next level down is the system bus, which links the
processor with memory. The system bus is 64 bits wide and, for Intel-based designs, ran
at 66MHz. In 1998, a new Pentium II chipset raised this to 100MHz. The CPU doesn’t
communicate directly with the memory, but through the intermediary of the System
Controller chip, which manages the host bus and bridges between it and, in modern PCs,
the PCI bus.

Processors using a Dual Independent Bus (DIB) architecture - present on Intel designs
from the Pentium II onwards - have replaced the single system bus with two independent
buses, one for accessing main memory and the other for accessing the Level 2 cache.
These are referred to as the frontside bus and the backside bus respectively.

The expansion bus facilitated the easy connection of additional components and devices.

Bus Terminology

A modern-day system can be viewed as comprising just two types of bus:

1. A System Bus, connecting the CPU to main memory and Level 2 cache. The system
bus is often referred to as the 'main bus', 'processor bus' or 'local bus'.
2. A number of I/O Buses, connecting various peripheral devices to the CPU -these are
connected to the system bus via a 'bridge', implemented in the processor's chipset.
Other names for the I/O bus includes 'expansion bus', 'external bus', or 'host bus'.

In Dual Independent Bus (DIB) architecture systems the single system bus is replaced by
a 'frontside bus' for shuttling data between the CPU and main memory, and between the

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CPU and peripheral buses and a 'backside bus' for accessing Level 2 cache. The use of
dual independent buses boosts performance, enabling the CPU to access data from either
of its buses simultaneously and in parallel.

A system can use a number of different I/O bus systems e.g. the ISA, PCI or USB bus.

Because support engineers frequently deal with the I/O or Expansion bus, it is the main
focus of discussion in this chapter.
EXPANSION BUS TYPES
The common expansion bus types include:

 ISA Industry Standard Architecture

 EISA Extended Industry Standard Architecture
 MCA Micro Channel Architecture

 VESA Video Electronics Standards Association

 PCI Peripheral Component Interconnect

 PCMCIA Personal Computer Memory Card Industry Association
Also called PC bus.

 AGP Accelerated Graphics Port

 SCSI Small Computer Systems Interface

ISA Bus

This is the most common type of early expansion bus, which was designed for use in the
original IBM PC.
The IBM PC-XT used an 8-bit bus design. This means that the data transfers take place in
8-bit chunks (i.e. one byte at a time) across the bus. The ISA bus ran at a clock speed of
8MHz.

For the 80286-based IBM PC-AT, an improved bus design, which could transfer 16-bits
of data at a time, was announced. The 16-bit version of the ISA bus is sometimes known
as the AT bus. (AT- Advanced Technology)

The improved AT bus also provided a total of 24 address lines, which allowed 16MB of
memory to be addressed.
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The AT bus was backward compatible with its 8-bit predecessor and allowed 8-bit cards
to be used in 16-bit expansion slots.

When it first appeared the 8-bit ISA bus ran at a modest 4.77MHz - the same speed as the
processor. It was improved over the years and eventually the AT bus ran at a clock speed
of 8MHz.

8-bit ISA card (XT-Bus) AT-bus card

- 8-bit data interface - 16-bit data interface

- 8 MHz bus - 8 MHz bus

- 62-pin connector - 62-pin connector

- 36-pin AT extension connector

XT-Bus card

-62 pin connector

- (2 x 31 pins, rows A & B)

AT-Bus card

- 62 pin connector

- 36-pin extension connector

Both the 16-bit and 8-bit expansion slots are referred to as Industry Standard Architecture
(ISA).
The ISA expansion bus is popular and is still in wide use today because it represents a
well-defined standard and there is a wide range of ISA compatible cards available.
Many modern PCs still provide an ISA slot, which is capable of using this type of card.

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After the IEEE standardized the Plug and Play (PnP) specifications in 1993, some ISA
cards and ISA buses that support plug and play became available in the market.

The PnP system allows devices to automatically configures themselves automatically.

However because of the speed limitations, many alternative designs have been developed
and it looks highly unlikely that the ISA bus will survive in the market for long.

MCA

This card was developed by IBM as a replacement for ISA when they designed the PS/2
PC which was launched in 1987.

The bus offered a number of technical improvements over the ISA bus. For instance, the
MCA runs at a faster speed of 10MHz and can support either 16-bit or 32-bit data. It also
supports bus mastering.
One advantage of MCA was that the plug-in cards were software configurable i.e. they
required minimal intervention by the user when configuring. When a new expansion
card was fitted and the PC powered up, it prompted the user to insert the machines
reference diskette and the machine then automatically configured the new card’s
resources and other parameters.

The MCA card

The MCA expansion bus did not support ISA cards and IBM decided to charge other
manufacturers royalties for use of the technology. This made it unpopular and it is now
difficult to find expansion cards for PCs with this bus.
EISA

EISA – Extended Industry Standard Architecture was developed by a group of

manufacturers as an alternative to MCA.

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This was designed to use a 32-bit data path and provided 32 address lines giving access
to 4GB of memory.
Like the MCA, EISA offered a disk-based setup for the cards, but it still ran at 8MHz in
order for it to be compatible with ISA.
The EISA expansion slots are twice as deep as an ISA slot. If an ISA card is placed in an
EISA slot it will use only the top row of connectors, whereas a full EISA card uses both
rows.
EISA provided much better performance than the ISA equivalent. Apart from being able
to transfer 4 bytes of data simultaneously, it offers bus mastering; a technology that
placed a mini-processor on each expansion card. These mini-processors controlled much
of the data transfer allowing the CPU to perform other tasks.

EISA-Bus card

- Dual row contacts

- Top row: AT bus compatible
- Bottom row: EISA extensions

Slot Specific Configuration

Unlike most other buses, both MCA and EISA had slot-specific configuration, which
meant that removing an expansion card and then refitting it into a different slot would
require the entire system to be re auto-configured.

This was reasonable straightforward provided that the MCA reference diskette or EISA
setup utility was readily available.

When working on an MCA or EISA machine, make sure the configuration disks are
available, and take care no to disturb the setup more than necessary.

Always replace expansion cards back in the same slots.

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Features of the EISA- Bus Card

32-bit interface

Dual-row contacts

Top row: AT bus compatible

Bottom row: EISA extensions

EISA cards are relatively expensive and are normally found in high-end workstations and
network servers (a powerful machine providing resources for network users).

Note: You can slot an ISA card into an EISA slot, but you cannot slot an EISA card into
an ISA slot i.e. EISA slots are backward compatible.

VESA Bus

Also known as the Local bus or the VESA-Local bus.

VESA (Video Electronics Standards Association) was invented to solve the problem of
proprietary technology where different manufacturers were attempting to develop their
own buses, which could provide enhanced video performance on PCs.

The VL Bus provides a 32-bit data path and can run at 25 or 33 MHz. It ran at the same
clock frequency as the host CPU. But this became a problem as processor speeds
increased because, the faster the peripherals are required to run, the more expensive they
are to manufacture.

It was difficult to implement the VL-Bus on newer chips such as the 486s and the new
Pentiums and so eventually the VL-Bus was superseded by PCI.

Since it was initially developed to improve the performance of graphics cards, it is

typically used for video adapter cards. It is also used for disk controllers, network and
SCSI controller cards.

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VESA slots have extra set of connectors and therefore the cards are larger. The VESA
design was backward compatible with the older ISA cards.

VESA Local Bus card

Though it proved fairly popular amongst PC games players it was superseded by PCI.

Features of the VESA Local Bus Card

32-bit interface

62/36-pin connector

90+20 pin VESA local bus extension at rear of

card

PCI

Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI) is one of the latest developments in bus

architecture and is the current standard for PC expansion cards. PCI brings about a
change in the design of the bus and its communication with the processor bus.

It was developed by Intel and launched as the expansion bus for the Pentium processor. It
is a local bus like VESA i.e. it connects the CPU, memory and peripherals to a wider,
faster data pathway.
PCI supports both 32-bit and 64-bit data width, therefore it is compatible with 486s and

PCI card

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Pentiums. The bus data width is equal to the processor, for example, a 32 bit processor
would have a 32 bit PCI bus, and operates at 33MHz.

PCI was used in developing Plug and Play (PnP) and all PCI cards support PnP i.e. the
user can plug a new card into the computer, power it on and it will “self identify” and
“self specify”, and start working without manual configuration using jumpers.

Unlike VESA, PCI supports bus mastering i.e. the bus has some processing capability
and therefore the CPU spends less time processing data.
Most PCI cards are designed for 5v, but there are also 3v and dual-voltage cards. Keying
slots are used to differentiate 3v and 5v cards and slots to ensure that a 3v card is not

The PCI mounting bracket

opposite side of the card
compared to XT/AT/VESA

AT PCI
slotted into a 5v socket and vice versa.

Most systems purchased today still support a number of ISA slots alongside PCI card
slots even though EISA and VESA cards cannot use PCI slots.

Legacy cards can therefore be supported as normal with high-speed cards; such as video,
multimedia cards and network, in PCI slots.

AGP

The need for high quality and very fast performance of video on computers led to the
development of the Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP).

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The AGP Port is connected to the CPU and operates at the speed of the processor bus.
This means that video information can be sent more quickly to the card for processing.

The AGP uses the main PC memory to hold 3D images. In effect, this gives the AGP
video card an unlimited amount of video memory. To speed up the data transfer, Intel
designed the port as a direct path to the PC’s main memory.

Data transfer rate ranges from 264 Mbps to 528mbps, 800 Mbps upto 1.5 Gbps.

PCMCIA (PC Card)

The Personal Computer Memory Card Industry Association was founded to provide a
standard bus for laptop computers.

The standard was initially developed for memory cards only i.e. Type 1. It was later
extended to cover other types of expansion cards like modems and network cards (Type
II).

There are upto 5 different card types and all of them use the 68-pin connector. The only
major difference between connectors is the thickness of the card that can be supported.

PC Card types and card thickness

PC Card type Max. card Intended main use

thickness
I 3.3mm Memory cards
II 5.0mm Modems, network cards, SCSI
III 10.5mm Hard disks
IV 16mm Hard disks and other devices
needing wider slots
V 18mm Wireless LAN cards

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All PC card slots are backward compatible i.e. Type III slot can take a Type I and Type II
card i.e. thinner cards can be used in thicker slots, but not the other way round.

Most laptops also offer multi-purpose slots, for example, one Type III slot that will either
take one Type III card or two Type II cards or three Type I cards.

These slots exist in 5v and 3.3v card types.

‘Keying slots’ prevent a user from plugging a 5v
card into a 3.3v socket.

PC cards use pieces of software called socket

services and card services. Socket services are like
device drivers and handle the interaction between
the PC and the card.

Card services handle higher level functions and control transfer of information from card
memory and the CPU.

PC cards supports Plug and Play as well as ‘hot swapping’. Hot swapping is the ability to
connect or disconnect peripherals without turning off your PC.

However, they do not support bus mastering.

SCSI

SCSI stands for Small Computer Systems Interface. It is a standard for connecting
peripheral devices such as hard disks, CD-ROM drives, tape drives and scanners to your
computer via a standard hardware interface, which uses standard SCSI commands.

It provides a complete expansion bus into which peripherals may be added.

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Apple Mackintosh computers usually come with a SCSI port for attaching devices such
as disk drives and printers. PCs generally require the addition of a SCSI interface card
called a Host Adapter, which can be of PCI or ISA design. The host adapter may also be
integrated in the motherboard.

SCSI functions like a sub-bus and SCSI devices are able to exchange data amongst
themselves without any need for the interaction with the processor.

SCSI devices are also able to transfer data amongst themselves whilst data is being
transferred across the main expansion bus.

There are 3 SCSI standards i.e. SCSI-1, SCSI-2 and SCSI-3, which is still under
development.

Note: You can only connect SCSI devices on a SCSI host adapter or SCSI port.

SCSI-1

SCSI-1 is sometimes referred to as original SCSI. It is basically described as an 8-bit bus

with 5 MB/s data transfer rate i.e. it has a speed of 5 MHz.
The original SCSI-1 standard is now obsolete and references to 'SCSI' generally refer to
the 'SCSI-2' classification.

SCSI-2

This was an enhancement of the original standard. It is backward compatible with SCSI-
1 and adds the following new features:

Fast SCSI:

Doubles the original speed to 10 MHz from 5 MHz with 8-bit regular SCSI cabling.

Wide SCSI:

It widens the original 8-bit bus to 16 bit or 32 bit.

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More devices per bus:

It offers more devices per bus. SCSI-2 supports 16 devices unlike 8 devices for regular
SCSI.

Improved cables and connectors:

Large number of different cables and connectors are available for SCSI-2. SCSI-2 also
defines new higher density connectors.

Active termination:

Termination is an important aspect in setting up a SCSI bus. SCSI-2 offers active

termination, which provides more reliable termination of the SCSI bus.

Command queuing:

Allows multiple outstanding requests between devices of the bus, simultaneously.

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Backward compatibility:

Provides backward compatibility with older SCSI-1 devices, but the older devices have
no ability to support the SCSI-2 and faster transfer protocols.

SCSI-3

A number of different new features, which are not yet finalized, are hereby presented as
being part of SCSI. SCSI-3 includes all the features of SCSI-2.

Ultra SCSI:

Has a data transfer rate of 20 Mbps at a speed of 20 MHz with 8-bit SCSI, or more with
Wide SCSI.

Improved cabling:

Cables were further improved for the use of Wide SCSI, which runs at the speed of 40
MHz.

Serial SCSI or FireWire:

This is a protocol standard that describes the new Serial SCSI called Firewire (IEEE
1394).

Summary of SCSI types:

Interface Standard Bus speed Bus width Transfer No of

protocol (MHz) (bits) rate devices

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(Mbps) per bus

Regular SCSI SCSI-1 5 8 5 8

Wide SCSI SCSI-2 5 16 10 16

Fast SCSI SCSI-2 10 8 10 8

Fast wide SCSI SCSI-2 10 16 20 16

Setting up a SCSI Bus

When you connect SCSI devices to the host adapter card, you create a SCSI Bus, which
is the electronic pathway between the host adapter and the SCSI devices. Data from your
SCSI devices travels through this pathway to the host adapter card, and then to your
computer’s processor. The SCSI bus includes both internal and external devices.

The first step in adding a SCSI bus to a PC is to install the host adapter card. This process
is usually detailed in the documentation that comes with the computer, and may include
among other instructions switching off the computer; removing the power cable and the
casing etc.

The next step involves connecting one or more SCSI devices to the host adapter card e.g.
tape drive, CD-ROM drive etc.

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When you set up SCSI devices to your computer, you don’t connect them all directly to
the host adapter. External devices are daisy-chained together (connected to each other in
a series). This is done via special cables that come with the external SCSI device.

Internal devices are connected to a ribbon cable, which is then connected to the host
adapter. The ribbon cable has some connectors on it for the internal devices.

Example of a SCSI bus:

SCSI ID’s

Terminate
Do not terminate Terminate
this device these devices
this device

Terminating SCSI Devices

Each SCSI bus must be correctly terminated for it to work. Terminators must be installed,
or enabled, on the devices at each end of the SCSI bus.
Only SCSI-1devices require manual termination, SCSI-2 and SCSI-3 are self-terminated.

Setting SCSI IDs

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Each device on a SCSI bus must have a unique ID. This is an identifying label (a number
from 0 to 7) assigned to each device on the SCSI bus including the SCSI host adapter
itself.

SCSI IDs must be unique for every device on the SCSI bus. The host adapter is usually
assigned ID 7 and the bootable disk (in most cases the hard disk) is assigned ID 0.

Setting IDs may involve setting jumpers or switches for devices such as the hard drive
and either physical or software setup for host adapters.

Many external devices have a simple mechanism on the outside for setting the ID number
e.g. a dial or window displaying the number with buttons to change it.

For example:

Jumper A2 A1 A0 A2 A1 A0

Represents 4 2 1 4 2 1

Setting ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF

Binary equivalent 1 0 1 0 1 0

=5 =2

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SCSI devices require ID numbers for:
 Unique identification- each device must be uniquely identified when using the SCSI
bus or when another device is sending a command.
 Setting priority- The SCSI device sets priority when two or more devices are trying
to use the SCSI bus at the same time- the highest ID has more priority, and that is
why the host adapter has ID 7.

SCSI Configured AutoMatically (SCAM)

This is also known as Plug and Play SCSI.

This seeks to automate assigning of device IDs and it allows the SCSI bus to dynamically
shift and reallocate IDs when a new device is added to the bus. It also called Plug and
Play SCSI (PnP).

It also allows for automatic or simplification of termination hence SCSI-II and SCSI-III
are terminated automatically.

Note: All SCSI devices support Plug and Play.

SCSI Drivers

For a SCSI device to be used it is necessary to have a driver that interfaces it to the bus.
Hard disk drives normally do not require this because they are normally enabled directly
by the BIOS on the Host Adapter ROM chip. To help make the situation with drivers
standardized, Adaptec (one of the biggest manufacturers of SCSI host adapters)
developed the Advanced SCSI Programming Interface or ASPI.

ASPI specifies how an application program can communicate with a SCSI device through
a common SCSI device driver. ASPI provides a set of functions that are common to any
SCSI device.

Most popular operating systems use the ASPI standard. For MS-DOS the ASPI driver has
to be loaded via the CONFIG.SYS file, whilst Windows 9x has ASPI support built in.
The ASPI driver is the program that actually interacts with the SCSI device.

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These drivers are copied to the hard disk with the set-up program supplied with the SCSI
adapter. The set-up program will install utilities in both DOS and Windows format as
well as the necessary drivers.

Some common ASPI drivers include:

ASPIxDOS.SYS Host Adapter

ASPIDISK.SYS Hard Disk Drive

ASPICD.SYS CD-ROM

SJIIX.SYS HP Scanjet scanners

USB - Universal Serial Bus

Allows connection of upto 127 devices using a single standard connector.

It features hot insertion and hot removal i.e. a user can add or remove peripherals
anytime without shutting down the system.

USB also supplies the devices with power.

(Read more on this on the chapter on ‘Ports’).

IEEE 1394

It is an IEEE standard for serial bus similar to USB. It is also known as 1394 Firewire.

It offers data transfer rate of upto 400 Mbps hence making it suitable for digital cameras,
satellite receiver’s, videos etc.

This bus can connect upto 63 ‘daisy-chained’ devices.

Very few devices that can support this standard are available.

Interfaces Summary

The following table summarizes the various interface standards for internal peripheral
devices, in use as at mid-1998.

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Burst Data
Std. Typical uses Outlook
Transfer Rate

Expected to be phased out by late

ISA Sound cards, modems 2 - 8.33 MBps 1999

Almost entirely phased out;

EIS
Network, SCSI adapters 33 MBps superseded by PCI
A

Graphics cards, SCSI

266 MBps Standard add-in peripheral bus
PCI adapters, new generation
for the foreseeable future
sound cards

Standard in all Intel-based PCs

from the Pentium II; co-exists
AGP Graphics cards 528 MBps
with PCI

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PROCESSORS

Any computer’s most essential component is the processor or CPU. It processes

information and interfaces with many other system elements to retrieve data to be
processed and return data that has been processed.

Generally, the processor performs the following functions:

 Decodes and executes instructions obtained from software programs

 Performs arithmetic calculations
 Controls and supports the timing of each operation.

The speed of the processor is a major determining factor in determining the performance
of the PC.

The CPU is one of the most expensive

components on the motherboard and also a
very delicate piece of equipment.

The processor itself is a flat plate of silicon

made up from millions of transistors etched
on to the plate in a huge computer logic
framework.
A ceramic cover is placed over the micro
circuitry to protect it and to conduct heat away to other heat sinks.

This protective ceramic cover will have printed information on the processor type,
possibly on the processor top and always on the underside of the chip.

The CPU is extremely susceptible to electrostatic discharge (ESD).

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Apart from Intel’s range of processors there are families of similar processors from other
manufacturers, such as:

 Advanced Micro Devices (AMD)

 Integrated Device Technology (IDT)
 Cyrix.
 Motorola
 Silicon Graphics
 Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC)

Each of these offer competitively priced processor chips with comparable performance to
Intel processors. These also offer compatibility with Microsoft operating system
software.

The connection between a computer program and the processor

A computer program is a set of instructions, which tell the computer what to do. This set
of instructions, or program, is normally stored in the computer’s main memory. It is the
job of the microprocessor, which is controlling the computer to fetch a single program
instruction from the memory, decode the instruction and then carry out any action that
might be needed-execution. It is the responsibility of the processor inside the computer
to carry out the fetch-decode-execute cycle over and over again operating from the
instruction it obtains from the main memory. This fetch-decode-execute cycle is often
referred to as the fetch-execute cycle.

The CPU uses a timing signal to be able to fetch and execute instructions. The timing
signal is provided by the system clock the clock speed is measured in Hz (cycles per
second). A megahertz (MHz) is one million hertz (cycles per second). The clock speed
varies from one processor to another.

Some of the key components found inside a processor (CPU):

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Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)

This is the brain of the microprocessor. The ALU performs basic arithmetic calculations
like adding and subtracting figures, and also performs logical operations like
comparisons of figures etc.

Control Unit (CU)

This unit controls all the functions inside the processor itself. It instructs the ALU on
which arithmetic and logical operation is to be performed. It acts under the direction of
the system clock and sorts out all the internal data paths inside the processor to make sure
that data gets from the right place and goes to the right place.

Registers

This is sometimes known as the accumulator. It is the place where the answers from
many operations (both arithmetic and logical) are stored temporarily before being put out
to the computer’s memory.
They also hold data to be processed temporarily.

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Computer Processing Cycle

A computer program consists of a series of steps called instructions. Each instruction can
be a basic arithmetic calculation or a logic operation. Before the program can be
executed, it is loaded into the main storage (memory). Each instruction is fetched from
the memory, directed by the CU, to the ALU where it is interpreted. The ALU
determines the addresses from which data is required and the CU fetches the necessary
data so that the ALU can complete the execution of the instruction.
The CU then returns the processed data to main storage and fetches the next instruction.

Cycle time

The speed at which a computer performs processing is based on its cycle time. This is
normally measured in nanoseconds (ns) -a nanosecond is a one thousand-millionth of a
second i.e.
1 ns = 1 /109 seconds
= 1x 10-9 sec.

For a typical computer, the cycle time is around 3 nanoseconds (ns), and much less for
larger computers. It may take a processor one cycle to fetch an instruction, then two
cycles to decode it, and then more cycles to execute it and so on. In large mainframe
computers these activities are done in parallel so that while one instruction is being
decoded, a second is being fetched. These speeds allow computers to process several
million instructions per second.

PROCESSOR TERMS
There are some fundamental characteristics that define the power and performance of a
processor:

System clock speed

The clock speed refers to the number of pulses emitted from a computer's system clock in
one second; it determines the rate at which logical or arithmetic calculations are
performed in a computer.
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The system clock (or CPU clock) controls the timing of every action performed by a PC.
It also provides the basic timing signal of the CPU. The clock signal is a square wave of
a specific frequency, measured in megahertz (millions of clock cycles per second).

The earliest PCs used the 8088 processor which had a clock speed of 4.77 MHz, that is
the system clock operated at a frequency of 4.77MHz (4.77 million ‘ticks’ in a second!)
Advances in technology have steadily increased the maximum speed at which a
processor can operate, the latest PCs use processors with clock speeds of over 550MHz.

With older processors, the CPU core operated at the same speed as the CPU clock.
Modern CPUs include a clock multiplier that changes the incoming frequency to another
value before it is passed to the core logic. For example, the Pentium III 450MHz
processor runs from an external 100MHz clock which is multiplied internally by a factor
of 4.5.

Generally the faster the system clock speed, the greater the performance obtained from
the PC.

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Internal Data Path

The Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) is the central brain of the CPU. It performs the basic
calculations required to process the program code and data being worked on.
To assist the ALU, internal ‘temporary storage’ areas (known as CPU registers or
internal registers) hold data before and after processing.

The data size of the internal data path defines the maximum working data which the
processor can handle, and so determines the CPU’s overall performance.

 The 8088/8086 CPU can process 16-bit data

 The 80286 can process 16-bit data
 The 80386 can process 32-bit data
 The Pentium can process 32-bit data

Notes:
1. This register size also dictates the software that can be executed, for example, an
Intel 486 that has 32 bit internal registers can process 32-bit programming
instructions.
2. Some processors have the capability to process 32 bit instructions but can only
utilise a 16 bit external data bus. This allows a lower capability and cheaper
motherboard to be used with a higher capability processor; such as Intel’s
386SX.

External data path

This is the path used to fetch data from memory. In some cases the internal and external
data buses are the same bit-size but in others, the external data bus can be either narrower
or wider: the external data path is normally not as wide as the internal data path

 Having a smaller external bus (data path) will slow the performance of the CPU, but
it makes it simpler to upgrade earlier system designs to a new processor.

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 Having a larger external data bus will improve the performance as data can be
brought into the CPU in larger chunks.

Cache

Program and data are stored in system RAM. The processor reads information from
RAM, performs the required operation and writes back the result.
The memory in a PC has a typical access time of 50-70ns. (Access time is the amount of
time the processor takes to locate information in main memory).

One way to improve the performance of a PC is to install cache memory. Cache memory
has a faster access time of between 7 and 15ns. Cache controller predicts and preloads to
cache memory the most likely instruction and data that the CPU requires.
Therefore the CPU can read data fetched from cache 6 times faster than reading the same
data from main RAM. Most modern PCs have both internal and external cache memory.

Internal Cache Memory

Cache memory is built in to the processor chip and is called Internal Cache or Level 1
Cache. This is typically between 8KB and 64KB although on some this may be upto
1024KB. Access speeds equal to the processing speed are used to store working data and
to retrieve register contents.

When a processor cannot perform an operation, possibly waiting for RAM memory to
return requested data, the processor must waste an operating cycle.
This is called a Wait state and is required to synchronize memory operation with the
processor. Reducing the number of wait states is the purpose behind the incorporation of
local cache memory.

This internal cache memory is expensive to provide since it takes up space on the
processor chip. It is therefore limited in size; for instance an Intel Pentium II 333MHz
processor has 32K bytes of internal cache.

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External Cache Memory

Modern processors, from Intel’s 80486 to present processors, have an additional cache,
called the Level 2 cache. This has been provided on the motherboard as a set of
additional RAM chips. These are very fast, and expensive, Static Random Access
Memory (SRAM) chips operating at speeds of 15 nS or less. This level 2 cache is used to
hold data that is on its way to the processor and can increase the streamlining of data to
the processor.

Level 2 cache is typically 256KB or 512KB, some high performance servers may be
fitted with over 4 MB L2 cache.

Earlier Pentium processors had this Level 2 cache installed on the motherboard, but later
processor packaging designs; such as the SEC package, incorporated these SRAM chips
on a mini circuit board locally within the packaging.

Address lines

The standard PC is a binary device. This means that it operates at a basic level on binary
(base 2) information. Binary data can only exist in one of two logic states either 0 or 1.

Fetching and sending data is only one side of the processing task, the processor must also
be able to address from where and to where data is to be transferred. Using the memory
address bus, CPUs send out location information on their address lines (or control lines)
and these address lines are routed to every other major component of the computer
(memory, ROM, expansion bus etc).

The number of address lines within the memory address bus will determine the maximum
number of addressable locations. For example, if a PC had 3 address lines the maximum
number of addressable locations is 8:

Binary address Memory location

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(on address bus) (in decimal)

0 0 0 0

0 0 1 1

0 1 0 2

0 1 1 3

1 0 0 4

1 0 1 5

1 1 0 6

1 1 1 7

In other words, 3 address lines can address 23 locations =2x2x2 = 8 locations.

A wider address bus means that higher memory locations can be addressed in working
memory. For example the Intel 386SX processor has an address bus of 24 bits which
allows a memory address of 224 (16 MB) to be addressed; whereas an Intel Pentium II
with its 36 bit address bus can address memory up to 64 MB.

Note:
Whatever the addressing capabilities are, if there is no physical support for this much
actual memory to be provided on a motherboard, then the processor is limited to the
maximum memory that can be supported by a motherboard.

Other Internal Processor Components:

Instruction cache

Data processing instructions are brought into this cache prior to execution.

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Prefetch unit

This unit determines whether to bring in instructions from external memory or whether
the next instructions from the CPU can be found in the instruction cache (which means
faster execution).

Data cache

Holds data prior to processing by the ALU also holds data ready for output from the
CPU.

Decode unit

This unit translates the computer machine code into simpler instructions that can be
performed by the ALU.

Diagram showing the components of a processor:

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CPU ARCHITECTURES

CISC

CISC stands for Complex Instruction Set Computer. Most personal computers use a
CISC architecture, in which the CPU supports as many as two hundred instructions.
CISC computers require between 200 to 300 instructions to execute a task.

RISC
RISC is the acronym for Reduced Instruction Set Computer, a type of processor that
recognizes a relatively limited number of instructions (128 instructions or fewer).

Until the mid-1980s, the tendency among computer manufacturers was to build
increasingly complex CPUs that had ever-larger sets of instructions. At that time,
however, a number of computer manufacturers decided to reverse this trend by building
CPUs capable of executing only a very limited set of instructions. One advantage of
reduced instruction set computers is that they can execute their instructions very fast
because the instructions are so simple. Another, perhaps more important advantage, is
that RISC chips require fewer transistors, which makes them cheaper to design and
produce.

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Since the emergence of RISC computers, conventional computers have been referred to
as CISCs.
Even so, many of today's RISC chips support as many instructions as yesterday's CISC
chips. And today's CISC chips use many techniques formerly associated with RISC
chips.

However, the people who design microprocessors are working around the CISC/RISC
issue by designing new chips that recognize CISC instructions, then convert them into
RISC-like instructions. The Pentium, Pentium Pro, and their clones use some kind of
‘hybrid’ RISC/CISC technology.

Comparison between RISC and CISC computers:

RISC CISC

128 instructions or less 200 to 300 instructions

Faster Slower

Cheaper More expensive

Each new instruction is 32-bit long Each new instruction is between 8 and 120-
bit long, hence it is hard to determine where
instruction begins and ends.

Requires more memory- speed Requires less memory

Apple Mackintosh computers IBM and IBM-compatible computers

Manufacturers include: Manufacturers include:

 DEC Alpha  Intel
 SUN Systems  AMD
 Prep and prep  Cyrix
 IBM Power PC
 Silicon Graphics -MIPS

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INTEL PROCESSORS

Intel 8088

The first IBM XT PC computers released in 1981 used the Intel 8088 processor.
The 8088 processor was packaged in a 40-pin Dual In-line Package (DIP), with 20 pins
each row. The clock speed was 4.77 MHz, but later turbo versions had speeds of up to
9.54 MHz.

Although it had a 16-bit internal data bus, the external data path was only 8-bit wide. The
processor had a 20-bit address bus and so it could address 220 bytes of memory (1MB).

Intel 8086

The 8086 is identical to the 8088 except that it was fitted with a 16-bit data bus instead of
the 8-bit bus of the 8088. In fact the 8086 was more powerful and was used in clones and
early IBM PS/2 models.

Intel 80186/80188

These processors were essentially the same as the Intel 8086/8088 CPUs but with a
number of support chips integrated in one package.

It was popular with portable computers, which was characterized by reduced external
devices required for the system to work and was therefore associated with the origin of
laptops.
Although computers use other processors, the 80186/188 is still used for non-PC designs
that require a low-power processor, for example on disk controller boards or in industrial
control equipment.

Intel 80286

The 80286 was introduced in February 1982 and it was the first major step up in PC
processors, providing significant performance increases for the same clock speed. It was

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the first Intel processor to offer protected mode operation and was introduced with
IBM AT range of PCs.

The 286 was available in speeds ranging from 6 MHz, 8 MHz and the latest 20 MHz.
The use of the 24-bit address bus allowed the 286 to access up to a maximum of 16-MB
memory, although the core processor was still a 16-bit design.

Protected mode for the 80286 allowed the processor to support multitasking operating
systems such as Windows.

286 was also the first processor to use virtual memory. Virtual memory refers to the
hard disk space that could be used as additional memory for holding data not
immediately required by the processor.
This technique allowed the 286 to address up to 1 GB of memory (i.e. 16 MB of physical
memory and 1,008 MB of virtual memory). This is a feature that was used by Win 3.x
and OS/2.

Packaging was either a DIP or PLCC (Plastic Leadless Chip Carrier)- easily recognized
by the arrangement of thin legs around its perimeter.

Processor Modes

Before the launch of the 286 processor, Intel’s range of CPUs operated in Real Mode
only.

Real Mode

In Real Mode all memory connected to the CPU can be ‘seen’ by all the program code
being executed at the time i.e. memory cannot be separated into sections, and allocated to
individual programs.
This means that Real Mode processors cannot easily multitask or run multi-tasking
programs or operating systems like Windows. Multitasking is the ability of the processor
or the operating system to run more than one program at the same time.

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DOS and ‘standard’ DOS applications run in real mode.

Protected mode

In Protected mode, the CPU can allocate regions of memory to specific tasks or programs
and this memory area cannot be ‘seen’ or accessed by other programs (unless they are
passing data to each other), hence the name ‘protected’.

Protected mode makes multi-tasking possible and today, all major operating systems such
as Windows 3.1/3.11/95/98/NT, OS/2, LINUX and UNIX use protected mode.

Protected mode also supports the use of virtual memory, allowing the system to use the
hard disk to emulate additional system memory when needed.
The other advantage of Protected mode over Real mode is that it allows faster access to
memory and faster drivers for I/O transfers.

Although protected mode operation was first implemented by Intel in the 80286
processor, the first fully-functional and easily usable version came with the 80386
processor. For this reason, Protected mode is also sometimes called 386 Enhanced

Mode.

Virtual Real Mode

Virtual Real Mode is an enhancement of protected mode. It was developed to run DOS
programs under Windows. Virtual Real Mode emulates (imitates) real mode from within
protected mode. This allows DOS programs to run, creating multiple virtual real mode
machines.
For instance, it is used to run DOS-based games under Windows.

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To help improve the memory management and multi-tasking capabilities of real-mode
processors, various add-on programs can be used. The protocol that describes how to
make DOS work in protected mode is called DPMI (DOS Protected Mode Interface).

80386

In 1986, Intel introduced the 80386. The processor had two forms: the 80386SX and
80386DX. These were the first 32-bit processors to appear in a PC.
The main difference between these was that the 386SX was only a 32-bit processor on
the inside, because it interfaces to the outside world through a 16-bit data bus. This meant
that data moved between an SX processor and the rest of the system at half the speed of a
386DX i.e. the 80386SX-25 ran from 50 MHz clock.

80386DX- was a 32-bit processor with a 32-bit data path, 32-bit registers and a 32-bit
address path. The processor was capable of addressing upto 4GB of total memory.

80386SX- was introduced in 1988. This was developed to make it easy to upgrade
motherboard designed for 80286 to 80386 processors.
Similar to 80386DX except that it had a 16-bit data path and could only address 16MB of
memory because of its smaller 24-bit address path.

Both 386 processors support Real, Protected and Virtual Real modes.
The 80386DX was the first to use pipelining. Pipelining is the process of breaking up
tasks and executing an instruction as a series of subtasks rather like a production line.

The 80386SX chip was used for the first notebook computers especially the 386SL,
which also included power management features.

Packaging of the 386SX was in the form of a PLCC package, while for the 386DX it was
in the form of PGA (Pin Grid Array). The PGA is a square package with an array of pins
on one side. The 386 had the equivalent of 250,000 transistors.

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Note: AMD and Cyrix also manufactured the 80386 processor under license that had
clock speeds of 40 MHz as compared to Intel’s 33 MHz.

80486

Fourth generation processors were also 32-bit. However, they all offered a number of
enhancements.
First, the entire design was overhauled for Intel’s 486 range, making them faster and
more efficient. Secondly, they were the first processors to have an internal 8KB cache
memory (on the chip itself). This is the Level 1 cache.
They also integrated a cache controller and a maths co-processor. The 80486dX was the
first processor to have an internal maths co-processor.

Like the 386, the 486 had a 32-bit address bus and could address 4 GB of memory.
The 80486DX ran at clock speeds up to 50 MHz.

The 486SX model had its maths co-processor disabled, making it cheaper than the
486DX version.

Other 486 types are 486DX2 and 486DX4, also called OverDrives, which are basically
used for upgrades. An OverDrive processor is usually used to upgrade older versions of
processors.

80486 OverDrive

Also called 80486DX2 and 80486DX4 processors.

Intel produced versions of 80486 that included internal clock multiplier circuit that
allowed the processor to operate the on-chip circuitry at faster clock rates. This is known
as clock doubling and was introduced on the 486DX2.

This meant that the circuits inside the chip ran at twice the speed of the external
electronics. Data was transferred between the processor, the internal cache and the math
co-processor at twice the speed, considerably enhancing performance. The 486DX4 took
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this technique further, tripling the clock speed to run internally at 75 or 100MHz and also
doubled the amount of primary cache to 16K.

Examples:

 The DX2-50 clock-doubles the 25MHz clock.

 The DX2-66 clock doubled the 33MHz clock.

 The DX4-100 clock-tripled the 33MHz clock

 The DX4-75 clock tripled the 25MHz clock.

The main aim of releasing DX2/4 processors was to allow earlier 33mHzz PCs to be
upgraded.

The most important difference between standard 486SX/DX processors and some DX2/4
designs was the core voltage supply. Standard 486SX/DX processors used a 5v supply,
whereas the DX2/DX4 processors required just 3.3v.
Therefore the overdrive upgrades came with a step-down voltage regulators within the
heat sink to change the voltage. Standard chips did not have this. If you plug a 3.3v DX2
upgrade into a standard DX or SX running at 5v the processor will be destroyed.

Some motherboards have the ability to switch processor voltage between 5v and 3.3 v. in
this case, 3.3v DX2/DX4 upgrades could be used provided the voltage was changed
correctly. This would be set by use of a jumper.

Note: Always check the voltage which is required by the processor and ensure that this is
supported/selected before installing an upgrade.

Maths co-processors

Standard CPUs are designed to perform simple mathematical and logical calculations
with ease. This is information such as addition, multiplication, subtraction, division, and
logical operations on binary numbers.

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But they are not optimized for processing complex calculations such as trigonometric
functions) SIN(x), COS(x) etc. nor can they directly handle floating point numbers such
as 12.5, 1300000 or pi (3.141592635).

Maths co-processors are special CPUs that can handle such numbers very efficiently and
much more quickly than standard CPU’s. They can greatly increase the processing speed
for complex calculations.

Before the 486DX CPU, if you wanted a maths co-processor, it had to be installed as a
separate chip in its own socket but all modern processors include the maths co-processor
as standard.
A maths co-processor has to be selected to exactly match the performance of the
processor in the PC.

CPU Maths co-processor

8088 8087

80286 80287

80386SX 80287

80386DX 80387

80486SX 80487

NB: The 80386SX was an exception to the rule and used a 287 maths co-processor.

Pentium

Intel's new fifth-generation chip was expected to be called the 586, following their earlier
naming conventions. However, with the rise of AMD and Cyrix, Intel wanted to be able
to patent the name of their new CPU, and numbers can't be patented. Thus, the Pentium
was born. The word pentium doesn't mean anything, but it contains the syllable pent, the
Greek root for five.

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The Pentium was introduced in 1993. It provides greatly increased performance over the
486 processors, due to several architectural changes. The Pentium uses a 32-bit address
bus and 32-bit registers; however, the Pentium uses a wider data bus which is 64-bit,
providing double the bandwidth for transfers to and from memory.
Roughly speaking, a Pentium chip is double the speed of a 486 chip of the same clock
speed. In addition, the Pentium goes to much higher clock speeds than the 486 ever did.
It is also the first processor that was specifically designed to work with PCI bus.

The first Pentium processor was meant to run at 66 MHz and was based on the same 5v,
0.8-micron technology used for the 486 processor. (The micron defines the density of
transistors in the chip).
However, there were some drawbacks such as reliability, power and heat problems when
running the processor at full speed. In fact a 486 proved to be more reliable than the first
Pentium. Intel had to release the processor as the Pentium 60 running at a slower 60
MHz. due to heat problems since in general the faster the processor runs the hotter it
becomes.

The first range of Pentium processors also suffered from ‘ bug’ that was discovered in its
floating-point unit. This is commonly known as the "FDIV" (floating-point divide) or
‘floating point’ bug which affected precision calculations.

The second generation Pentium processors were released in 1994. These were based on a
lower power 3.3v and a 0.6-micron design.
The P-90 and P-100 produced half as much heat as the original P-60 design and ran
internally at 1-½ times the external speed. It also attempted to overcome the floating-
point bug, by increasing the number of units.

The third generation Pentiums were released in 1995 and used a 0.35-micron process.
The P-120, P-133, P-150, P-166 and later on P-200 use internal clock speeds that have
been increased by factors of 2 and 2 ½.

While the 486 DX2 provided a single 8KB of cache the Pentium processor design
includes two onboard 8KB caches- one for data and one for program code. The Pentium
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cache uses a technique called dynamic branch prediction to improve its ability to guess
what data or program code will be required next by the processor.

Super scalar design

There is a significant difference between the 486 and the Pentium processor. One of the
main differences is that the Pentium is the first to use the superscalar architecture.

The main components of a processor, i.e. the CU, ALU, decoders and registers are
collectively known as the ‘instruction pipeline’. The Pentium has two instruction
pipelines, called U and V.

The U pipeline can execute a full range of Pentium instructions, while a V pipeline can
execute a limited number when required.
Where possible, the Pentium processor breaks up a program into discrete tasks that are
shared between the pipelines thus allowing it to execute two simple instructions at the
same time.
Note that software needs to be specifically designed to take advantage of this feature i.e.
it has to be ‘Pentium aware’.

Pentiums use three different sockets. The original Pentium 60 and 66 use Socket 4.
Pentiums from 75 to 133 will fit in either socket 5 or socket 7; Pentium 150s, 166s and
200s require Socket 7. Intel makes Pentium OverDrives that allow the use of faster
Pentiums in older Pentium sockets (in addition to OverDrives that go in 486
motherboards).

Intel Pentium OverDrive

Intel’s Pentium-class OverDrive chips allow easy processor upgrades for earlier
motherboards. The OverDrive processor appears to the motherboard to be the older type
chip, but it supports higher speeds within the system’s limitations.

The Pentium OverDrive comes in three types:

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1. OverDrive for 486 systems- this Pentium OverDrive is specially modified to
fit the 32-bit data bus of a 486 system since a Pentium normally uses a 64-bit
data bus.
2. OverDrive for Pentium 60 and Pentium 66- the original Pentium chips were
different than later versions, in terms of voltage, socket size and power
consumption. Intel created a clock-doubling OverDrive for these chips.
3. OverDrive for Pentium 75, 90, 100 and higher speeds.

Note: You cannot upgrade Pentium 120 MHz or higher.

Pentium Pro (P6)

The Pentium Pro was introduced in 1995 as the successor to the Pentium. It introduced
several unique architectural features that had never been seen in a PC processor before.

The Pentium Pro was the first CPU to radically change how it executes instructions, by
translating them into RISC-like instructions and executing these on a highly advanced
internal core. (The Pentium Pro has an internal RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computer)
architecture). This means faster processing capabilities.

Apart from the CISC-RISC translator, the Pentium Pro has a 3-way superscalar execution
and a Dynamic Execution.
The Pentium Pro achieves performance approximately 50% higher than a Pentium of the
same clock speed.

Pentium Pro was created as a 2-chip assembly. The first chip is the CPU (with a 16KB
Level 1 cache), the second chip holding a 256 or 512 KB Level 2 cache. The integrated
level 2 cache had its own bus, running at full processor speed, typically three times the
speed that the cache runs at on the Pentium, instead of using motherboard-based cache
running at the speed of the memory bus

The Pentium Pro is usually found in either 180 MHz or 200 MHz versions. With the
wider 36-bit address bus it can address upto 64 GB of memory.

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Pentium Pro is designed for 32-bit program code, which means it is ideal for systems or
servers running Windows NT or NetWare 3.x or 4.x.
However, this meant that 16-bit code e.g. Win 3.x are slower on Pentium Pro than on a
Pentium of equivalent speed.

Pentium pro is the first processor to use the Dual Independent Bus Architecture. The
processor reads and writes data to and from the level 2 cache using a specialised high
speed bus-backside bus. DIB architecture allows the processor to use both buses
simultaneously.

The Pentium Pro processor is still commonly used in high-end systems (servers),
although the Pentium II is now starting to take some of this market.

Dynamic Prediction and Branching Prediction

The Pentium Pro enhances performance by analyzing data flow to find the optimal
sequence for executing instructions.

The processor checks upto 30 instructions ahead in a program and predicts where the
next branch or group of instructions can be found in memory. The Pentium Pro can
process one instruction without waiting for another to be completed.
Upto five instructions can be speculatively processed and the results stored until needed.
This ‘intelligence’ can be taken further to determine dependencies between data items,
enabling processing as soon as inputs are available and so on.
This is what is referred to as Dynamic Prediction and Branch Prediction.

Pentium with MMX technology

The Intel Pentium MMX technology (“P55C”) processors were introduced early in 1997.
MMX refers to MultiMedia Extensions. Multimedia refers to integration of text, video,
graphics and sound.

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The Pentium MMX processor provided three main enhancements:
1. Fifty-seven new instructions were added which were specifically designed to
manipulate and process video, audio and graphical data more efficiently.
2. The on-board Level 1 cache of a standard Pentium was doubled to 32KB.
3. Introduced the new SIMD (Single Instruction Multiple Data) technology which
enabled one instruction to perform the same function on multiple pieces of data
simultaneously.

Running software that is designed for MMX on a Pentium MMX will result in a
significant increase in performance over the regular Pentium; some claim up to 70%.
Even running non-MMX software on the MMX chip results in an improvement of about
20% over a regular Pentium of the same clock speed.

The larger primary cache means that the processor will have more information to hand,
reducing the need to retrieve data from the Level 2 cache.

The use of branch prediction was enhanced with the MMX. Dynamic branch prediction
uses the Branch Target Buffer (BTB) to boost performance by predicting the most likely
set of instructions to be executed.

The Pentium with MMX is pin-compatible with the regular Pentium and goes in a Socket
7 just like the old chip and the processor is supplied in a single pin grid array (PGA)
package unlike the Pentium Pro which comes in staggered pin grid array – 387 pins
(socket 8).
MMX processors are available in 133, 150, 166, 200 and 233 MHz speeds.

Pentium II

This is an enhanced Pentium Pro with MMX extensions. It also has a 32KB Level 1
cache to further increase the performance. It uses the DIB architecture of PMMX.

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The original Pentium II had a speed of 233 MHz but later versions had 266, 300, 333,
350 and 400 MHz. Pentium II processors for laptops and notebooks run at 233 and 266
MHz.

Another change is that the processor, secondary cache and heatsink are all mounted on a
small board that plugs into a slot on the motherboard, like an add-in card than a
traditional processor/socket arrangement. This is known as the Single Edge Contact
Cartridge (SECC).
The cartridge was designed to fit into a 242-pin slot on the Pentium II motherboard
known as Slot 1. Communication between the Level 2 cache and CPU is at half the
CPU's clock speed.

The PII processor module includes 512 KB of Level 2 cache within its cartridge but due
to design limitations, the cache only operates with the first 512 MB of physical RAM.

Pentium III

This is Intel's successor to the Pentium II, formerly code named Katmai. It was
introduced in May 1999.

Pentium III features a 64-bit CPU bus, 64 KB Level 1 cache, 512 KB of level 2 cache and
has 8 128-bit wide registers.
There are also 12 new media instructions to complement the existing 57 integer MMX
instructions by providing further support for multimedia data processing. Therefore
Pentium III has made significant improvements on multimedia in applications running
video/audio compression and 3D graphical rendering.
However, applications have to be specifically written or modified to take advantage of
these instructions.

It still fits into Slot 1 motherboards, with SECC2 packaging and is typically used in high-
end desktops and servers.

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Pentium IV

In early 2000 Intel released the first Pentium 4 processor. This processor was previously
codenamed Willamette - and was aimed at the advanced desktop market rather than
servers.

The Pentium 4 offers increased performance largely due of the changes in the micro-
architecture of the chip. These allow the device to operate at higher clock speeds and
logic changes that allow more instructions to be processed per clock cycle.
This new micro-architecture is termed NetBurst and some of the new features introduced
include:

 Improved Level 1 caches, which can store up to 12K of decoded instructions.

 A Rapid Execution Engine that runs the ALUs at twice the core frequency
resulting in faster processing.
 An Advanced Dynamic Execution engine, that speeds up the execution of
instructions.
 An advanced 256KB Level 2 cache that provides a 32-byte interface; resulting in
faster data transfer rates.
A 1.4GHz processor has a data transfer rate of 44.8 GBps.
 SIMD Extensions 2 (SSE2) - which adds 76 new SIMD instructions and improves
on multimedia procedures.
 Introduced the first 400MHz-system bus.

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The first Pentium 4 processors ran at speeds of 1.4GHz and 1.5GHz. The new chip
offered the best performance improvements on 3D applications - such as games - and on
graphics intensive applications such as video encoding. However on everyday office
applications - such as word processing, spreadsheets, Web browsing and e-mail - the
performance gain appears much less pronounced.

The 1.7GHz and 2GHz versions of the Pentium 4 chip are already in the market.
Intel processor milestones:

Processor Milestone

8088/86

80286 Protected mode operation

80386SX/DX Usable protected mode operation

80486DX Maths co-processor as standard

On-board Level 1 cache as standard

Pentium Superscalar architecture

Pentium Pro On-chip L1 + L2 cache & DIB

Pentium MMX Multimedia extensions, SIMD

Pentium II SECC architecture (packaging)

Pentium III

Pentium IV 400MHz system bus

OTHER PROCESSORS

Intel Celeron

Although the Pentium II processor offers a high degree of performance, the processor is
relatively expensive. In 1998 Intel addressed the Pentium II cost issue by introducing a
range of ‘cut-price’ devices under the umbrella name of Celeron.

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Celeron is based around the same architecture as the Pentium II, and using the same
0.25-micron fabrication process, Celeron systems offer a complete package of the latest
technologies, including support for AGP graphics, ATA-33 hard disk drives, and
SDRAM.
The first Celeron CPU is known as Covington and is essentially a Pentium II device
without the in-built level 2 cache. It ran at 266MHz and 300MHz.

The second Celeron CPU is known as Mendocino. This comes equipped with 128KB of
Level 2 cache integrated on the processor card, running at full CPU speed and
communicating externally via a 66MHz bus. This has made the newer Celerons much
faster than their predecessors.

Unlike the Pentium II with its Single Edge Cartridge (SEC) packaging, the Celeron has
no protective plastic sheath around its processor card, which Intel calls the Single Edge
Processor Package (SEPP). It's still compatible with Slot 1, allowing existing
motherboards to be used, but the retention mechanism for the CPU card has to be adapted
to handle the SEPP form factor.

AMD (K6)

This is the ‘Pentium MMX compatible’. It is available in speeds of 166, 233. 266 and
300 MHz.
In terms of performance, the K6 is quite similar to the Pentium Pro at the same clock
speed, and tends to be slightly faster than the Pentium with MMX.
The Pentium II is still a step above the K6, but in terms of price/performance the K6 is
often outperforms its Intel equivalent.
When upgrading, the K6 is the better option to the Pentium II, competing only with the
Pentium with MMX.

CYRIX 6x86 MX

The 6x86MX, introduced in June 1997 and intended to compete with AMD's K6 and
Intel's Pentium with MMX and Pentium II processors.

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The Cyrix 6x86 processor is available in speeds of 200, 233 and 266 MHz. Similar to its
Intel equivalent.

The 6x86MX supports the MMX instruction set extension, the same way that its
competitors above do, and has been optimized to execute many instructions at much
faster speeds than other processors.

Early Cyrix 6x86 suffered from heat-related problems. The more recent 6x86L variants
are produced by an improved manufacturing process that greatly reduces power
consumption and chip heating.

The processors discussed above are Intel compatible.

AMD K7 Athlon

This is a seventh generation computer microprocessor. It runs at a clock speed of

700MHz and has a 512K L2 cache.

The AMD Athlon processor's seventh-generation microarchitecture, superscalar floating

point engine, and high-bandwidth, 200MHz system bus enable it to achieve performance
levels never before attained by an x86 processor.

The AMD Athlon significantly outperforms previous-generation processors, such as

Intel's Pentium III, and delivers the highest floating point, integer, and 3D-multimedia
performance for x86 system platforms.

RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computer)

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Recently, Intel began to implement a degree of RISC-technology in their Pentium
processors. These processors use a much smaller and simpler set of instructions, this
means that the speed of processing can be greatly enhanced.
There are a number of fully RISC –based, non-PC type, processors on the market
including Digital Alpha 21264, SUN UltraSPARC, HAL SPARC64, IBM PowerPC 604,
MIPS R10000 and HP-PA-8000.

The Digital Alpha chip is designed for 64-bit applications and runs at speeds of up to
500MHz. The Alpha processor is found in high-performance servers and workstations.

The MIPS processor by Silicon Graphics is also based on RISC architecture and is used
for server or high-end desktop machines.

OTHER MICR0PROCESSOR TERMS

MULTI-TASKING

This is the principle of executing more than one application or program at a time under a
multitasking operating system.
Windows NT is a true multi-tasking operating system. Windows 95 does not offer true
multitasking.

There are two types of multitasking:

 Pre-emptive multitasking
 Co-operative multitasking

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Pre-emptive multitasking - is controlled and managed by the operating system. The
operating system divides processor time between applications, according to the perceived
need, this prevents one application from ‘hogging’ or dominating the processor time. Win
NT uses pre-emptive multi-tasking operation.

Co-operative multitasking - allows applications themselves to control the allocation of

processor time. The success of this relies on well-designed applications as it is possible
that one program will hog processor time. Windows 16-bit applications use co-operative
multitasking.

MULTI-PROCESSING

This takes place on a system with more than one processor. Needless to say, multiple
processors can greatly increase system performance, provided that the software and
hardware is in place to support this.

The following components should support multi-processing for it to take place:

1. Motherboard - the motherboard must be capable of handling multi-processors with

additional sockets/slots for the extra chips and a chipset capable of handling the
multi-processing arrangement.
2. Processor - the processor must be designed to work in a multi-processing
environment.
3. Operating system - should be one that supports multi-processing e.g. Windows NT
can support 4 processors on the normal desktop.
4. Application software - should be well written and reliable, and not processor
intensive. They are also referred to as ‘threaded’ applications. Multiprocessing is
more effective when used with application software designed specifically for the
purpose.

Multiprocessing is managed by the operating system, which allocates different tasks to be

performed by the various processors in the system.

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Applications designed for use in multi-processing are said to be ‘threaded’ which means
that they are broken down into smaller routines that can run independently. This allows
the operating system to let these threads run on more than one processor simultaneously.
Non-threaded applications cannot take advantage of multi-processors.

There are two types of multi-processing:

Asymmetric multi-processing- some processors are designated to perform system tasks

only, and others to run applications only. The tasks may not be equally distributed.

Symmetric multi-processing- allows either system tasks or applications to run on any

processor. Tasks are uniformly distributed providing better performance.

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SUMMARY OF PC PROCESSORS

CPU CPU ALU External Externa Addressab Speeds (MHz)

Launc (Internal Data l le RAM
h Data Path Address
Date Path) Bus

8086 1978 16-bit 20-bit 1 MB 4.77, 8, 10

8088 1979 16-bit 8-bit 20-bit 1 MB 4.77,8

80286 1982 16-bit 16-bit 24-bit 16 MB 6, 10, 12

80386D 1985 32-bit 32-bit 32-bit 4 GB 16,20,25,33

X

80386S 1988 32-bit 16-bit 24-bit 16 MB 16,20,25,33

X

80486D 1989 32-bit 32-bit 32-bit 4 GB 20,33,50

X

80486S 1991 32-bit 32-bit 32-bit 4 GB 16,20,25,33

X

Intel 1992 32-bit 32-bit 32-bit 4 GB 50,66

DX2

Intel 1994 32-bit 32-bit 32-bit 4 GB 75,100

DX4

Pentium 1993 32-bit 64-bit 32-bit 4 GB 60,66

Pentium 1995 32-bit 64-bit 36-bit 64 GB 180,150,166,

Pro 200

Pentium 1997 32-bit 64-bit 32-bit 4 GB 166,200,233

MMX

Pentium 1997 32-bit 64-bit 36-bit 64 GB 233,266,300,333

II ,350,433,450
Celeron 1998 32-bit 64-bit 36-bit 64 GB 266,300,333,366

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,400,433,466

Pentium 1998 32-bit 64-bit 36-bit 64 GB 333,350,400

II Xeon

Pentium 1999 32-bit 64-bit 36-bit 64 GB 450,500,550 to

III 1.13GHz.

Pentium 1999 32-bit 64-bit 36-bit 64 GB 500, 550

III Xeon

CPU PACKAGING
A number of different package types have been used to house CPUs. The package design
takes into account several factors, including:

 The number of electrical connections that must be made to the CPU

 The physical size of the CPU and its surrounding circuitry
 The amount of heat generated by the device

There are five major packaging types for the processors found inside standard desktop
PCs:

1. Dual In line Pin Package (DIP);

2. Pin Grid Array (PGA);
3. Tape Carrier Package (TCP);
4. Single Edge Contact (SEC).
5. Quad Flat Package (QFP)

Dual In line Pin Package

This kind of packaging is only suitable for devices with few pins, such as the Intel
8088/8086 and the 80286. The chip has two rows of pins.

Pin Grid Array

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The flat structure of a processor chip is provided with a grid array of pins at right angles
to the chip structure. These chips are then inserted into a flat socket, called a Zero
Insertion Force (ZIF) socket because installing or removing the processor chip into the
socket requires a very small amount of force.
The PGA also fits into LIF (Least Insertion Force) sockets.

It is a very popular package for mid-range processors and is used for the Intel 386, 486,
Pentium, Pentium Pro, Pentium MMX, AMD K5/K6 processors among others.

Tape Carrier Package (TCP)

For portable computers space is an issue for locating processors on motherboards with
sockets. Also, the heat generated by the processor is not easily handled within the
confined space of a portable.
A special range of processors has been developed for the portable market that use much
lower operating voltages and therefore generate less heat. A special packaging format
has been developed that is based on a thin film. The processor transistor logic is created
on a thin film, which has built-in circuitry for signal tracks. These tracks extend to the
outer part of the tape, where they are bent in a ‘Vee’ shape before specialized tools locate
and solder the package in to place on the motherboard.
The special TCP packaging helps reduce heating while providing a very low profile for
the processor installation on the motherboard.

Single Edge Contact Cartridge (SECC)

A new packaging concept was introduced with the Pentium II.

The cartridge design has the processor mounted on its own circuit board, which sits
vertically in a connector on the motherboard.

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Quad Flat Package (QFP)

This is another form of CPU packaging. All the contacts are arranged around the edge of
the chip carrier and the unit is pushed into a socket.
Mounting a heats ink or fan on this package was not easy and it is difficult to remove the
device from its socket without a special tool.

In order to reduce overall size, smaller package types are used for processors designed to
be used in portable computers or in non-PC type systems.

The table below shows a summary of desktop PC processors and their package types:

CPU Package Pins

8088 DIP 40

8086 DIP 40

80286 DIP, QFP 68

80386DX PGA 132

80386SX QFP 100

80486DX PGA, 208-pin QFP 168

80486SX PGA, 208-pin QFP 168

Intel DX2 PGA, 208-pin QFP 168

IntelDX4 PGA, 208-pin QFP 168

Pentium 60/66 PGA 273

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Pentium PGA 296

Pentium Pro PGA 387

Pentium MMX PGA 296

Pentium II SECC 242

Celeron SECC 242

Celeron PGA 370

Pentium III SECC 2 330

MOTHERBOARD CPU SOCKETS

Hand in hand with processor packaging is the provision of motherboard processor
sockets whose purpose originally was just to provide a place to insert the processor into
the motherboard. As such, it was no different than the sockets that were put on the board
for most of the other PC components.

However, over the last few years Intel, have defined several interface standards for PC
motherboards. These are to be used with various processors that are designed to use these
standard sockets.

As technology has changed and CPU designs have become more complex, a range of
standardized sockets and slots have been designed, from Socket 1 through to Socket 8, to
accommodate the different pin connections and features.

The socket type on a motherboard will determine which type of processor (s) can be
fitted and this will also influence upgrade choices.

The table below summarizes the different socket and slot types. Shown also are the main
CPU types used with each socket and the type of motherboard the socket is used on:

Socket # of Pin Voltage Motherboard Supported Processors

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Type Pins Rows Generation

Socket 1 80486DX, 80486SX,

169 3 5V Fourth 80486DX2, 80486DX4
OverDrive

Socket 2 80486DX, 80486SX,

80486DX2, 80486DX4
238 4 5V Fourth
OverDrive, Pentium OverDrive
63 and 83

Socket 3 80486DX, 80486SX,

5V / 80486DX2, 80486DX4, AMD
237 4 Fourth
3.3V 5x86, Cyrix 5x86, Pentium
OverDrive 63 and 83

Socket 4 Pentium 60-66, Pentium

273 4 5V Fifth (5V)
OverDrive 120/133

Socket 5 Pentium 75-133 MHz, Pentium

320 5 3.3V Fifth OverDrive 125-166, Pentium
with MMX OverDrive 125-166

Socket 6 235 4 3.3V Fourth Not used

Socket 7 Pentium 75-200 MHz, Pentium

OverDrive, Pentium with
2.5-
321 5 Fifth MMX, Pentium with MMX
3.3V
OverDrive, 6x86, K5, K6,
6x86MX

Socket 8 3.1V /
387 5 Sixth Pentium Pro
3.3V

Slot 1 2.8V / Pentium II, Pentium Pro (with

242 n/a Sixth
3.3V Socket 8 on daughtercard)

Slot 2 Pentium III, Xeon, Pentium III

330 n/a Sixth
Celeron, Pentium IV

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CPU VOLTAGES AND TEMPERATURE

Temperature

Whereas an increase in CPU clock speeds provides an increase in overall system

performance this trend also introduces one major problem. During operation a processor
generates heat and the faster the clock speed the more heat that is generated. If the
temperature of the processor rises above its designed specifications then the processor
could start to behave erratically causing software to fail. In the worst case if the
processor gets too hot, it could fail completely and will have to be replaced.

The maximum working temperature of most processors is 185 0F, but the aim is to keep
the temperature much lower than this during normal operation.

There are two ways that the problem of overheating can be dealt with:
 By using heatsinks and fans
 By reducing CPU heat production

Heatsinks and fans

Early processors such as the Pentium, Pentium II and the Pentium Pro were fitted with a
heatsink, which is a small metal finned structure that dissipates the heat generated.
However, as processor speed has increased so these heatsinks proved incapable of
providing sufficient cooling. Therefore a fan can be used to help circulate the air and
cool things down properly.

NB: Processors and heatsinks can get very hot and frequently they can burn your fingers.
Therefore always allow plenty of time for things to cool down before attempting to
remove a processor from a motherboard.

However, a more efficient way of managing this would be to reduce the amount of heat
produced in the first place.

Reducing CPU heat production

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This is one way of reducing heat output is to reduce the operating voltage of the chip.
The first generations of IBM PC processors-from the 8088 to the early Pentium
processors (60 and 66 MHz versions) ran off a 5V-power supply.

Later releases of processors run from lower voltages, typically 3.3V and below, even
though this varies according to the manufacturer.

To make matters worse, in their effort to further reduce CPU voltages (and hence the heat
they produce), chip designers have encountered the issue whereby the voltages they want
to use are below those used by the rest of the components on the system board. This
becomes a major problem if the devices are to ‘communicate’ to each other.

Split voltage operation

To avoid this problem, modern CPUs have split voltage power requirements i.e. the parts
of the chip that interface with the rest of the system run at one voltage (between .3V and
2.3V), while the CPU core (the one that gets hot) runs at a lower voltage of around 1.9 to
1.6V.

This solution only works if the motherboard supports this split voltage requirement, and
this should be taken into account especially when upgrading to a newer processor.

PROCESSOR UPGRADES
Various families of processor upgrades are available to keep ‘older’ systems in touch
with modern developments.

Intel have produced a range of devices with named ‘OverDrives’ to cover 486-to-Pentium
and Pentium-to faster Pentium upgrades but some of the earlier products are now
discontinued.

Third party companies, such as Evergreen Technologies, also offer various options and
some motherboards can be fitted with faster products from different manufacturers.

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In general, there are some factors that have to be considered before attempting to
upgrade:

1. BIOS support- some faster processors are not supported by older BIOSes. If your
BIOS cannot support the new processor, see whether you can upgrade the BIOS first
even though this will take much time and effort that it’s probably cheaper to buy a
new motherboard.

2. Voltage support- newer processors run at lower or split voltages and some
motherboards don’t have any way to adjust the voltage they supply to the CPU,
though most OverDrives come with voltage regulators.

3. Cooling- faster processors generate more heat and usually require a bigger heatsink,
check that a bigger heatsink will actually fit and won’t obstruct anything else within
the PC.
Some upgrade chips come with heatsinks while others come with separate heatsinks
requiring installation on chip by way of adhesive backing. Some processors come
with a different fan, which requires powering from the PSU and attachment with and
adhesive material.

4. Compatibility- some upgrade paths are just not possible for technological reasons.
For example, you cannot upgrade a 286-based motherboard with a Pentium II.

Pre-486 PC’s

Some upgrades are available to allow 286 and 386 PC’s to feel the benefits of 486
technology but these upgrades are now getting harder to find.

486-based PC’s

Intel and other manufacturers produced a range of direct 486 replacements that provided
higher performance by clock doubling.

There were two main upgrades available from Intel:

1. The 80486DX2-66 processor- designed for systems running from a 33 MHz clock,
and the 33 MHz clock was doubled internally to 66 MHz.
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2. The 80486DX4-75 processor- this also ‘multiplied’ the external clock frequency and
tripled the standard 25 MHz clock frequency to run the CPU at 75 MHz.

As well as upgrading 486-based PC’s with DX2 and DX4 versions of the chip, a number
of Pentium class upgrades were available. These include the ‘upgrade-friendly’ socket 7
and super socket 7 designs. The latter can be used with a number of third party, high-
performance devices such as the AMD K6-2 series.

Pentium upgrades and third-party options are generally available and reasonably
successful but they may not work in all socket types.

Pentium PC’s

Pentium and Pentium MMX upgrades are quite simple e.g. upgrading a Pentium 100 to a
Pentium 150, but take care as some older motherboards and socket types do not support
the full range of Pentium clock frequencies and timings and so cannot take the faster
devices.

Pentium II/III PC’s

Upgrades for these CPU’s are straightforward because the processors and motherboard
set the correct clock frequencies and other parameters automatically. Upgrade is from a
slower PII or PIII into a faster PII or PIII respectively.

Types of Upgrades:

Chip for chip: Is the most common type of upgrade used.

The existing processor is fully removed and replaced with a new processor. Some
computers have special (pre-Pentium) overdrive sockets on motherboards whose
overdrive processor pops into special motherboards only.

Piggyback: this kind of upgrade is done using those processors, which have upgrade
sockets on their back side. The new processor is simply slotted on top of the old
processor.

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Daughter card: this is also called Card/Board replacement. Here, a small board with the
CPU attached is installed to the existing motherboard. The old processor remains in
place.

These last two methods of upgrading are rarely used nowadays.

UPGRADING A SOCKET 7 MOTHERBOARD

This is an example of a typical upgrade. The assumptions made are that an upgrade is
possible and the new processor is compatible with the system.

Prepare

 Prepare a static safe work area.

 Power down the system and disconnect all power cords and external power
connectors.
 Remove the system case cover, taking care to store all screws carefully.

 Wearing an anti-static wrist strap, locate the old processor- it will either be in a push
fit socket or in a Zero Insertion Force (ZIF) socket.

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 Assess whether any heatsink can be removed now or whether it is glued to the
processor. If the heatsink includes a fan, disconnect its power cord.

 Remove the heatsink, if possible, taking care not to damage any components nearby
on the motherboard.

The chip-side of the heatsink may be smeared with a thin layer of heatsink compound
(thermal grease) or a thermal pad. These improve the thermal bond between the heatsink
and CPU. Retain the thermal pad just in case a new one isn’t supplied with any new
heatsink.

Remove the old processor

 If the processor is in a regular socket, use a PGA removal tool to lever the old CPU
out of its socket. DO NOT use a screwdriver as this can damage nearby components
and the pins on the chip.

 If the processor is in a ZIF socket, CAREFULLY pull the socket’s lever away from
the body of the socket just a few mm and then upwards until it won’t move further
away.
 Lift out the processor, taking note of the pin 1 position, it may be printed on the
socket or motherboard. Alternatively, look at the CPU corners- one will be beveled
(not a 90 0 bend). There may also be a dot printed in one corner of the body of the
chip.

Store the processor in a safe, anti-static location.

Insert the new processor

Fit the old/new heatsink and fan to the processor if it must be done at this stage. With
ZIF sockets this is usually done later. Orient the processor so that its pin 1 matches pin 1
on the socket.

ZIF socket: Gently lower the chip into position, make sure it is seated correctly and push
the lever down to lock the ZIF socket.

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Push fit: Gently push the chip into the socket taking care not to damage the motherboard
by pressing to hard, if necessary, support the back of the board whilst pushing.

Check DIP switches, jumpers and connectors

 Make sure all DIP switches and jumpers are positioned correctly to set:
- CPU clock speed
- CPU clock multiplier frequency
- CPU voltage(s)
 Reconnect CPU fan power connector, if relevant.

Check and double-check

 Check all switches and jumpers again.

 Check that the CPU is fitted the right way round and is sitting flat in the socket.

Power up

 Switch on the PC and immediately look for signs of normal start-up or abnormal
behavior- switch off and re-check if the system appears not to start properly.
 Check that the CPU fan is running.

 If necessary, invoke the CMOS setup program and change any relevant CPU options
e.g. CPU clock and multiplier settings. Save any changes and restart the system.
 Verify that the system is running correctly. Run any diagnostics supplied with the
upgrade or use a third-party utility e.g. Checkit, to verify system configuration.
 Install any utilities required to allow the new CPU to work properly.
 Ensure that the new CPU is running at the correct speed.

Finish off

 Power down the system and replace the PC cover.

 Switch on the system again and verify that it still works after being put back together.
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 Tidy up the work area and dispose of any unwanted packaging.
 Keep the old processor (and heatsink) in a safe place in case they need to be re-used.

TROUBLESHOOTING THE PROCESSOR

Processor failure

In such cases, the processor appears to be either dead or malfunctioning.

Processor failures are rare and most system faults are more likely to be caused by:
Overheating, incorrect configurations failed components, or even power supply
problems.
Always rule out other potential problems before suspecting the processor.

If, however, a new processor (upgrade) has just been installed, then follow these simple
checks:

Diagnostic checks:

Compatibility Check that the processor is actually supported by the motherboard.

Orientation Make sure that the processor is inserted correctly into its socket and
that it has been inserted the right way round.

At times the processor may not have been inserted firmly enough, in
this case press it down more firmly.

Voltage Double-check the voltage settings for the board.

Some chips, such as Pentium MMX, Cyrix 6x86L and AMD K6 use
different voltage requirements, which differs from the standard
3.3/3.5V used by the original Pentium processor. Some new devices
require a split rail or dual voltage supply and older motherboards do

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not support these CPUs.

If the voltage has been set incorrectly, try correcting it and see if the
CPU still works.

Configuration Double-check the jumpers or BIOS settings, to make sure they are
correct.

Swap Test by substitution- if the old processor works then the new one may
be faulty.

When this fails, then take into consideration that the processor itself may be defective i.e.
it has a manufacturing defect and the only respite is to buy a new one or have the faulty
one exchanged.

Unstable Operation

Characterized by system hanging or crashing.

These faults are difficult to track, and other components may be at fault. Make additional
checks on other components e.g. the hard disk before suspecting the processor.

Diagnostic checks:

Cache Try disabling Level 2 cache in the BIOS setup. If it works, check the
motherboard’s clock and timing settings. This is because incorrect
settings always cause the cache to become unstable. It is possible that the
cache may be faulty or not inserted correctly (if externally fitted).

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Heat also causes the processor to malfunction and/or intermittent operation. Thermal
faults are normally cyclic, a system works for some time, crashes and then works again
later.

Heat Insufficient cooling is a main cause. Powering down for a while allows
the processor to cool.

The following checks should be performed:

Heatsink/fan Are they fitted correctly? Is the fan jammed/clogged or too small? If a
processor upgrade is installed, the original fan may not be suitable for the
new device.

PSU fan Is the fan jammed/clogged or too small? If it is jammed or too slow
implement another fan anywhere in the system unit.

Speed Running the processor at the wrong speed may cause overheating

Voltage Wrong voltages may cause overheating

Note that running the system unit with the cover removed disturbs the normal airflow
through the unit and this can cause overheating problems, which may not actually occur
when the system is closed properly.
If a system needs to be run for a long time with the cover removed, an alternative method
for cooling e.g. a desktop fan is needed. You could also return cover and see whether the
situation improves.

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Heat may also affect system operation by causing loose connectors to drift apart,
components to move in their sockets or circuit board defects such as hairline cracks to
widen and break connections. Some of these faults can be detected by physical/visual
inspection.

Speed Problems

These are characterized by slow processing or the system reporting wrong CPU speed at
boot time.

Diagnostic checks:

Setup Verify the BIOS configuration and/or motherboard jumper settings.

Heatsink Check all fan fittings and contacts.

Some upgrade processors e.g. Intel overdrive had electrical connections

between the CPU and its fan assembly. They were therefore able to
detect if the fan was jammed, missing or fitted incorrectly. If the
processor detected a problem they would switch to a slower clock so
that they produced less heat.

INTRODUCTION TO PC MEMORY

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The system memory is the place
where the computer holds current
programs and data that is in use.
There are several different types of
computer memory, each with a
different purpose.
Because of the demands made by
increasingly powerful software,
system memory requirements have
been accelerating at an alarming pace
over the last few years. The result is that modern computers have significantly more
memory than the first PCs of the early 1980s, and this has had an effect on development
of the PC’s architecture. The memory importance is outlined best with several factors:
 Performance; the amount and type of memory you are using dramatically affects the
performance of the entire system. Old memory or improperly configured memory
often causes the system to run much slower than it really could.
 Reliable; bad memory can lead to mysterious problems, often thought to be something
else.
 Software; today’s newer applications demand much more memory than programs of
the past. And as programs are continually created, more memory will be needed.
 Upgradability; memory is very upgradable. You can buy more or move old chips into
a newer machine.

MEMORY TYPES
As we will see later there are 5 blocks of memory inside a PC all performing different
functions but, before we can discuss these, we need to understand that all memory falls
into one of two categories; RAM (Random Access Memory) and ROM (Read Only
Memory).

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Random Access Memory

RAM is the PC’s primary storage
area, used to write, store and retrieve
information and program
instructions, which are then passed to the CPU for processing. RAM can be written to
and read from by the processor as long as there is power. If power is disconnected then
all the data stored in the RAM chips is lost hence the name volatile memory. To avoid
this occurrence, save your work before switching off a computer. Manufacturers are
continually coming up with new designs to provide the fastest possible access times at the
lowest possible cost. There are two common types of RAM – DRAM and SRAM.

Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

Dynamic RAM is used for PC system memory. Each storage location (data bit) on a
DRAM memory comprises one single transistor and a device that can hold electrical
charge called a capacitor. The presence or absence of a charge on this capacitor
determines whether the transistor is storing a ‘1’ or ‘0’ respectively.

This simple arrangement makes DRAM cheap to produce and also means that a large
number of storage bits can be crammed into a small space. The drawback is that the
electrical charge has a short lifespan and so extra circuitry (outside the RAM chip) is
required to ‘top up’ the charge every few milliseconds. This so-called ‘refresh cycle’
slows down the overall performance of this type of memory but this complication is
outweighed by the cost/size benefits. There are several types of DRAM:

Fast Page Mode DRAM (FPM DRAM)

Offers faster access than standard DRAM. While standard DRAM requires that a row and
column address be sent for each access to a memory cell, FPM works by sending the row
address just once for many accesses to memory in location near each other, improving
access time.

Extended Data Out DRAM (EDO DRAM)

A form of DRAM that has a two-stage pipeline, which lets the memory controller read
data off the chip while setting up access request for the next one. This improved the
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performance over FPM DRAM by 30%. While similar in performance to synchronous
DRAM (SDRAM), it cannot support bus speeds above 66Mhz.

Burst Extended Data Out (BEDO) DRAM

A type of EDO DRAM that can process four memory addresses in one burst. Unlike
SDRAM, however, BEDO DRAM can only stay synchronised with the CPU clock for
short periods (bursts) and it can't keep up with processors whose buses run faster than 66
MHz.

Synchronous DRAM (SDRAM)

SDRAM speed is synchronous, meaning that it is directly dependent on the clock speed
of the entire system. Standard SDRAM can handle higher bus speeds. In theory, it can
operate at up to 100MHz today and will support bus speeds of up to 200MHz.

Direct Rambus DRAM

A totally new RAM architecture, complete with bus mastering (the Rambus Channel
Master) and a new pathway (the Rambus Channel) between memory devices (the
Rambus Channel Slaves). A single Rambus Channel has the potential to reach 500 MBps
in burst mode; a 20- fold increase over DRAM. However, this impressive speed hide
some potential problems. The first problem is caused by the brute speed of the memory
itself. Any type of RAM running at 800 MHz will dissipate a lot of heat. This means
that RDRAM will likely require extra cooling. Again, due to its high clock speed,
RDRAM may require special shielding, from electromagnetic interference.

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Double Data Rate DRAM (DDR DRAM)

Is the other competing memory technology battling to provide system builders with a
high-performance alternative to Direct RDRAM. Traditionally, to synchronise logic
devices, data transfers would occur on a clock edge. As a clock pulse oscillates between 1
and 0, data would be output on either the rising edge (as the pulse changes from a '0' to a
'1') or on the falling edge. DDR DRAM works by allowing the activation of output
operations on the chip to occur on both the rising and falling edge of the clock, thereby
providing an effective doubling of the clock frequency without increasing the actual
frequency.

PC133 SDRAM
Although most of the industry agrees that Rambus is an inevitable stage in PC
development, PC133 SDRAM is seen as a sensible evolutionary technology and one that
confers a number of advantages that make it attractive to chip makers.

Consequently, in early 1999, a number of non-Intel chipset makers decided to release

chipsets that supported the faster PC133 SDRAM. PC 133 SDRAM is capable of
transferring data at up to 1.6 GBps - compared with the hitherto conventional speeds of
up to 800 MBps - requires no radical changes in motherboard engineering, has no price
premium on the memory chips themselves and has no problems in volume supply.

At the beginning of 2000, NEC begun sampling 128MB and 256MB SDRAM memory
modules utilising the company's unique performance-enhancing Virtual Channel Memory
(VCM) technology, first announced in 1997. Fabricated with an advanced 0.18-micron
process and optimised circuit layout and compliant with the PC133 SDRAM standard,
VCM SDRAMs achieve high-speed operation with a read latency of 2 at 133MHz (7.5ns)
and are package-and pin-compatible with standard SDRAMs.

The VCM architecture increases the memory bus efficiency and performance of any
DRAM technology by providing a set of fast static registers between the memory core
and I/O pins, resulting in reduced data access latency and reduced power consumption.
The VCM architecture assigns virtual channels to each memory master. Maintaining the
individual characteristics of each memory master’s request in this way enables the

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memory device to be able to read, write and refresh in parallel operations, thus speeding-
up data transfer rates.

Static RAM (SRAM)

SRAM is very fast, approximately four or five times faster than standard DRAM but
much more expensive than DRAM. They are normally reserved for speed critical
functions – such as the system cache.

SRAM uses 4 or 6 transistors per storage bit in an arrangement known as a ‘flip-flop’, the
name comes about because sending an electrical pulse into this arrangement flips its logic
state from a 1 to a 0, or flops it back from a 0 to a 1. Once a flip-flop has been placed in
a particular logic state, it will stay in this state until it receives another pulse, or until it is
powered down – this means that no refresh cycle is required hence this type of RAM is
quite fast. There are various types of SRAM:

Async SRAM
An older type of SRAM used in many PC’s for L2 cache (see topic on cache). It is
asynchronous, meaning that it works independently of the system clock. This means that
the CPU finds itself waiting for information from the L2 cache.

Sych SRAM
This type of SRAM is synchronous meaning it is synchronised with the system clock.
While the speed is good for the processor it is rather expensive.

Pipeline Burst SRAM

SRAM request are pipelined, meaning larger packets of data are sent to the memory at
once and acted on very quickly. This breed of SRAM can operate at bus speed higher
than 66MHz.
Read Only Memory
ROM is a special form of memory which has data permanently written onto the chip
during manufacture (ROM is non-volatile) by using a special programming unit called a
burner. This means that the data is ‘hard-wired’ into the ROM chip. ROM is used for
programs and data that need to be present all the time i.e. BIOS is stored in ROM because
the user cannot disrupt the information. There are several categories of ROM modules –
including some that can be reprogrammed using the appropriate equipment:

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PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory)
This blank ROM chip can be written to, but only once. It cannot be erased.

EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory)

This type can be erased by removing the chip from its socket and placing it in an erasing
unit containing a very strong Ultra Violet (UV) source. Once erased, new data can be
burnt into the EPROM

NB: Do not remove the sticker placed over an EPROM’s window, it is possible (but
unlikely) that direct sunlight through the quartz window may begin to erase the EPROM
contents. For similar reasons, do not store programmed EPROM’s in direct sunlight or
near strong UV source.

EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory)

Also known as ‘Flash BIOS’ can be erased in situ (location) and so most motherboards
manufacturers have switched to this form of ROM for holding the BIOS code. Upgrade
programs can be supplied by motherboard manufacturers on a floppy disk or downloaded
from their web site.

NB: EEPROM's cannot be re-used indefinitely and some types have ‘lifetimes’ of 100
reprogramming cycles so avoid unnecessary updating where possible.

Shadowing
Shadowing is a technique whereby the contents of slow ROM chip are copied into faster
RAM chips. RAM is faster than ROM and so executing the relevant code from RAM is
much faster and will improve the performance of whatever device the code belongs to.
RAM is faster than ROM because ROM can access 8 bits at a time while RAM can
access 32 bits to 64 bits at once depending on the computer. It is commonplace to shadow
both the PC’s own BIOS and the video BIOS.

Most system support ROM BIOS and video BIOS shadowing but these feature can often
be disabled if required because some operating systems do not work correctly with
shadowing enabled.

PC MEMORY BLOCKS
There are several functional memory blocks within a PC:

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 The ‘BIOS’.
 CMOS memory
 The main memory (working memory)
 Cache memory
 Video memory

The BIOS (ROM)

The BIOS inside a PC is split into 3 functional components:

 The BIOS itself

 The Power On Self Test (POST)
 The PC (CMOS) setup program

PC BIOS
All PCs are fitted with a ROM chip holding the system BIOS (Basic Input / Output
System). Even though all these PC’s are made by different manufacturers and they use
different designs, chips and other components, they will still all run the same version of
any software package that you buy. This is because the BIOS in every PC acts as a
translator between the hardware and software, each BIOS is tailored to the design of the
PC and ‘smooths out’ any differences between the designs.

Power On Self Test

The POST routines are stored in the ‘BIOS’ chip. Initially the BIOS performs a series of
system checks (known as Power ON Self Test) to ensure that the main hardware
components (Memory, Floppy disks, Harddisk(s), Printer ports etc) are present and
functioning correctly. Error messages may be produced due to a change in system
configuration, badly seated SIMMs or a defect in the RAM chip(s).

CMOS setup program

The CMOS (Complimentary Metal Oxide Semiconductor) setup program is also stored in
the ‘BIOS’ chip. This program allows the configuration of the PC to be changed or
adjusted. This configuration information is stored in the CMOS memory. This
configuration information for the PC, is used by POST to check out the system. It also
stores the current time, as controlled by the PCs real-time clock chip.
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CMOS memory is RAM (Volatile) its contents are protected by a small battery called
CMOS battery hence information is not lost when the PC is powered down. CMOS
memory requires very little power and thus it can be run from a battery for many years
but, eventually, the battery will need to be replaced.

A flat CMOS battery will make the PC to ‘forget’ its setup information and real time
clock will not run when the PC is powered down. Classic symptoms that the battery
needs replacing include:

 System resetting to 1st January 1980 or some other date in the past
 POST reporting ‘Invalid CMOS checksum’
 POST reporting ‘CMOS configuration error’

NB: The CMOS memory is a fixed size and cannot be upgraded.

Main Memory (RAM)

A PC’s system memory is referred to as main memory, or Random Access Memory
(RAM). It acts, as a staging post between the hard disk and the processor. The more data
it is possible to have available in the RAM, the faster the PC will run.

The amount of RAM fitted inside a PC will depend on what operating system and
applications are to be used. Most modern PCs are fitted with at least 16MB of RAM and
the vast majority of general business PC’s now have 64MB and more.

Main memory is attached to the processor via its address and data buses. Each bus
consists of a number of electrical circuits or bits. The width of the address bus dictates
how many different memory locations can be accessed, and the width of the data bus how
much information is stored at each location. Every time a bit is added to the width of the
address bus, the address range doubles. All Intel processors from the 386DX onwards
have had 32-bit address buses enabling them to access up to 4GB of memory. Modern
processors have 64-bit data buses, so they can access 8 bytes of data at a time.

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NB: Main memory is built up using DRAM chips, short for Dynamic RAM.

Cache memory
When it comes to access speed, processors are currently outstripping memory chips by an
ever-increasing margin. This means that processors are increasingly having to wait for
data (Wait state) going in and out of main memory. One solution is to use ‘cache
memory’ between the main memory and the processor, hence reduce the number of wait
states.

There are two types of memory cache; internal Cache memory is built into the processor
chip also known as Level 1 Cache and external Cache (Level 2 cache) memory located
on the motherboard.

Internal cache

When the computer needs data, it first looks for it in the internal cache. This internal
cache memory is the fastest form of storage because it’s built in to the chip with a zero
wait-state (d elay) interface to the processor’s execution unit it is also expensive to
provide since it takes up space on the processor chip. It is therefore limited in size; for
instance an Intel Pentium II 333MHz processor has 32K bytes of internal cache.

Primary cache is implemented using Static RAM (SRAM) and SRAM is manufactured in
a way rather similar to how processors are: highly integrated transistor patterns photo-
etched into silicon.

Pentium chipsets
such as the Triton
FX (and later)
support a ‘write
back’ cache rather
than a ‘write
through’ cache.
Write through
happens when a
processor writes

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data simultaneously into cache and into main memory (to assure coherency). Write back
occurs when the processor writes to the cache and then proceeds to the next instruction.
The cache holds the write-back data and writes it into main memory when that data line
in cache is to be replaced. Write back offers about 10% higher performance than write-
through, but cache that has this function is more costly.

External cache

If the computer cannot find the data it needs in the internal cache, the computer looks in
the external cache. Most PCs are offered with a external cache to bridge the
processor/memory performance gap. External cache (also know as ‘external’ or ‘Level 2’
cache) uses the same control logic as primary cache and is also implemented in SRAM.

Secondary cache typically comes in two sizes, 256KB or 512KB, and can be found, or
soldered onto the motherboard, in a Card Edge Low Profile (CELP) socket or, more
recently, on a (COAST) ‘Cache On A Stick’ module. The latter resembles a SIMM but is
a little shorter and plugs into a COAST socket, which is normally located close to the
processor and resembles a PCI expansion slot. The Pentium II/Pro deviated from this
arrangement, siting the Level 2 cache on the processor chip itself.
Video memory
The video memory is used to store data that represents the image to be displayed on the
screen. On most systems, the video memory is located on the video card itself, unless of
course the video adaptor is built onto the motherboard. The amount of video RAM will
directly affect two display parameters:

 Screen resolution
 Displayable colours

Video cards with less than 1MB RAM will, not be able to display high-resolution, high
colour depth images.

Video memory types

VRAM (Dual-port RAM) is used on high-performance video adapters. Unlike
conventional RAM, VRAM has two data ports - one for read operations and one for write
operations. This makes it possible for the system to be writing data to memory at the

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same time as data is being read, so updating the screen and greatly improve video system
performance.

SGRAM (Synchronous graphics RAM) is low cost, medium performance single-port

memory that uses various timing techniques to improve its overall performance.

WRAM (Window RAM) is a form of high performance VRAM (about 25% faster) that is
used on a wide range of modern video adaptors.

MEMORY PACKAGES
DIPP's (Dual in-line packages)
These are mainly found in old motherboards, graphics cards
and printers. Each module has two rows of pins. The pins
are weak and care should be taken when upgrading as the pins break easily.

SIPP's (Single In-Line Pin Packages)

SIMMs with pins – no longer used for production

motherboards.

SIMMs (Single In-line Memory Modules)

The original SIMM had a 30-pin format but this has long-since been superseded by the
72-pin variety. A typical motherboard offers four SIMM sockets which will take either
single-sided or double-sided SIMMs with module sizes of
4, 8, 16, 32 or even 64MB. As the Pentium processor has
a 64-bit external data bus, two modules of the same size
are required as a minimum configuration.

SIMM edge connectors are usually made of either tin or gold. Some circuit board SIMM
socket are only designed to take one metal type and this should be checked before fitting
or supplying any SIMMs. The design of the motherboard will determine which SIMMs
may be used and in what combinations.

DIMMs (Dual Inline Memory Modules)

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This is rapidly replacing SIMM as the next module standard for the PC industry as
memory subsystems standardise around an 8-byte data interface. DIMMs are used in
Pentium systems; older had 144 newer have 168 pins in two (or dual) rows of contacts;
one on each side of the card. Care should be taken when choosing whether to install
SIMMs or DIMMs as many memory sockets look as if they will take either when, in fact,
plugging in the wrong type of module can be disastrous.

With the additional pins a computer can retrieve information from DIMMs, 64 bits at a
time instead of the 32- or 16-bit transfers that are usual with SIMMs. Importantly, and
unlike SIMMs, they can be used singly and it is typical for a modern PC to provide just
one or two DIMM slots.

DIMMs are available as 3.3v or 5v modules and are also supplied as either ‘buffered’ or
‘unbuffered’. Make sure that the correct type are fitted and refer to the system
manufacturer’s information if necessary.

RIMMs (Rambus Inline Memory Modules)

With the introduction of Direct RDRAM (DRDRAM) came the RIMM module (the name
is a trademark of Rambus Inc.). RIMMs use the same socket specification as a standard
100MHz DIMM. A PC's BIOS will be able to determine what type of RAM is fitted, so
100MHz SDRAM modules should work in a RIMM-compatible system. However,
systems can't use RIMMs unless both BIOS and the chipset support it.

SODIMMs – (Small Outline DIMMs) are miniature DIMMs used in laptop computers.
NB: Laptops do not use SIMMs memory module.

UPGRADING PC MEMORY
In recent times, as well as becoming much cheaper, RAM has also become more
complicated. There are currently a proliferation of different varieties, shapes and
voltages. The first step in planning an upgrade is therefore to determine what memory
modules are already fitted and whether there are any empty sockets. If there aren’t any,
existing memory modules will have to be replaced with ones of greater capacity.
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The best way to ensure compatibility is to add more memory of the same specification, so
new memory should match the old on the following points:

Available slots If the motherboard memory slots are full it may not be possible to add more
memory, or it may be necessary to remove some older, low capacity
memory modules to make way for new ones.

Physical format: It’s preferable to stick to the same module format. This format also
determines how many modules should be fit: a 486-based PC accepts 72-
pin SIMMs individually, while 30-pin SIMMs must be installed in sets of
four. A Pentium will accept DIMMs individually, but 72-pin SIMMs have
to be fit in sets of two. When installing a set of SIMMs its important to
ensure they’re all alike and have the same capacity.

Parity or non-parity: Parity memory has 3,6,9,12 or 18 chips on each SIMM, non-parity has
2,4,8 or 16. The existing RAM should be used as a guide - fitting parity
RAM to a board that doesn’t use it may result in it grinding to a halt, while
adding non-parity to parity RAM is likely to render parity checking
inoperative.

Number of chips: A few types of motherboards require a particular number of chips per
SIMM. They are mainly 486 boards and they might not work with a mix of
three-chip 30-pin SIMMs with nine-chip 30-pin SIMMs, or a mix of
‘single-sided’ 72-pin SIMMs with ‘double-sided’ 72-pin SIMMs

Voltage: Most memory these days come in 5V. If the motherboard manual indicate
that it also supports 3.3V memory, the jumper setting should be checked.
If 3.3V is installed, any upgrade should also use 3.3V

Type: The three main types of memory are: standard page mode (fast page mode
or FPM), extended data out (EDO) and synchronous (SDRAM). A system
will normally report (at bootup or in the BIOS) if it is using EDO or
SDRAM - if it doesn’t the chances are that it’s FPM. It’s safest not to mix
memory types, although there are often occasions where this is possible

Speed: Memory speed is measured by the time in nanoseconds (nS) it takes to

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access data stored in the memory. Common access time are 50, 60, 70 and
80 nanoseconds. Motherboards will only operate with the correct speed of
memory so this should be checked before fitting any new RAM. To check
for speed, look for markings on the chip at the end of the part number, or
on a sticky label, to identify the speed e.g.

424400 - 70 = 70nS memory

GM71C4400BJ70 = 70nS memory

NK140004-6 = 60nS memory

The exception is SDRAM where the speed is measured in megahertz

corresponding to the maximum host bus speed it can cope with. It is
advisable to stick to the same speed as fitted.

Contact type: Some motherboards will only support memory modules with either gold
or tin plate contacts. If the wrong type is used, an electrical imbalance
between the socket and the contact platting will cause electrical noise and
instability that will get worse over time as the connection between the
two items starts to corrode.

Matching the installed memory on all eight points practically guarantees compatibility. It
is still advisable, however, to check the motherboard manual on allowed DRAM
configurations and there are three things to look out for. Before installing really big
SIMMs (32MB and upwards) it is important to check that the motherboard supports
them. For motherboards with a lot of SIMM sockets (over eight 30-pin or four 72-pin)
it’s necessary to check there aren’t any restrictions on using too many double-sided
SIMMs..

Alternatively, the motherboard may support memory of a higher performance than

already fitted. Some chipsets will happily mix memory technologies. Triton VX- and
HX-based boards allow different banks to be populated with different memory types
(FPM, EDO or SDRAM) and run each bank independently at its optimum speed. Triton
FX allows a mix of FPM and EDO within the same bank, but both will perform like

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FPM. However, with less well-known chipsets, mixing RAM types is a dangerous ploy
and should be avoided.

Installing memory
Having taken into account the above points about purchasing extra SIMMs, the following
procedure should be used:

1. Turn off the PC and remove the power cable.

2. Take appropriate ESD precaution.

3. Remove the system case cover – taking care to store all screws carefully.
Cardboard egg cartons are useful for this purpose if a proper storage tube is not
available, plus this cartons do not hold or generate static electricity.

4. Wearing an antistatic wrist wrap, locate the memory slots on the motherboard.

Identify any old memory that needs to be removed to accommodate the upgrade,
remove it and store it in antistatic bags for future use.

To remove a SIMM, locate the metal locking clips at either end of the module and
unlock the modules them carefully remove them from the slot.

To remove a DIMM, locate the plastic lever and pull them straight out away from
the body of the memory module. As soon as the locks are free of the body of the
memory module, the module will lift easily out of the socket. It may be necessary
to raise or lower the module to remove it.

Older memory modules tend to sit vertically in their sockets and new ones are
angled at 45 degrees to reduce the amount of height they take up. In order to
remove a specific memory module it may be necessary to remove others in front
first.

5. Remove the new modules from their antistatic packaging.

6. SIMMs must be oriented with the ‘nick’ positioned correctly. They should be
sloped backwards to insert them into the slot and then raised upright until they
click into place. DIMMs are placed directly on the slots and pressed downwards
until the levers snap into place.

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7. Replace the cover.

Testing the new memory

1. Replace the cover and reconnect it to its power source. Turn on the computer.

2. Watch the welcome screen to verify that the memory you have just installed now
figures into the memory total that displays on-screen after the computer runs its
memory test.

3. If everything is OK, continue working as usual. If the total memory figure

displayed after the memory count is incorrect, then turn off the PC once that
startup completes. A blank screen may result if memory is installed incorrectly or
if wrong memory is installed.

4. Disconnect the computer from the power source. Remove the cover and make
sure the installed modules are correctly seated in their sockets. Make adjustments
if necessary then repeat the whole procedure.

5. Press F1 key, or whatever keys are necessary to enter the computer’s setup
program. Once in Setup, the computer should automatically input the right
memory settings. Verify that Setup’s Extended Memory category reflects the
newly installed RAM total. Save the settings and exit to reboot with the new
configuration.

6. If the memory test still does not acknowledge the newly installed RAM, you may
have a bad memory module. Call the vendor.

MEMORY DIAGNOSTICS
When a PC runs through the POST (Power On Self Test), commonly called “cold boot”,
memory integrity is one of the first things tested. Memory integrity can be checked in the
following three ways:

 Parity Checking

 Error Correction Code

 Advanced Diagnostic Tests

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Parity checking
Parity is the state of either oddness or evenness assigned to a given byte of data. Parity
checking is the way a computer uses a special set of logical rules and chips to make
decisions based on parity (state) of a particular type. The parity circuit (the combined
process) puts a byte in memory, then reads a byte from memory. If what it reads matches
what is sent, the memory cell is okay. The parity circuit is what tells the computer how
to remember what it sent, in order to compare with what it reads. Until recently, parity
checking has been the most common way to check the ability of memory cells to
accurately hold data.

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Parity works by adding one bit to every byte of data, resulting in nine bits. Remember
that a byte is already eight bits. The value of the bit (1 or 0) is determined at the time the
data is written to DRAM. The 1 or 0 is assigned to the byte depending on whatever the
byte is made up of an odd or even numbers of 1s.

NB: Computers think in binary bits and bytes. The binary language uses “words”
composed of 1s and 0s.

In the parity method of checking memory integrity, a single parity bit is stored in DRAM
along with every eight bits of data. The two types of parity are:

 Odd Parity
 Even Parity

Odd/Even Parity
If a given byte has an even number of 1s (even parity), the parity bit is turned on. In
technical terminology "on" is represented by the number 1. If that byte has an odd
number of 1s (odd parity), the parity bit is turned off (represented by 0). The parity bit
and its corresponding byte are written to memory. When the CPU calls on memory for
the data, the parity circuit intercepts the data before it gets to the CPU. In odd parity
checking, the parity circuit reads the parity bit and the following decision process takes
place:

 If the parity is 0, the system checks to see whether an odd number of 1s is present.
If so, the data is considered valid and the parity bit stripped from the data. The
remaining eight bits are passed through to the CPU.

 If the parity is 1, the system checks to see whether an even number of 1s is present.
If so, the data is considered valid, and the circuit accepts the data.

Even parity works the same way, except the meaning of the 1 or 0 parity bit is reversed.
The difference in even parity is that when the parity circuit sees a 0, the system checks to
see whether an even number of 1s is present.

Example of a parity error message:

MEMORY PARITY ERROR ADDR (HEX) = (XXXXX)

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The error message may vary depending on the BIOS in your system.

NB: The parity checking uses an extra bit attached to a byte. The extra bit is set to either
1 or 0, depending on whether the byte is made up of an even or odd number of 1s or 0s.

Memory controller
A PC must have memory to store data resulting from calculations and logical processes.
An essential component of every PC is a memory controller, located between the CPU
and the memory itself. The memory controller performs the following functions:

 Oversees the movement of data in and out of memory

 Determines which type (if any) of data-integrity checking is supported.

The person purchasing the computer determines which type of data-integrity checking is
supported. The customer can choose ECC (Error Checking Code) parity checking, or
nothing, depending mainly on cost benefits. Because of the cost associated with the
memory checking method employed:

 High-end network servers typically use an ECC-capable memory controller.

 Midrange desktop business PCs typically are configured to support parity checking.

 Low-cost homes PCs often have no parity checking while some have fake parity.

Fake or Disabled Parity

Some computer manufacturers will install a less expensive “fake” parity chip that simply
sends 1 or 0 to the parity circuit to supply parity on the basis of which parity state is
expected. Regardless of whether the parity is valid, the computer is fooled into thinking
that everything is indeed valid.

ECC – Error Correction Code

Parity checking is limited in the sense that it can only detect an error. It can’t repair or
correct the error because the circuit can’t detect which one of the eight bits is valid.
Additionally, if multiple bits are wrong but the result is odd or even parity, the circuit will
pass the invalid data. ECC overcomes these limitations of the parity checking method.
ECC uses a special (mathematical formula) and works in conjunction with the memory
controller to add error correction code bits to each data bit when they are sent to memory.
When data is requested by the CPU, the memory controller decodes the error correction
bits and determines the validity of their attached data bit. Until recently, ECC was
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mainly used in high-end, expensive computers. Intel has introduced chipsets that have
made ECC an integrated feature on current mainstream PCs.

NB: ECC can detect multi-bit errors, but can correct only single-bit errors. Parity
checking can detect that the overall byte (a byte is a group of eight bits) coming out of
memory does not match what was sent into memory, but cannot correct anything.

Advanced Diagnostic Tests

A number of diagnostic programs can be used to test RAM chips and other system
components. For example, Norton Utilities include a utility called NDIAGS that tests
RAM for defects. Others include PC-Check by EuroTest. Such programs should be used
anytime you receive a memory parity error message, or if a properly running system
suddenly begins locking up or if strange characters appear on screen.

STORAGE MEDIA
Storage media refers to a drive that is used to store programs and information
permanently. The main types of storage devices used include:
1. Hard disk drives
2. Floppy disk drives
3. Tape drives
4. CD-ROM drives etc.
The main differences between the various storage media are their storage capacities; their
ability to offer read and write capability, the type of media used e.g. data on Digital
Video Disk (DVD) is digital while data on tape drives and floppy drives is held on a
magnetic media.

REMOVABLE MAGNETIC STORAGE

This is a type of storage, which allows the actual storage media to be removed from a
drive and replace it with other media. It is used for the transportation of data between
computers, for data backup and to provide (in theory) unlimited storage. It’s much easier
to swap removable disks than fit another hard disk to obtain extra storage capacity.

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The following devices are examples of removable magnetic storage:

 Floppy disk drives
 Tape drives
 Zip dives
 Jaz drives
 LS-120 SuperDisk
 SyQuest drives.
The removable part of these devices is the media i.e. the disk or cartridges.

FLOPPY DISK DRIVES

Historically the floppy disk is a very important storage device, but they have a relatively
low data storage capacity compared to other modern technologies.

The floppy disk drive stores information on a removable cartridge- the floppy disk. This
is a plastic sheet coated with a magnetic material and surrounded by a protective case.
Most personal computers have an internal floppy disk drive, but there are some
exceptions e.g. the Apple iMac.
FLOPPY DISK DRIVE STORAGE CAPACITIES

5 ¼ inch Floppy Disk

The first 5 ¼ inch floppies were used on the first generation of PCs in the early 80s. They
had a capacity of 160KB, quickly went to 180KB. Data was stored on one side of the disk
only.
With the advent of double-sided drives, the double-sided disks could hold 360KB of data.
In 1984, the 1.2MB 5 ¼ inch disk was introduced by IBM. This was also known as the
high-density disk because the amount of data that could be stored was increased by
packing the data more closely- thereby storing more bits per inch on the media.
These disks are now obsolete.
3 ½ Inch Floppy Disk

Most new PCs have the 3 ½ inch floppy as the standard. The 3 ½ inch floppy disk has a
rigid cover that makes it less vulnerable to damage than the 5 ¼ inch floppy.

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The first generation of 3 ½ inch floppy disks could store only 720KB of data, which
increased to 1.44 MB.
Toshiba invented the 2.88 MB 3 ½ floppy disk in the 1980’s, and though it offered
double the storage capacity of other units, it never took well off in the market. They are
rarely found now.
FLOPPY DISK DRIVE SPEEDS

Floppy disk drives have a normal data transfer rate of 31KBps, high data transfer rate of
62KBps and on extra high data transfer rate of 125KBps. When a disk is being read or
written, it rotates at 300 rpm (rotations per minute).

TYPICAL USES

1. Install new software: Floppy disks were used to distribute software in the early days.
But times have changed, and today, everybody needs high-capacity removable
storage. These days, applications don’t come on single floppies, they come on CD-
ROMs. Thanks to Windows and the impact of multimedia, file sizes have gone
through the ceiling. A Word document with a few embedded graphics results in a
multi-megabyte data file, quite incapable of being shoehorned into a floppy disk.
2. Transfer data: You can use floppy disks to transport files between PCs. This lets you
give data to friends and colleagues.
3. Back up data: You can protect files stored on the computer by copying the files to
floppy disks. These files will serve as backup copies if your hard drive fails or you
accidentally erase important files.
4. Increase hard drive space- Floppies can act as an overspill for the hard disk i.e. you
can increase the available space on your computer by copying old or rarely used files
to floppy disks. You can then remove the files from the computer to provide more
storage space. (It’s easier to swap floppy disks than fit another hard disk to obtain
extra storage capacity).

FLOPPY DISK INTERFACE

Floppy disks are connected to their host controller via a 34-way ribbon cable.

Twist in cable assigns

Pin 1 stripe 223 drive letters
34-way edge connector
for 5 ¼” drive
B: A:
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The ribbon cable has a twist in it between the floppy disk connectors. This twist turns
around some key control signals and if a pair of floppy disk drives are connected to the
PC, the twist defines which drive is assigned as A: and which is assigned as B:
Drive A: signifies the bootable floppy drive.
Another key control signal can be found on line 34 (the outside edge of the ribbon)- this
is the disk change line and it sends a signal to the PC whenever a floppy disk is inserted
or removed. This ensures that the operating system knows it must re-read the directory on
this disk in order to bring itself upto date.
If this wire becomes loose or damaged, the operating systems can display incorrect
information- for example, listing a directory that comes from a previous floppy disk in
response to the command that lists directories e.g. DIR.
Note: If the floppy disk ribbon cable has been connected the wrong way round, the floppy
disk’s activity LED comes on and stays on as soon as the PC is powered up. Luckily, this
is unlikely to cause any permanent damage.

CARE OF FLOPPY DRIVES AND DISKS

Care needs to be taken of the floppy disk drive and floppy disks:
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1. Clean the floppy disk drives regularly using a proper cleaning kit.
2. Handle the PC gently especially when moving it because the heads on the floppy disk
can easily come out of alignment, causing it to fail.
3. If the floppy disk drive fails it is often cheaper to replace it than try to repair it.

4. Avoid inserting disks that have sticky disk labels and damaged disk flaps as these can
get stuck in the drives.

5. You can prevent erasing and recording information on a floppy disk by sliding the tab
in the write-protected position.

6. Make sure you keep floppy disks away from magnets and magnetic fields, which can
damage the information stored on disks.

7. Also do not store floppy disks in extremely hot or cold locations and avoid spilling
liquids such as coffee or soda on the disks.
8. Floppy disks should never be folded!

Note: All floppy drives use the SA-400 interface, the same interface used for floppy
drives for years. For this reason, any floppy drive will work with any computer, right out
of the box.

JAZ DRIVES
This is a small and portable disk drive developed by Iomega Corporation. The high
capacity cartridges can store 1GB or 2GB of data.
The Jaz drive is usually used for backups because of its high capacity.
Both internal and external Jaz drives are available. The Jaz drive is available as an
internal or external device in SCSI, IDE (EIDE), USB and parallel interfaces.
The Jaz disk has a 5.5 MBps data transfer rate and 12ms seek time. The seek time is the
time the drive takes to position the read/write head on a randomly requested track which
contains data to be accessed.

ZIP DRIVES
These are high capacity disk drives also developed by Iomega Corporation. The Zip
drives use ‘floppy cartridges’, which are slightly larger than the conventional floppy and

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are about twice as thick. They can hold 100 MB or 250 MB of information and is
available in both internal and external versions.
The internal units fit a 3.5in bay, come with a choice of SCSI or ATAPI interface and are
fast, with an average 29ms seek time and a data transfer rate of 1.4 KBps.
External units originally came in SCSI or parallel port versions only. However, quite
recently a USB version was brought to the market.
The Zip drive is relatively inexpensive and the drives are compatible with both the
Personal Computers and Apple computers. They are preferred for transporting large files
and hence are popular with designers.
The main disadvantage of Zip drives is that they are not backward compatible with 3.5in
floppies.
LS-20 SUPERDISK
A SuperDisk diskette looks very similar to a common 1.44MB 3.5in disk, but uses the
‘floptical technology’ developed by Imation Corp to create disks with much greater
capacity and speed.
The LS-20 floppy disk drive can read and write both common 1.44 MB 3 ½ inch floppy
disks and the 3-½ inch 120MB ‘SuperDisks’.

The LS-120 disk has optical reference tracks on its surface that are both written and read
by a laser system. These ‘ servo tracks’' are much narrower and can be laid closer
together on the disks. As a result, the LS-120 can hold 120MB of data.
LS-120 disk has a 450 KBps data transfer rate and 70ms seek time and this makes it 5
times faster than a standard 3.5in floppy drive. However, it has a comparatively slow spin
rate of 720rpm that means it’s not as fast as a Zip drive.
Unlike the Zip and Jaz drives the LS-120 SuperDisk offers backward compatibility with
the standard 1.44 MB and 720KB floppy disks. However if you format the 3-½ inch
floppy in the LS-120, it cannot be read in a standard floppy drive.
Another advantage of the LS-120 is that it has a compatible BIOS with the hard disk.
This allows it to act as a fail-safe start-up drive in the event of a hard disk crash.
COMPACT DISK DRIVES
The compact disc is now a common media for both audio and data storage.

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They are in fact a family of optical devices:

CD-DA Compact Disk Digital Audio

CD-ROM Compact Disk Read Only Memory

CD-R Compact Disk Recordable

CD-RW Compact Disk Rewritable

Basic Concepts

All types of CD drives are available as internal or external devices and most
manufacturers include an internal CD-ROM drive as standard on new PCs.
CD drives have become very popular in recent years, mainly because of their data
storage capacity and the fact that most software is distributed on CDs.
Unless a special request is made, most manufacturers no longer supply software on
floppy disk.
Storage Capacity

CD-R and CD-ROM disks can store about 650 megabytes (MB) of data, whereas a
regular floppy can store only 1.44MB of data.
CD-ROMs are produced using a physical stamping method and this technique is suitable
for mass production of audio and data CD’s. CD-Rs are produced using a laser to encode
information into a dye layer sandwiched between other materials on the blank media.

CD-ROM

CD-ROM drives are read only- they can only read data from a CD-ROM, CD-R, CD-RW
and CD-DA disks.

CD-ROMs and normal music CDs are made from pre-pressed discs and encased in
plastic. The actual data is stored through pits, or tiny indentations, on the silver surface of
the internal disc. To read the disc, the CD-ROM shines a laser beam onto the surface, and
by interpreting the way in which the laser light is reflected from the disc it can tell
whether the area under the laser is indented or not.
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However, there’s no way the laser can change the indentations of the silver disc, which
means there’s no way of writing new data to the disc once its been created. Naturally
technological developments took place to enable CD-ROMs to be written or rewritten
leading to CD-R and CD-RW drives.

NB: Laser light can damage your eyes and hence the CD drive is tightly sealed whenever
in operation.

CD-ROM Speeds

CD-ROM drives are available in different speeds. The original single-speed CD-ROM
drives (1X) could transfer data at 150 kilobytes of data per second (Kbps).
Modern CD-ROMs come with speeds that are a multiple of this speed. Thus, a 32X CD-
ROM drive can transfer 4800 Kbps (32 x 150) of data. Note that this is the peak data
transfer rate, and the CD-ROM drive will not transfer that amount of data all the time.

The Average access time indicates how quickly a CD-ROM drive can find information
stored on a disk. The Average access times typically range from 150 ms to 300 ms.

CD-ROM Interface

CD-ROM drives can be attached to SCSI, EIDE, USB, and parallel port interfaces. Most
of them include an audio connector for linking to a sound card, which in turn will let
music CDs to be played through speakers or headphones.

CD-R

CD-R drives can read CD-ROM, CD-R, CD-RW and CD-DA drives and can also write
data to CD-R media. CD-R can store about 650 MB of data. They provide a cheaper bulk
storage medium and are ideal for storage and backing up a lot of data.
Furthermore, because CD-ROM drives are commonplace the discs are readable on many
PCs, a fact that also makes CD-R an excellent medium for transferring large files.

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As archive material they are more durable than tape cartridges and can’t be wiped by
coming into contact with a magnetic field.

However, the disadvantage of CD-Rs is that the writing process is permanent. You can
only write to the disk once. The future of CD-R drives seems to be in doubt. CD-RW
drives can accomplish the same thing as CD-R drives, but you can also rewrite CD-RW.

Two speeds are usually listed for CD-R drives. The slower speed is the speed at which
the drive records information onto a CD-R. The faster speed is the speed at which the
drive reads information from a disk.

CD-R drives are affordable for most people as they cost slightly more than CD-ROMs.

CD-RW

CD-RW drives can read CD-ROM, CD-R and CD-DA as well as write and erase data on
CD-RW disks many times. In other words, you can play audio CDs, use your regular
CD-ROMs, and read CD-Rs using a CD-RW. In addition you can record data on a CD-
RW, and you can re-record over that same disk as many times as you wish.

The overall capacity of a CD-RW is around 500MB i.e. after formatting.

CD-RW drives are dual-function, this means that they can record on both CD-R and CD-
RW, so the user can choose which recordable media is going to be the best for a
particular job.

Each storage location on a CD-RW disk has a life cycle of around 10,000 write
operations but the chances of ‘wearing out’ a single spot are extremely remote, due to the
fact that data is ‘scattered’ across the surface of the disk.

CD-RW drives are generally more expensive than CD-R when buying, but it pays off in
the long run because you can record on CD-RWs more than once.

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The drawback of CD-RW drives is that they are slower than CD-ROM and CD-R drives
and they still lag behind the two drives in performance.

WORM Drives
Write Once Read Many storage (WORM) has been around since the late 1980s, and is a
type of optical drive that can be written to and read from. When data is written to a
WORM drive, physical marks are made on the media surface by a low-powered laser and
since these marks are permanent, they cannot be erased, hence write once.

Information can be stored on a disk at several different times, called sessions. There are
multi-session WORM writers that can add new information to blank parts of the disk.
The worm drives have capacities of upto 6.5 GB and they are difficult to mass duplicate
as the write process cannot be reproduced with mechanical stamping equipment.

WORM drives are typically used for off-line storage and archiving documents.

‘Book’ Standards

The various CD standards and technologies that have been developed over the years are
covered by a series of ‘books’.

The following table summarizes the scope of the books. Some technologies listed here
are outside the scope of the syllabus and are not mentioned in the chapter.

Book Scope

Red Physical format for Audio CDs

Yellow Physical format for Data CDs

Green Physical format for CD-I

Orange Physical format for CD-RW

Blue Physical format for LaserDisk

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White Physical format for VideoCD

TECHNOLOGIES

There are three different technologies that are currently used to write data CDs:

Dye Polymer

Instead of the regular aluminium layer, these CDs have a gold ‘reflector’ coated with an
organic dye. The laser in the read/write head is used to alter the dye layer and simulate
the pits representing data. This format does not support CD-RWs.

Magneto-optical (MO)

Data is written to MO disks by heating the recording surface and then subjecting it to a
magnetic field; as the surface cools, the polarity of the magnetic field is locked in place.

A laser beam is used to read the data from polarized surface. MO is currently the most
widely used method for writing to CDs and has the advantage that the disks produced
have high life expectancy. It is used for both CD-R and CD-RW production.

Phase Change

Data is stored on a phase change disk by heating the recording surface to change its
structure. The laser is also used at a lower temperature to change the recording surface
back to its original state or to delete data.
A phase-change drive supports CD-RW production and is faster than a magneto-optical
drive.
The disadvantage is that the life of the discs is limited and is less than that of MO disks.

DVD
DVD stands for Digital Versatile Disc (it used to stand for Digital Video Disc).
Developed by a consortium (DVD forum) of major manufacturers of audio-video

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equipments. DVD provides digital information on disks that are the same size as
standard CD-ROM. Thus they offer better sound and picture quality than videotape and
will not deteriorate over time. In fact, this technology was originally developed for the
distribution of video movies.

DVD drives and discs differ from CDs in that:

 Tracks on DVD disc are placed much closer together (pitch distance 0.74 microns)
than CDs thereby allowing more tracks per disc hence greater capacity.
 Pits where data is stored are a lot smaller than those in CDs (minimum pit length of a
single layer DVD disc is 0.4 micron) allowing more pits per track.

Compact Disc Digital Versatile disc

 Unlike with the single-layer CD that stores all data in a single spiral track, DVD
specification allows information to be scanned from more than one layer of a DVD.
This is achieved by simply changing the focus of the read laser. The layers are
separated by a translucent layer with an opaque reflective layer behind carrying more

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data.

 DVD allows for data to be stored in both sides of the disc.

 The error correction technique employed by DVD is more efficient and effective as
compared to that of the CD which is relatively crude. Bits that were used for error
detection are now being used to store useful data.

DVD drives are more expensive than CD-ROMs drives but they are compatible with CD-
ROMs, CD-R, and CD-RWs. DVD recordable drives are becoming available, with a
capacity of 2.6 GB and support for re-writeable disks.

There are five different physical formats of DVD:

DVD-ROM - is a high-capacity data storage medium

DVD-Video - is a digital storage medium for feature-length motion pictures
DVD-Audio - an audio-only storage format similar to CD-Audio
DVD-R - offers a write-once, read-many storage format like the CD-R
DVD-RAM - was the first rewritable (erasable) flavour of DVD to come to
market
and has subsequently found competition in the rival DVD-RW
and DVD+RW format.

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With the same overall size as a standard 120mm diameter, 1.2mm thick CD, DVD discs
provide up to 17GB of storage with higher than CD-ROM transfer rates and similar to
CD-ROM access times and come in four versions:

 DVD-5 is a single-sided single-layered disc boosting capacity seven-fold to 4.7GB

 DVD-9 is a single-sided double-layered disc offering 8.5GB
 DVD-10 is a 9.4GB dual-sided single-layered disc
 DVD-18 will increase capacity to a huge 17GB on a dual-sided dual-layered disc.

TAPE DRIVES
Magnetic tape drives are ideal for system backups for several reasons, they are cheap
(low cost per byte of the media), they can cope with large capacity and are regarded as
very reliable.
The drives are supplied with SCSI, EIDE or parallel port interfaces.
There are a number of drive/media types available:

 Quarter Inch Cartridge (QIC)

 Travan
 Digital Audio Tape (DAT)
 Digital (DLT)

Quarter Inch Cartridge (QIC)

QIC-format tape cartridges have been available for many years. They have typical
capacities ranging between 60MB and 25GB. This capacity generally depends on the tape
size/length used.

Travan

The Travan backup format is a development of the QIC system. It offers different
capacities depending on the tape type.
Their capacities range between 400MB and 8GB
Travan tapes are slightly more expensive than QIC tapes.
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Digital Audio Tape (4mm tape)

DAT uses a digital format with two magnetic heads- one to read and one to write.
DAT data tapes are identical in size and appearance to DAT audiotapes, but the two
formats are not interchangeable. DAT backup systems conform to a standard called
Digital Data Storage (DDS).

They have larger capacities of 1.3GB to 24GB. With DAT tapes some compatibility
problems may arise such that backups made with one type of tape drive may not be
compatible with drives from other manufacturers.

8mm tape systems

The 8mm helical scan tape backup system offers high capacity data storage in a cartridge
that appears identical to 8mm video tapes, although it uses a much higher quality
magnetic media, this format is popular for high-end servers and workstations. The
maximum storage capacity for each tape is 14GB(compressed) using 160 meters of 8mm
data grade media.

Digital (DLT)

This technology was developed for high-speed, LAN-based systems. DLT is a popular
format for mini-computers and large servers and is much faster than other tape formats.

Technology Typical max. Typical use

capacities

Native
(Compressed)

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QIC 1.6GB (32GB) Workstation

Travan TR-1 to TR-4 7GB(14GB) Workstation, small business

Travan TR-5 10GB )20GB) Server backup

4 mm DAT DDS 2GB (4GB) Server backup

4 mm DAT DDS-2 4GB (8GB) Server backup

4 mm DAT DDS-3 12GB(24GB) Server backup

8mm 7GB (14GB) Server backup

DLT 35GB (70GB) Server backup-high capacity

AIT 25GB (50GB) Mid-range server

Ecrix VXA 33GB (66GB) Server backup-high capacity

OnStream ADR 25GB(50GB) Server backup

Notes: The values in brackets show the capacities when data is compressed.
The last two technologies are new or emerging technology and are fast.

REMOVABLE STORAGE MEDIA

Removable Hard Disk drives

The lower cost and increased storage capacity of hard disk drives has led to the
development of removable hard drives using caddies for SCSI or IDE interface.
These are suited for a working environment where different people are ‘hot desking’ and
drives need to be regularly swapped.

Hard Cards

‘Hard Card’ disk drives have the disk mounted on the controller board itself and are
treated by the PC as IDE disk drives. These drives can be used to provide additional hard
disk drive support, although they are not that common.

Flash RAM

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Flash RAM ‘drives’ have been developed for use with Personal Digital Assistant (PDA)
platforms but can also be used with PC Card-compatible machines.
Flash RAM drives store data in semi-permanent RAM and contains no moving parts.
Storage capacities are in the range of 1MB to 168MB but they are very expensive.
HARD DISKS

Hard disks offer a permanent storage facility as opposed to RAM, which can only hold
data for as long as the power is on.
Most computers have an internal hard disk (some may have two or more). On a PC, the
hard disk holds many important configuration files, the operating system, application
software and data.

DISK ARCHITECTURE

A hard disk is made up of several moving parts that are essential to the correct working
of the disk:

A spindle holds several concentric disks, called platters. Platters are coated with a
magnetic material that holds (records) the data. The platters are usually made from glass
or aluminium compound. The number of platters in the disk depends a lot on the capacity
required as each of the platters provides two recording surfaces. Most drives have two or
more platters.

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There are two read/write heads on each platter for each surface. The read/write heads are
fixed on a single arm called the head actuator. The position of the heads is controlled by
the actuator so that every part of the recording surface can be accessed, but the heads
themselves do not touch the surface of the platters at all, they fly just above it on a
cushion of air generated by the rotation of platters.

The platters, spindle motor, and head actuator are often enclosed inside the drive, and are
sealed to protect them from dust contamination. This chamber is often called the head
disk assembly (HDA).
The distance between the read/write heads and the surface of the platters is measured in
microns (millionths of a meter), and so a speck of dust would cause considerable damage.
Because they are precision instruments and they operate mechanically, hard drives need
to be handled with care. They don’t handle shocks very well, and are expensive to
replace.

DISK DATA ARCHITECTURE

Each platter has two usable sides, marked in concentric circles called tracks. The more
the tracks on the disk surface the higher the capacity of the disk.
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A disk has more than one recording surface, so a collection of tracks, or a ‘stack’ of
tracks is known as a cylinder.

Each track is divided into a number of segments (individual storage units) called sectors.

Each recording surface has its own read/write head.

Each sector holds 512 bytes of data. A group of sectors together is called a cluster.

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Current hard disk drives have capacities ranging from 1.2GB to 20GB. To calculate the
total storage capacity of a disk, the following formula is used:

Total disk capacity = Cylinders x Heads x Sectors (per track) x 512 bytes

Encoding

Two different techniques are used to modify the magnetic fields on the surface of the
disk- MFM and RLL.
Modified Frequency Modulation (MFM) is used on floppy disk drives and on hard disk
drives manufactured before 1988. Maximum capacity is 17x512 byte sectors per track.
Run Length Limited (RLL) was widely adopted by many manufacturers to increase disk
capacity, initially it was 50% more efficient. RLL can take 34 or more sectors per track.

Drive Geometry Translations

Due to the limitations of DOS and many older BIOS, the maximum number of cylinders,
heads and sectors per track that can be specified on some PCs is:

512bytes x 1024 cyl x 16 heads x 63 sect/tr = 512MB.

Most modern system BIOSs have been adjusted to accommodate a larger range of values,
but many still do not support exact drive characteristics.

To support high capacity disks on these PCs, drive translation is used. In effect, values
entered in the CMOS setup do not match the characteristics of the drive, instead they are
figures that give the right capacity and are supported by the PC.
For example, Seagate recommends the following translations for the ST31081A drive:

Cylinders Heads Sector/track Effective capacity

524 64 63 1,081,737,216

2097 16 63 1,082,253,312

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LBA mode

This is another way of avoiding the limitations of addressing cylinders, heads and tracks;
by referring to the drive capacity by the number of physical storage locations (blocks) it
has. This is known as Logical Block Addressing (LBA) mode.

Tip: If a system BIOS does not support a hard disk’s capacity either directly or via
translation, check whether LBA mode is supported.

Points to note:

 Not all drives support LBA mode addressing

 Make sure the translation type used is documented- this information may need to
be re-entered in the future.
 Do not switch from one translation method to another- data on the disk can be
corrupted.
 Older disk utilities may not work correctly with drives using LBA mode or
translation.
 Do not low-level format drives that are using LBA or translation mode UNLESS
the manufacture’s recommended program can be used.

The low-level format routines in some BIOS and software packages do not operate
correctly on such drives and can corrupt the date surface beyond repair.

HARD DISK PERFORMANCE

The performance of a hard disk can be measured in various ways:

Seek time

This is the time it takes to position the hard disk read/write heads for a randomly
requested track, which contains the data to be accessed.

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The fastest seek time occurs when moving from one track directly to the next track.
The slowest seek time is the so-called full-stroke between the outermost track and the
innermost track.

Rotational Delay / Rotational Latency

This is the time that it takes for the disk to rotate so that the required sector is under the
read/write heads. This is mainly dependent on the rotational speed of the disk.
The average rotational latency is the time the disk needs to turn half way around, usually
about 4ms to 6ms.

Head Switch Time

All heads of a disk are carried on one actuator arm, so all heads are on the same cylinder
at any given time.
This is the average time the drive takes to switch between two of the heads when reading
or writing data. It is also measured in milliseconds.

Access time

The combination of seek time, rotational latency and the Head Switch time.

Access Time = Seek time + Rotational Delay + Head Switch Time

Data Transfer Rate

Also called the Throughput. This specifies the rate at which data is read from and written
to the drive once the heads are in position.
This is expressed in megabits per second (Mbps).
Data transfer rate will be influenced by the rotational speed of the platters, any on-disk
cache RAM, the type of disk interface, the operating system and the PCs CPU speed.

Spindle speed
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This is called the rotational speed and it defines how fast the spindles spin. This
measured in revolutions per minute (rpm).

Note: The overall performance of a hard disk can be improved by optimizing storage on
the disk (defragmentation) and by installing disk caching software

HARD DISK INTERFACES

There are a number of interfaces for hard disks that have led to a standardization of hard
disk interfaces. The common ones are as follows:

 ST-506
 ESDI- Enhanced Small Device Interface
 IDE- Integrated Drive Electronics
 EIDE- Enhanced Integrated Drive Electronics
 SCSI

ST-506

The ST-506 interface was developed by Seagate Technologies and was chosen as the
standard for the IBM PCs.
The ST-506 interface uses a controller card and two ribbon cables- a 20-way cable for
data and a 34-way cable for control signals.
The first hard disks supported disks that had a capacity of 5MB upto 140MB, and a data
transfer of 0.625 MBps.

ESDI (Enhanced Small Device Interface)

The ESDI was introduced in 1983 and was common on the IBM PS/2 PCs. They offered
improved performance over the ST-506 based disk systems.
ESDI supported larger capacities of approximately 10MB, and faster data transfer rates.

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IDE (Integrated Drive Electronics)

IDE is also known as ATA (Advanced Technology Attachment) or AT- Attachment.

It was the first hard disk to integrate the disk controller with the drive, that is why it was
called Integrated Drive Electronics.

The IDE disks connect to the disk controller or to the motherboard using a single 40-way
ribbon cable. Each interface can support up to two drives with a maximum capacity of
528MB per drive. Jumpers are then used to select the primary (master or slave) or
secondary (master or slave) drives.

The IDE interface was developed specifically as a hard disk interface, although it could
be used for CD-ROM drives under some circumstances.

The capacities of IDE drives ranges from 30MB to 540MB with data transfer rates
between 3.25 MBps and 8.25 MBps.

EIDE- Enhanced Integrated Drive Electronics

This was first by Western Digital as an improvement on the IDE interface.

It improved on the IDE interface in the following areas:

 It supports larger capacity drives (from 8.4 GB to 137 GB), provided the PCs BIOS
can support this.
 It offers higher transfer rates of between 11 MBps and 33 MBps by using DMA
(Direct Memory Access) technology.

A number of improved data transfer techniques have led to generations of EIDE devices
with various degrees of performance.

EIDE Mode Max. data transfer

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rate

Original ATA/IDE/EIDE 2-3 MBps

PIO 3 11.1 MBps

PIO 4 16.6 MBps

DMA 1 13.3 MBps

DMA2 16.6 MBps

Ultra DMA/ATA-33/Ultra- 33 MBps

ATA

Ultra DMA/ATA-66/Ultra- 66 MBps

ATA

 Supports CD-ROMs, tape drives and other ‘removable media’ devices. This was
possible by using the AT Attachment Packet Interface or ATAPI.
 EIDE supports upto four drives by the addition of a second 40-pin connector on a
second controller.
 These devices can be hard drives with storage capacities over 528MB or other
devices such as CD-ROM and tape drives.

Note: If different types of EIDE/IDE devices are mixed on the same interface, the
interface runs at the speed of the slowest device.

SCSI- Small Computer Systems Interface

SCSI interface is faster than EIDE. Compared to IDE/EIDE, SCSI supports a wider range
of devices.

The drawback is that the SCSI interface is more complex to configure than other
interfaces.

To connect a SCSI hard disk, refer to SCSI notes found under ‘Bus Architecture’.

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HARD DISK PREPARATION
Hard disk drives and floppy disks need to be formatted before use. The formatting
process prepares the disk to store data by dividing up the storage area into usable sections
(clusters). It also allocates space for the directory and the File Allocation Tables. These
two structures contain information relating to the files on the disk including their name,
size, location on the disk and date of creation.

Low level formatting

A new hard disk is completely unmarked for the heads to be able to locate tracks and
sectors, index marks have to be written on the surface. This process is called a ‘low-level
format’, and this is done at the factory. The low-level format divides the disk into its
sectors and also writes other information on to the disk that allows the drive electronics
to work with the media.

A hard disk can be re-low level formatted BUT this must be done with the correct
software tools supplied or recommended by the drive manufacturer.
This should never be performed on IDE or EIDE drives as it can damage the disk beyond
repair and invalidate the warranty.

Partitioning

Partitioning the hard disk drive is the act of dividing it into logical volumes. This is one
of the first things to be done when configuring a new hard disk.
Actually the hard disk has to be partitioned into at least one volume before it can be
formatted and used.
FDISK is a program used within DOS and Windows 9x for configuring hard disk
partitions. FDISK allows different kinds of partitions to be created e.g. primary partitions
and logical DOS volumes.

High level formatting

High level formatting prepares the disk for use with an operating system. In DOS, such a
command will create a boot record and File Allocation Table (FAT), it will also initialize
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the disk directory and verify the hard disk surface and optionally transfer the system files
to the drive, thus ensuring that the disk is bootable.

INSTALLING AN IDE /EIDE DEVICE

The section below covers the procedure for installing an IDE/EIDE hard disk.
The procedure is the same for other devices such as CD-ROM drives, tape drives, Zip
drives etc.

Preparation

 Take anti-static precautions.

 Make sure that you have the correct mounting kit and screws. Many disk
manufacturers state the correct screw size to be used with their disks. If the wrong
screws are used, they can damage the drive casing.
 Switch off the PC and remove the power cable.
 Remove the PC cover. Take care to store all screws carefully. Do not store the screws
in a plastic container because there is the possibility of static discharge causing
damage.
 Check that a free drive bay exists to hold the new disk.
 Ensure that there is a spare power connector for the drive. If not, a ‘Y’ adapter cable
may be needed to allow an existing connector to support two devices.
Cables are not usually supplied with the machine, but may be supplied with the new
hard drive.
 Ensure that there is a spare data connector on any existing IDE cable (ribbon cable)
for the new drive or, if the drive is to be fitted to a different interface, that a new cable
is available.

Configuring the drive

The drive will need to have its jumpers set according to how many other devices are
connected to the same IDE interface.

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The first unit on an IDE interface is configured as a master device. The second unit on an
IDE interface is configured as a slave device.

The primary master is used as the bootable drive. On older hard disk drives it may be
necessary to set jumpers to define whether a drive is to be configured as a slave or a
master.
Configuration of different IDE devices has a strong impact on PC performance. When
adding, removing or changing IDE devices always check the existing configuration to
ensure best performance. For example, fitting the hard disks and slow devices like the
CD-ROM to the same interface will slow down disk access.

Setting device jumpers

 Locate the configuration jumpers on the underside or front/back of drive.

 Change jumpers in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions.
There is no standard for ‘jumpering’ IDE hard disk drives and each disk may have a
different number of jumpers sited in different locations.

The documentation supplied with the drive will have instructions on configuring the
settings or they could be written on the drive itself (the front cover).

 Using a pair of needle-nose pliers or a similar tool (or fingernail), set the appropriate
jumper settings for each device.

Fitting the drive

 Identify Pin 1 end of the data connector.

 Write down the configuration parameters if they are only listed on top of drive. Note
the following parameters: cylinders, heads, sectors per track, landing zone. These
parameters will be needed later.
 Slide the disk into the selected drive bay and fix it securely using the screws
provided.
Fitting the cables

On some PCs, it might be easier to it cable to the disk drive before fixing it in place.

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 Plug the power cable into the drive. The plug will fit one way.
 Plug the ribbon cable into the drive. Check that the ribbon cable is fitted the right way
round, the ribbon cable is usually fitted so that that the ‘Pin 1 stripe’ is adjacent to
the power connector.
 Plug the ribbon cable into IDE interface on expansion card or motherboard.
 Recheck all the cables and replace the cover.

Power up

 Switch on the PC.

 Most modern PCs will automatically detect and configure the BIOS to recognize the
new device. If it cannot be found, the CMOS Setup utility should be used to select the
device-specific parameters. The changes made to the settings should be saved before
exiting from the CMOS setup. Most CMOS setup programs are now able to auto
detect IDE drives.

Partitioning and formatting

 A new drive will require partitioning and formatting before it can be used, using
FDISK and FORMAT.
Take great care to select the correct drive when using FDISK or FORMAT since both
can cause irrecoverable data loss

RAID - Drive Arrays

RAID stands for Redundant Array of Inexpensive Disks. With RAID many disks act as
backups for each other to increase reliability and fault tolerance. They can also act
together as one large drive.

There are different RAID levels numbered from 0-5, and each level corresponds to a
specific type of fault tolerance.

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Level 0 Striping without parity Data is written in stripes across two or more
disks. Even though it improves disk i/o times, it
does not provide any redundancy (fault
tolerance).

Level 1 Mirroring/Duplexing Mirroring requires two hard disks and a single

disk controller. Data is written simultaneously
to both disks.

Duplexing requires two hard disks each with

their own disk controller. The failure of one
disk should not result in a system being
unavailable.

Level 2 Striping with Error Increases reliability and error detection.

Correction Code (ECC)

Level 3 Striping with dedicated Error detection and recovery

parity disk

Level 4 Independent data disks Data is not striped and parity is stored on a
with shared parity disk single disk

Level 5 Striping with parity Requires a minimum of three disks. Data is

‘striped’ across the disks with data and the third
parity information written to separate disks. In

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the event of a failure of a disk, the parity
information on the other disks can be used to
build the data.

STORAGE OF COMPONENTS FOR FUTURE USE

In general, handle all components by the grounding edges. If you avoid touching any
pins, edges, chips, or anything else made of metal, you greatly decrease the chances that
you will zap or break anything. Smaller components such as loose RAM chips and
processors are at the greatest risk.

Whenever possible, leave static-sensitive devices in their original packaging. Transport

circuit boards and peripherals in an anti-static metallized bag if you do not have the
original packaging material. However, do not put this material inside your PC, or plug in
a motherboard while it is sitting on top of one of these bags. They are anti-static because
they are partially conductive; you don't want your motherboard shorted out by firing it up
while several hundred pins from its components are touching a partially conductive
material.

CLEANING AND PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE

Much as the name implies, preventive maintenance, often-abbreviated PM, refers to
performing proactive maintenance in order to prevent system problems. This is contrasted
to diagnostic or corrective maintenance, which is performed to correct an already-existing
problem. Anyone who has ever owned or cared for a car knows all about what preventive
maintenance is. After all, you don't change your oil and air filter in response to a problem
situation (normally), you do it so that your engine will last and you won't have car
troubles down the road.

Here are some reasons why you should develop a preventive maintenance plan for your
PC:

 Preventive Maintenance Saves Money: Avoiding problems with your PC will

save you money in the long run, compared with laying out cash for new
components or repair jobs.

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 Preventive Maintenance Saves Time: Saves time? How can taking two hours a
month or whatever to perform maintenance save time? Simple: because it saves
you the much bigger hassles of dealing with system failures and data loss. Most
preventive maintenance procedures are quite simple compared to troubleshooting
and repair procedures--now those can really eat up your time at a fantastic rate.
 Preventive Maintenance Helps Safeguard Your Data: For most people, the
data on the hard disk is more important than the hardware that houses it. Taking
steps to protect this data therefore makes sense, and that is what PM is all about.
 Preventive Maintenance Improves Performance: Some parts of your system
will actually degrade in performance over time, and preventive maintenance will
help to improve the speed of your system in these respects.
Determining When to Perform Maintenance
Some types of preventive maintenance need to be performed more often than others. The
frequency of preventive maintenance depends on the nature of the activity; some things
just need to be addressed more often than others. It also depends a lot on what your PC is
being used for.

The interval for preventive maintenance on PCs can be determined based on elapsed time
or on usage metrics. This is similar to how your car's oil and filter should be changed
"every 3 months or 3,000 miles, whichever comes first". PC maintenance activities are
usually specified as time-based, because this is easier but they should be performed more
frequently depending on prevailing conditions. A PC used on the manufacturing floor of
a steel mill needs to be cleaned more often than one being used in a hospital. A disk that
is doing heavy Internet file transfers needs virus checking much more often than one that
is used standalone and has no modem or floppy disk.

One enemy of preventive maintenance is simply remembering to do. It's one thing to say
"I will clean the read/write heads on my floppy disk every six months", and even to mean
it. But how will you remember when the six months are up? One way to address this
problem is through the use of a preventive maintenance schedule, which will remind you
of when to perform key maintenance activities on your PC. Some software preventive
maintenance activities can also be automated.

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Automating Preventive Maintenance
There are software-related preventive maintenance activities that can be automated. By
using system tools that automatically run programs at a specific time, you can set up your
system to perform various software checks and maintenance activities without having to
remember to do them yourself. Most modern operating systems either have this capability
built-in, or support third-party software packages that will do it for you. Activities that
can be automated include:

Scanning: Due to the complexity of the file system used on modern PCs, there is
always the risk that file system errors and corruption will develop in the logical
structures that control the disk. Most of the time, these problems are caused by
buggy software, bad drivers, power failures or human error. Rarely, they are the
result of actual hardware problems with the PC.
The two most popular tools for analyzing file system problems are probably those from
Microsoft and Symantec's Norton Utilities. The Norton tool is better, but the Microsoft
tool is free. They can be run from the command line in a DOS environment (by running
"SCANDISK" for Microsoft, or "NDD" for Norton), or accessed by right-clicking on a
drive icon and selecting "Properties" under Windows 95.

Virus Scanning: A virus is a program that disrupts the normal operation of a computer.
A virus can cause a variety of problems, such as the appearance of annoying messages on
the screen or the destruction of information on the hard drive. You should regularly use
an anti-virus program to check for viruses on your computer.

Defragmentation: Fragmentation refers to the spreading of parts of files over the data
area of the hard disk. Over time as many files are created and deleted, files will tend to
become more and more fragmented. Fragmentation is not really something that will
cause data loss. However, it does cause a degradation of performance, and therefore
correcting it is a part of any good preventive maintenance program. Tools such as
Microsoft's Defrag or the Norton Utilities SpeeDisk program will work for most people.

DISASSEMBLY ROUTINE
(A) Procedure:
1. Test whether the PC is working first by connecting its cables and powering it up.

2. Turn off the PC and disconnect all electrical cables.

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3. Disconnect the monitor, keyboard, mouse and other peripherals and put them aside.

4. Put on an anti-static wrist strap. If you don’t have this, touch the systems casing to
ground yourself and be at the same voltage with the system.

5. Locate the screws for the cover – these may be at the back and sides of the computer.

6. Undo the screws and put them in a safe place. Remove the cover.

7. Note the position of any expansion cards in the PC and the way in which cables are
positioned and routed.

8. Remove all cards installed into expansion slots in the PC – this may include video
cards, network cards, sound cards, etc. They will be held in place with a screw which
should first be removed.

9. Place cards into anti-static bags as soon as they are removed.

10. Locate the hard drive. Note the orientation of the red or blue stripe on the ribbon
cable (a sketch may help re-assemble). Remove the ribbon cable connections from
the drve and from the motherboard or drive controller board, now remove the power
cable from the drive. Undo the screws locating the drive in its bay and place the drive
in an anti-static bag.

11. Perform the same operation for the floppy drive.

(B) Identify the following components in your PC:

1. CPU

2. Math co-processor (if available)

3. Memory SIMMs, DIMMs

4. ROM BIOS chip

5. Battery

6. Bus expansion slots

7. Power supply connector

8. Hard drive connector

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9. Floppy drive connector

GUIDELINES FOR RE-ASSEMBLING YOUR PC

1. Re-assemble the PC by reversing the steps taken to disassemble it. The following
points should be remembered.

2. Expansion cards may require a little force to ensure that they are firmly seated in the
socket.

3. Make sure that pin 1 on the cable corresponds to pin 1 on the interface. On hard
drives and floppy drives this is usually marked with a small ‘1’ or a square white dot
printed on the drive circuit board. Another handy tip is that Pin 1 on a hard drive is
invariably next to the 4-pin power connector (Molex).

4. Do not over tighten screws – the slots or cross head may be easily stripped.

5. Connect cables to drives before securing it in the bay.

Fit the lid to the PC, but don’t secure any locating screws until you have tested the
PCs operation.

TROUBLESHOOTING THE BOOT PROCESS

We start with the system power: is the system power supply functioning?
Check to see if any LEDs (lights) are lit on the system case and to hear if the power
supply fan is blowing. If either of them is operating then the system power supply is
running. Basically, if you hear or see anything lit up or moving in the PC box itself (not
the monitor or external peripherals that have their own power supplies) then the PC's
power supply is at least on and basically functional.
Power Supply Not Functioning

Explanation: There is no power to the unit. Nothing is happening at all with the system.
The power problem must be corrected first.

Diagnosis: The problem may be the power supply itself, or the power feeding into the
power supply.

Recommendation: Check the power from the wall. Pull the plug that is connecting to the
wall outlet (this may be the PC's power cord or the cord from your surge suppressor or
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other power conditioning device). Plug another appliance that you know works into the
same plug that the PC or power protection device was using. Does this device work?

Power Supply Functioning

Explanation: The power supply is working, so the hardware has power, enabling it to
boot.

Diagnosis: The problem is not the power supply but rather hardware or software inside
the PC.

Recommendation: Check for video display. Do you see anything at all displayed on the
screen when you attempt to boot the PC?

No Video Displayed

Explanation: Nothing at all is being displayed on the system monitor. Something should
display on the screen within a few seconds of the PC booting, possibly an error message
if there is a system problem.

Diagnosis: Either there is no video output, or there is video output but the monitor is not
displaying. It makes sense first to rule out a monitor problem as that will prevent
effective troubleshooting of the rest of the boot.

Check the brigtness and contrast knobs and turn them to the maximum.

Recommendation: Consider the monitor you are using. If it has worked recently then
you can probably assume that it is OK. If this is a new monitor, you really cannot assume,
unless the monitor has an on-screen display that comes up when it is turned on (some
newer ones do this specifically so that you do know when the problem is the monitor and
when it isn't). Then proceed based on your confidence level in the monitor: are you sure
that it works?

Video Displayed

Explanation: There is some sort of video output to the screen during the boot.

Diagnosis: The video subsystem is working, at least enough to permit simple text
display.
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Recommendation: The first thing displayed on the screen should be the message
produced by the video BIOS on your video card. The name of the video card and possibly
some other information such as how much video RAM is on the card, should appear on
the screen for a few seconds. Check for this message: what do you see?

BIOS Startup Screen Displayed

Explanation: The BIOS has succeeded in displaying the initial startup screen.

Diagnosis: The initial BIOS power-on tests have been successful.

Recommendation: Check to see if the system is performing the memory test. You can
tell if the memory is being tested if you see on the screen something that starts as "0 KB"
or something similar, and then the number quickly increases, counting up the total
amount of memory in the machine.

No BIOS Startup Screen

Explanation: The BIOS startup screen should appear on the display right after the video
BIOS message, but it is not.

Diagnosis: The BIOS is having some sort of a problem moving into the next part of the
boot process after initializing the video BIOS.

Recommendation: Look for some sort of feedback from the system to indicate what the
problem is. Is there an error message on the screen or do you hear a BIOS beep code?

BIOS beep code

Beep codes can be in several different patterns, depending on the BIOS that you are
using. Some BIOS use very simple beep codes in a pattern of varying numbers of short
beeps, while others may mix short and long beeps. The Phoenix BIOS is famous for its
complicated beep patterns that are actually in up to four groups--one or more beeps and
then a pause, followed by as many as three more patterns.

Note: These ones are particular to a given BIOS, other BIOSes will have different beep
codes.

1 Beep: DRAM refresh failure

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Explanation: The system is having a problem accessing the system memory to refresh it.
Refreshing is done on all system memory to keep its contents active.

Diagnosis: This code usually means a problem either with the system memory or with
the motherboard itself.

2 Beeps: Parity circuit failure

Explanation: The parity circuit is responsible for generating and checking the parity bit
on the system memory when parity checking is used. This circuitry is not working
properly.

Diagnosis: This code usually means a problem with either the system memory or the
motherboard.

3 Beeps: Base 64K RAM failure

Explanation: There is a failure of some sort within the first 64 KB of system memory.

Diagnosis: The first bank of memory probably has a bad or empty memory chip in it
somewhere. It is possible that there is a failure related to the motherboard or a system
device as well.

4 Beeps: System timer failure

Explanation: There is a problem with one or more of the timers used by the system to
control functions on the motherboard.

Diagnosis: This is usually a motherboard failure.

5 Beeps: Processor failure

Explanation: The system processor is generating an error condition indicating a problem

with it.

Diagnosis: There is a problem related to the processor or motherboard. Note that this
doesn't mean that the processor is necessarily dead; with a dead processor the system
won't boot at all since it runs the BIOS code that is used to start up the PC.

6 Beeps: Keyboard controller / gate A20 failure

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Explanation: The keyboard controller is a chip on the motherboard that communicates
with your keyboard. It also controls the A20 gate that provides access to the high memory
area (HMA). This component is indicating a failure.

Diagnosis: This is usually a problem with either the keyboard or the motherboard.

7 Beeps: Virtual mode exception error

Explanation: Virtual mode is one of the different modes that the processor can run in.
The system is reporting an error when testing this mode.

Diagnosis: There is a problem related to the processor or motherboard. Note that this
doesn't mean that the processor is necessarily dead, since the system won't boot at all
with a dead processor.

8 Beeps: Display memory read/write failure

Explanation: The BIOS is unable to write to the frame buffer memory on the video card.

Diagnosis: This is usually caused by a problem with the video card, or the memory on
the video card. It can also be a motherboard issue.

9 Beeps: ROM BIOS checksum failure

Explanation: The read-only memory (ROM) containing the BIOS program (which is
what is running when you turn on the PC and what generates this error) uses a checksum
value as a double-check that the ROM code is correct. This checksum is compared
against the values in the ROM each time the PC is booted and if there is a mismatch, this
code is generated.

Diagnosis: The BIOS ROM chip on the motherboard is probably faulty. It could also be
another component on the motherboard.

Recommendation: Troubleshoot the motherboard. It is possible to replace just the BIOS

ROM chip but often replacing the motherboard will make more sense for cost and
simplicity reasons.

NB: This error is not the same as a CMOS Checksum Error, which refers to corrupted
values of the CMOS settings, the ones you set through the BIOS setup program. This
error means the contents of the BIOS code itself are damaged.
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10 Beeps: CMOS shutdown register read/write error

Explanation: A component of the motherboard is producing an error interacting with the

CMOS memory that holds the BIOS settings.

Diagnosis: There is likely a problem with the motherboard.

11 Beeps: Cache memory error

Explanation: The system has attempted to verify the operation of the secondary (level 2)
cache and has encountered an error.

Diagnosis: This usually means a problem with the system cache. It may also be a more
general problem with the motherboard.

Continuous Beeping: Memory or video problem

Explanation: The system is producing constant beeping in no specific pattern, or a fast

"ringing" sound.

Diagnosis: This is usually caused by a problem with the system memory, or possibly the
video card. The memory is more likely--the system complains long and loud if it can't
find any usable memory, as there is no way to even start the boot process when this is the
case. The motherboard itself could also be the problem.

SYSTEM CONFIGURATION
Before trying to perform any maintenance on a PC, it is wise to check and document the
current system configuration. CMOS settings, jumper settings and cable layout should be
recorded to allow the PC to be returned to its original state.
SYSTEM BIOS
BIOS stands for Basic Input/Output System. The system BIOS acts as an interface
between the hardware (especially the chipset and processor) and the operating system.
The BIOS provides access to the system hardware and enables the creation of the
operating systems (DOS, Windows 95, etc.) that you use to run your applications.
The BIOS is also responsible for allowing you to control your computer's hardware
settings, for booting up the machine when you turn on the power or hit the reset button,
and providing the setup program that allows you to change system parameters.

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POST
When the system is powered on, the BIOS will perform diagnostics and initialize system
components, including the video system. This is commonly referred as POST (Power-On
Self Test). The POST routine is split into three phases, with failures indicated by either
beep codes or on-screen messages. Afterwards, the computer will proceed its final boot-
up stage by calling the operating system. Just before that, the user may interrupt to have
access to Setup. In order to change the system settings, you must first access the CMOS
Setup.

CMOS SETTINGS
CMOS is an abbreviation of Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor. Personal
computers contain a small amount of battery-powered CMOS memory to hold the date,
time, and system setup parameters.
All PCs provide software, which allows CMOS settings to be viewed or modified.
For most machines, the CMOS Setup program that is part of the PCs BIOS is used. The
configuration program can normally be entered with a keystroke during the boot process.
Usually, the BIOS Setup programs can be entered by pressing a special key combination
(DEL, ESC, CTRL-ESC, or CTRL-ALT-ESC) at boot time.
The AMI BIOS is mostly entered by pressing the DEL key after resetting (CTRL-ALT-
DEL) or powering up the computer. You can bypass the extended CMOS settings by
holding the key down during boot-up. This is really helpful, especially if you have made
a lot of changes to the CMOS settings and the computer won't boot properly anymore.
For the older EISA machines or MCA machines, the reference or set-up disk supplied
with the machine will be required. Boot up from this disk and follow the menus.
CMOS/BIOS STANDARD SETTINGS

This group of settings contains basic parameters that you will normally need to set (or
adjust) for your system to work properly. Most of these are present on virtually every
PC.
Date/Time

This is simply the current date and time. It is sometimes known as the ‘Real Time’.
Daylight Savings
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If your PC has this setting, enabling it will allow the PCs real time clock to be
automatically adjusted back or forward by one hour.
Windows 95 will do this automatically if you enable the Daylight Savings option in the
Control Panel.
IDE Primary Master/Slave

This contains the hard disk parameters for the any IDE drives connected to the primary
IDE controller. The default setting for this on a system with IDE Autodetection, is
usually “Auto”.
This will allow the PC to determine the type of hard disk found in the PC.
A single drive will act as the ‘master’ while a second drive may be set as a ‘slave’.

IDE Secondary Master/Slave

Modern systems provide a secondary IDE controller, which supports a further two
devices (dives). This setting contains the hard disk parameters for any (third or fourth)
IDE drives connected to the secondary IDE controller. The default setting for this on a
system with IDE Autodetection, is usually “Auto”.
Floppy Drive A/B

The floppy disk choices normally are:

1.44 MB: A normal 3.5” drive
1.2 MB: A normal 5.25” drive
2.88 MB: A high-density 3.5” drive, found on some PCs
720 KB: A low-density 3.5” drive
360 KB: A low-density 5.25” drive

Change Password

Enables you to change the administrator password. The default is no password. In case
you have put a password, write it down somewhere before you forget it. Otherwise, you
can lock yourself out of your own PC.
Video Display Type

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This is the standard type of display used by the system. Most times this should be set to
either VGA (Video Graphics Array) or SVGA (super VGA). This is also usually the
default value.
Halt On

Some PCs have the ability to tell the BIOS specifically which types of errors should halt
the computer during the power on self test section of the boot process.
Using this you can tell the PC to ignore certain types of errors. Common settings for this
parameter are:
 All Errors: The boot process will halt on all errors. You will be prompted for
action in the event of recoverable errors. This is normally the default setting, and
is also the recommended one.

 No Errors: The POST will not stop for any type of error. This setting is not
recommended except for very special cases.

 All But Keyboard: The boot process will stop for any error except a keyboard
error. This can be useful for setting up a machine without a keyboard e.g. a file or
print server.
 All But Diskette/Floppy: All errors will halt the system except diskette errors.

Warning: Telling the system not to halt for any error types is generally not wise. You
may end up missing a problem with you system that you will want to know about.
CMOS /BIOS ADVANCED SETTINGS
These are the more advanced features for controlling operation and security for the PC.
Internal Cache

Also known as Level 1 or L1 cache. For a 486 or later processors this should be enabled
at all times, unless it is being disabled for troubleshooting purposes. Turning off Level 1
cache will result in the system performance decreasing significantly.
Note that if the CPU does not have internal cache, the system will freeze if enabled.
External Cache

This setting enables or disables the external cache, also known as Level 2 or L2 cache.
Most 486 or later motherboards include this cache memory, and most systems have about
64K to 512K of external cache.
Like the internal cache, it should be enabled at all times unless there is a problem.
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Boot Sequence

This setting defines the drive that the system checks first for an operating system. Most
systems will offer a choice between “Cc: then A:” or “A: then C:” the former is
recommended for faster boot sequence, or not to allow any user to enter your system by
booting from the floppy drive.
Some systems may provide other options like booting from a CD-ROM, or the parallel
port in case there is an external drive.
Floppy Drive Seek

When enabled, the BIOS will power up (activate) and reset the floppy disk drives during
the boot process. On newer machines, this setting can be disabled to speed up the boot
process and for reduced damage to the heads.
Disabling the floppy drive, changing the boot sequence and setting a BIOS password are
good techniques for adding security to a PC.
Boot-up NumLock Status

When enabled, this setting automatically turns on the NumLock key when the system is
booted. By default, this setting is enabled, but it is all a matter of personal preferences.

Power on delay/Boot delay

If the PC tries to boot from the hard drive before it has had a chance to spin up to its full
speed there may be an error message such as ‘Waiting for fixed disk 0 to spin up”. This
can cause concern to some users, however, setting a boot delay of a few seconds should
resolve this message.
Swap Floppy Drives

If there are two floppy drives installed, this setting enables the drive letters to be changed
without altering hardware or the internal cable configuration.
Keyboard Installed

This can be set to specify if there is a keyboard in the system. The default is ‘installed’.
If the “not installed” option is set, this instructs the BIOS to skip the keyboard test during
the power on self test (POST). This is useful in situations where a PC is used without a
keyboard (for example for a file server, printer server or a secured network PC).
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Fast A20/A20 Gate option

A20 refers to the first 64KB of extended memory known as the “high memory area”.
This option uses the A20 line (supported in some chipsets) to access memory above
1MB.
The keyboard controller normally controls this line. To improve performance, newer
systems have this control function built into the motherboard chipset as well. Enabling
this option allows the chipset to control the A20 line, hence making access faster than
normal.
This setting is normally enabled by default.
Nnnnn-nnnnn shadow

When enabled, this setting turns on adapter ROM shadowing for the block of addresses
specified by the range. Theoretically, shadowing speeds up the system by copying the
contents of any BIOS code found in ROM chips into faster RAM. The performance will
increase significantly.
Add-on cards such as sound cards normally use the areas of memory from C800 to
DFFF. Turning on shadowing would speed these adapters.
Care should be taken though, because some adapters use this memory as working storage
as well as for ROM code. If the RAM area of the adapter card is shadowed it may cause
problems, as it will write-protect the RAM it is using because it is emulating a ROM
chip.
It is not recommended to change these settings.
Video BIOS shadow

This parameter enables or disables ROM shadowing (the copying of ROM code into
RAM) of the memory range C0000 to C7FFF usually used by the video card.
Enabling this option is recommended, as it will usually increase performance. It should
be disabled only if it causes problems.
System BIOS shadow

This does the same thing as the Video BIOS shadow, but according to the system BIOS
(main computer BIOS), for the memory range F000-FFFF.
Setting should be enabled for improved performance.

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JUMPER SETTINGS AND CABLE LAYOUT
Jumpers comprise two metal pins that form part of a configuration circuit. If a shorting
link (or straps) is placed over the jumpers, a circuit is made and a certain configuration
has been achieved.
These are used to set certain parameters such as IRQ, I/O, memory address and DMA
channels. Before making any configuration changes, document any existing jumper
settings just in case there is need to revert to earlier settings.

A jumper block
As for the cables, check inside the system unit and make a note or diagram of the cable
layout, colors and the way they are routed. When reassembling the system unit, ensure
that the cables are not crimped between components or twisted as this may break the
wires inside them.
It is also important that cables are not routed over sharp or rough edges as this could
damage the insulation.
Most modern motherboards use fewer jumpers and so most of the configuration is done
via the CMOS settings.
SYSTEM RESOURCES

In some ways, everything in a PC is a resource i.e. the RAM, processor speed, hard disk
space, etc. However, there are in particular several special resources in the system that
are shared by the various devices that use it. These are not physical "parts" of the system
for the most part, though they have hardware that implement them of course. Rather they
are logical parts of the system that control how it works, and are referred to as the PC's
system resources.
System resources are important because they must be shared by the various devices in
your PC. This includes not only the motherboard and other main components, but also
expansion devices, plug-in cards and peripherals. The resources are primarily used for
communication and information transfer between these devices.
When a new device is installed into a PC, e.g. a network card, or CD-ROM, the device
has to be provided with its own set of system resources. These enable the device to
communicate with the rest of the computer system without conflicting with other devices.
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Using resources that have been assigned to another device may cause the system to hang
or crash.
The resources to be configured may include the following:
 Interrupts (IRQ)
 I/O Address (Base I/O Port)
 Direct Memory Access (DMA)
 Memory Addresses (RAM)
Most devices are capable of using various combinations or resources, the settings chosen
will need to be implemented using either a set-up program or from jumpers or DIP
switches on the card.
The documentation supplied with the device specifies the resources required and the
possible settings that can be chosen.
INTERRUPTS
An Interrupt Request Line (IRQ) are hardware lines over which devices e.g. keyboard,
mouse or the hard disk, can send interrupt signals to the CPU. The device sends an
Interrupt Request to the CPU, causing it to suspend itself temporarily to service the
interrupt and then return to the program or data that it had suspended. These are called
hardware interrupts. Interrupt signals initiated by programs are called software interrupts.
The advantage of this is that the processor can work more efficiently as it does not need
to constantly scan every device for attention but waits until it has been interrupted.
Each device operating on the system usually requires a unique interrupt number or IRQ,
although some tape and hard disk controllers may share an IRQ with another controller.
The original IBM PC had only 8 interrupts to the CPU and these were managed by an
Intel chip called an 8259A Programmable Interrupt Controller (PIC).
IBM AT PCs and compatibles have increased the number of interrupts to 15 (numbered
0-15) by ‘cascading’ a second interrupt controller from Interrupt 2.
In effect, the Primary Interrupt Controller and the Secondary Interrupt Controller are tied
together via Interrupts 2 and 9, and although these are technically free for use, assigning
them to a device may cause problems.
IRQ conflicts used to be a common problem when adding expansion cards, but the Plug-
and-Play specification has removed this headache in most cases.

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The complete list of interrupts and associated interrupt handlers is stored in a table called
the Interrupt Vector Table, which resides in the first 1 KB of addressable memory.
Choosing an interrupt
When adding a new expansion card to a PC, the following table might help to select an
interrupt:
Summary of available interrupts:

IRQ No. Use

0 System timer

1 Keyboard

2 Cascaded to PIC #2

3 COM 2, 4

4 COM 1, 3

5 LPT2

6 Floppy disk

7 LPT1

8 Real time clock

9 Cascaded to PIC #1

10 Spare

11 Spare

12 PS/2 mouse port

13 Maths co-processor

14 Primary (EIDE) hard disk interface

15 Secondary (EIDE) hard disk interface

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When manually choosing an interrupt, the following rules apply:
 The shaded interrupts are never available for expansion cards i.e. IRQ 0, 1, 8 and 13.

 Other interrupts may be available if the stated device is not actually present- for
example IRQ 12 Is free if there is no PS/2 mouse, and IRQ 5 is free if there is no
LPT2 device.
 COM ports can share interrupts with limitations (see below).
 Tape streamers that connect to the floppy disk interface can usually share IRQ 6.
 IRQ 2 and 9 may be unreliable on older motherboards.

Sharing Interrupts
Generally speaking, interrupts cannot be shared, there are some exceptions though:
 Some COM ports share interrupts. For instance, COM 2 might share an IRQ with
COM 4 while COM 1 may share an IRQ and with COM 3.

 MCA machines use different voltage levels on a shared IRQ line to determine which
device needs servicing. Note that the lower IRQ number has a higher priority.

 The PCI bus is able to share an IRQ between devices connected to the bus. This is
usually IRQ 10 set using the CMOS setup program.

Non-Maskable Interrupts (NMI)

All of the regular interrupts that we normally use and refer to by number are called
maskable interrupts. The processor is able to mask, or temporarily ignore, any interrupt if
it needs to, in order to finish something else that it is doing. In addition, however, the PC
has a non-maskable interrupt (NMI) that can be used for serious conditions that
demand the processor's immediate attention. The NMI cannot be ignored by the system
unless it is shut off specifically.
When an NMI signal is received, the processor immediately drops whatever it was doing
and attends to it. This signal is normally used only for critical problem situations, such as
serious hardware errors. The most common use of NMI is to signal a parity error from the
memory subsystem. This error must be dealt with immediately to prevent possible data
corruption.
DIRECT MEMORY ACCESS (DMA)
Direct Memory Access is a data transfer technique by which a hardware device can
transfer data to and from system memory directly i.e. without the intervention of the
CPU.
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DMA is typically used by the hard disk, tape drives and network cards although modern
adapters use methods such as shared memory to increase the speed of memory access.
DMA memory transfers are performed with the aid of the DMA controller. Once
programmed by software, the controller can be triggered to spring into life, instruct the
CPU to stand aside, do the transfer and then let the CPU have the system back.
There are two DMA controllers in the modern PCs, each supporting 4 DMA channels. In
effect this means that there are 8 DMA channels numbered 0-7.
There is no sharing of DMA channels and this would cause the system to either lock up
or crash.
DMA channel 2 is normally used for data transfer from the floppy disk controller and
DMA channel 4 is used for the DMA controller chip itself.

DMA Available /use

0 Yes

1 Yes

2 No, used by Floppy disk controller

3 Yes

4 No, used by DMA controller

5 Yes

6 Yes

7 Yes

Bus mastering
Standard DMA is sometimes called "third party" DMA. This refers to the fact that the
DMA controller is actually doing the transfer (the first two parties are the sender and
receiver of the transfer).
Bus master devices perform their own data transfers without having to rely on the PCs
DMA controllers. This form of data transfer is much faster than the standard DMA. This
is called bus mastering and this type of DMA is also called "first party" DMA.
Bus mastering provides much better performance than regular DMA because modern
devices have much smarter and faster DMA circuitry built into them than exists in the old

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standard ISA DMA controller. Newer DMA modes are now available, such as Ultra-
DMA (mode 3 or DMA-33) that provide for very high transfer rates.

Only certain expansion slots support bus mastering and so high-performance cards should
be plugged into the right expansion slots for optimum performance.
I/O ADDRESSES OR BASE I/O PORTS
Input/Output addresses (usually called I/O addresses or port addresses) are resources
used by virtually every device in the computer. They represent locations in memory that
are designated for use by various devices to exchange information between themselves
and the rest of the PC.
There exists a section of memory area (normally 64 KB) called the I/O Port or Base I/O
Port used by ‘memory-mapped’ devices to be able to perform input/output functions.
Those memory addresses are referred to by their hexadecimal addresses ranging from
0000 to FFFF.
Take for example a communications (COM) port that has a modem connected to it.
When information is received by the modem, it needs to get this information into the PC.
Where does it put the data it pulls off the phone line?
One solution is to give each device its own small area of memory to work with. This is
called memory-mapped I/O. When the modem gets a byte of data it sends it over the
COM port, and it shows up in the COM port's designated I/O address space. When the
CPU is ready to process the data, it knows where to look to find it. When it later wants to
send information over the modem, it uses this address again (or another one near it). This
is a very simple way of dealing with the problem of information exchange between
devices.
The standard port addresses cannot be shared so as to avoid communication problems.
MS-DOS supports primary and secondary addresses for parallel printer ports and serial
ports. CMOS setup can be used to select these I/O addresses.
The following list shows the port addresses always reserved for certain common devices.
The addresses are in hexadecimal format.
I/O Address Used by I/O Address Range Used by
Range
000-01F DMA controller 0278-027F LPT2

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020-03F Interrupt controller 02F8-02FF COM 2

040-05F Timer 0378-037F LPT1

060-06F Keyboard 03B0-03BF LPT3

0F0-0FF Math co-processor 03E0-03EF COM 3

01F0- 01F8 Hard disk controller 03F0-03F7 Floppy disk

controller

0200-0207 Joystick 03F8-03FF COM 1

Most cards cannot be set to a known reserved address, but care needs to be taken when
installing several cards to ensure that they do not have overlapping addresses.
Many device specifications only state the starting port address options for a device. For
example, a network card may list its available port settings as:

300H, 320H, 340H, 360H (H-hexadecimal)

In this situation, note that installing the card at address 300H may interfere with another
device that is already at address 310H.

MEMORY ADDRESSES (BASE MEMORY ADDRESS)

Similar to the I/O port address, the base memory refers to the beginning memory address
that some cards use to communicate with the CPU.
Some expansion cards are fitted with their own RAM for reasons such as buffering data
on a network card. This RAM must be located within the memory map of the PC for it to
be accessible.
Also, some expansion cards have their own firmware in ROM that needs to ‘live’ within
the memory map of the PC.
This setting is sometimes called the RAM starting address or start address. These
addresses are set in hexadecimal and each will be a number in the range A000-FFFF.
Specifying a PC Memory Address

As usual when giving a memory address to an add-in card make sure it doesn’t clash with
anything else.

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On PC’s running DOS and earlier versions of Windows 3.1/3,11, the Expanded Memory
Manager EMM386 and the Windows memory manager sometimes need to be told which
areas of RAM do not actually belong to the PC.
If not, the memory managers may try to ‘memory manage’ the RAM and this might
cause the device not to function or the system may crash.
Example:

If a network card is configured to use the memory range C000- C800, the line in
CONFIG.SYS that loads EMM386 may be modified thus:

DEVICE= C:\DOS\EMM386.EXE NOEMS /X= C000-C800

In Windows, the following line may need to be added to the [386 Enhanced] section in
SYSTEM.INI:
EMMEXCLUDE= C000- C800
DETERMINING RESOURCES IN USE
Microsoft provides MSD (Microsoft Diagnostics) free with DOS and Windows. MSD is
able to return some useful information about the resources in use on a system but only if
the appropriate software drivers are currently running.
However, MSD is not able to give information about DMA controllers- nor can it identify
which port addresses are in use.
There are also many other third-party software utilities on the market such as Norton
Utilities, CheckIt and WinCheckit that show the same information in more detail.
A PC is usually supplied with special utilities that provide the most accurate information
as they are specifically designed to work with the hardware in use. If a new piece of
hardware is being installed, such as a network card, the installation program supplied
may help identify free resources and configure the card.
In Windows 95/98, the System icon in the Control Panel can be used to view system
resources- port settings, DMA, Memory and IRQ’s.

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Using the Device Manager, Windows 95/98 is able to give more comprehensive
information because all the device drivers have to run in conjunction with the operating
system and so all the resources they use can be identified:

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RESOURCE CONFLICTS
One of the major issues with system resources is configuring your system's devices so
that they don't interfere with each other. When more than one device attempts to use the
same resource, the result is a resource conflict.
If you attempt to use two devices with the same IRQ, an IRQ conflict will result. It is
possible to share an IRQ among more than one device, but only under limited conditions.
For example, a mouse using COM1 will be using IRQ4, if you set up your modem as
COM3 which shares the same interrupt (IRQ4), the arrangement will not work, when you
try to go online.
When there are resource conflicts the following results may occur:
 One or more of the devices will not work.
 The system hangs
 The system crashes
 The system reboots itself
 Windows shows ‘General Protection Faults’.

To correct a resource conflict, establish the resources that are being used by each device
and re-configure those that conflict.
Use software such as MSD, CheckIt or Norton Utilities etc to get information about the
system resources currently in use.
PLUG AND PLAY (PnP)

The Plug and Play (also called PnP) specification was developed by Microsoft with
cooperation from Intel and many other hardware manufacturers.
The goal of Plug and Play is to create a computer whose hardware and software work
together to automatically configure devices and assign resources, to allow for hardware
changes and additions without the need for setting DIP switches, jumpers, and other
configuration elements.
As the name suggests, the goal is to be able to just plug in a new device and immediately
be able to use it, without complicated setup maneuvers.
For example, when you power on a PC with a new sound card installed, you are able to
use the new card straightaway or you can plug in a new mouse, turn on the machine and
use it immediately.

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To be able to use PnP the computer’s BIOS, expansion cards (devices) and the operating
system must also support PnP. Windows 95 and Windows 98 are PnP compliant.
Plug and Play incorporates the following features:
1. Devices self-identify and self-specify: Plug and Play devices must be able to identify
themselves and specify their capabilities and system resource requirements, so that
the operating system can determine and establish a working configuration.
2. Dynamic configuration changes: When a device is inserted, the system receives
notification about the new device, its capabilities and requirements. The operating
system then loads the necessary device drivers without restarting the system. The
practice of inserting/connecting a device to a fully operational machine is known as
hot docking.
3. Compatible with existing systems and peripherals: Non Plug and Play devices use
methods such as jumpers and set-up disks to configure devices. These cannot
communicate with the system but usually have their settings recorded in files such as
CONFIG.SYS, AUTOEXEC.BAT and SYSTEM.INI.

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