BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

(EEE101)

SASTRA UNIVERSITY
 DOMESTING WIRING
• Electricity is supplied to our home from electricity
board. It is supplied as single phase 230 volt, 50 Hz a.c
supply or three phase 415 V, 50 Hz a.c supply
• All the electrical appliances in home operated at 230 V,
50 Hz a.c supply
• The phase and neutral wires first pass through the
energy meter. Then from energy meter, the phase and
neutral terminal connected to various electrical loads.
• All the electrical loads are connected in parallel.
• The energy meter measures the amount of electrical
energy used in the home
• All the electrical equipments will have three terminals.
They are Phase, Neutral and Earth terminal
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 Electrical Wiring Schemes
• Connecting various accessories for distribution
of electrical energy from main board to home
appliances such as lamps, fans and other
domestic appliances is known as electrical
wiring. The different types are
• Joint box system or Tee system
• Loop – in system

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 Joint Box or Tee or Jointing System
• In this method of wiring, connections to
appliances are made through joints. These joints
are made in joint boxes by means of suitable
connectors or joints cutouts. This method of
wiring doesn’t consume too much cable size.
• You might think because this method of wiring
doesn’t require too much cable it is therefore
cheaper. It is of course but the money you saved
from buying cables will be used in buying joint
boxes, thus equation is balanced. This method is
suitable for temporary installations and it is
cheap.

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Joint Box or Tee or Jointing System

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 Loop-in or Looping System
• This method of wiring is universally used in wiring.
Lamps and other appliances are connected in
parallel so that each of the appliances can be
controlled individually. When a connection is
required at a light or switch , the feed conductor is
looped in by bringing it directly to the terminal and
then carrying it forward again to the next point to
be fed.
• The switch and light feeds are carried round the
circuit in a series of loops from one point to
another until the last on the circuit is reached. The
phase or line conductors are looped either in
switchboard or box and neutrals are looped either
in switchboard or from light or fan. Line or phase
should never be looped from light or fan.
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Loop-in or Looping System

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Advantages of Loop-In Method of Wiring
• It doesn’t require joint boxes and so money is saved
• In loop – in systems, no joint is concealed beneath
floors or in roof spaces.
• Fault location is made easy as the points are made
only at outlets so that they are accessible.

Disadvantages of Loop-In Method of Wiring

• Length of wire or cables required is more and
voltage drop and copper losses are therefore more
• Looping – in switches and lamp holders is usually
difficult.

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Conventional Domestic Wiring Schemes
• Cleat Wiring
• Casing and Capping Wiring
• Batten Wiring (CTS or TRS)
• Conduit Wiring

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Cleat Wiring:
• This system of wiring comprise of ordinary VIR or
PVC insulated wires (occasionally, sheathed and
weather proof cable) braided and compounded
held on walls or ceilings by means of porcelain
cleats, Plastic or wood.

• Cleat wiring system is a temporary wiring system

therefore it is not suitable for domestic premises.
The use of cleat wiring system is over nowadays.

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Advantages of Cleat Wiring:
• It is simple and cheap wiring system
• Most suitable for temporary use i.e. under construction building or
army camping
• As the cables and wires of cleat wiring system is in open air, Therefore
fault in cables can be seen and repair easily.
• Cleat wiring system installation is easy and simple.
• Customization can be easily done in this wiring system e.g. alteration
and addition.
• Inspection is easy and simple.

Disadvantages of Cleat Wiring:

• Appearance is not so good.
• Cleat wiring can’t be use for permanent use because, Sag may be
occur after sometime of the usage.
• In this wiring system, the cables and wiring is in open air, therefore,
oil, Steam, humidity, smoke, rain, chemical and acidic effect may
damage the cables and wires.
• There is always a risk of fire and electric shock.
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Casing and Capping wiring
• Casing and Capping wiring system was famous wiring
system in the past but, it is considered obsolete this
days because of Conduit wiring system. The cables
used in this kind of wiring were either VIR or PVC or
any other approved insulated cables.
• The cables were carried through the wooden casing
enclosures. The casing is made up of a strip of wood
with parallel grooves cut length wise so as to
accommodate VIR cables. The grooves were made to
separate opposite polarity. The capping (also made of
wood) used to cover the wires and cables installed
and fitted in the casing.
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Advantages of Casing Capping Wiring:
• It is cheap wiring system as compared to sheathed and conduit wiring
systems.
• It is strong and long-lasting wiring system.
• Customization can be easily done in this wiring system.
• If Phase and Neutral wire is installed in separate slots, then repairing is easy.
• Stay for long time in the field due to strong insulation of capping and casing.
• It stays safe from oil, Steam, smoke and rain.
• No risk of electric shock due to covered wires and cables in casing &
capping.

Disadvantages Casing Capping Wiring:

• There is a high risk of fire in casing & capping wiring system.
• Not suitable in the acidic, alkalies and humidity conditions
• Costly repairing and need more material.
• Material can’t be found easily in the contemporary
• White ants may damage the casing & capping of wood.

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Batten Wiring (CTS or TRS)
• Single core (or) double core (or) three core CTS (Cable
Tyre Sheath) or TRS(Tough Rubber Sheath) cables with
a circular oval shape cables are used in this kind of
wiring. Mostly, single core cables are preferred.
• TRS cables are chemical proof, water proof, steam
proof, but are slightly affected by lubricating oil. The
TRS cables are run on well seasoned and straight teak
wood batten with at least a thickness of 10mm.
• The cables are held on the wooden batten by means of
tinned brass link clips (buckle clip) already fixed on the
batten with brass pins and spaced at an interval of
10cm for horizontal runs and 15cm for vertical runs.
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Advantages of Batten Wiring
• Wiring installation is simple and easy
• cheap as compared to other electrical wiring systems
• Repairing is easy
• strong and long-lasting
• Customization can be easily done in this wiring system.
• less chance of leakage current in batten wiring system

Disadvantages of Batten Wiring

• Can’t be install in the humidity, Chemical effects, open and
outdoor areas.
• High risk of firs
• Not safe from external wear & tear and weather effects (because,
the wires are openly visible to heat, dust, steam and smoke.
• Heavy wires can’t be used in batten wiring system.
• Only suitable below then 250V.
• Need more cables and wires.
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Conduit Wiring
• There are two additional types of conduit wiring according
to pipe installation
1. Surface Conduit Wiring
2. Concealed Conduit Wiring
Surface Conduit Wiring
• If conduits installed on roof or wall, It is known as surface
conduit wiring. in this wiring method, they make holes on
the surface of wall on equal distances and conduit is
installed then with the help of rawal plugs.
Concealed Conduit wiring
• If the conduits is hidden inside the wall slots with the help
of plastering, it is called concealed conduit wiring. In other
words, the electrical wiring system inside wall, roof or floor
with the help of plastic or metallic piping is called
concealed conduit wiring. obliviously, It is the most
popular, beautiful, stronger and common electrical wiring
system nowadays.
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Types of Conduit
• Following conduits are used in the conduit wiring systems (both concealed
and surface conduit wiring) which are shown in the above image.
• Metallic Conduit
• Non-metallic conduit

Metallic Conduit:
• Metallic conduits are made of steel which are very strong but costly as well.
• There are two types of metallic conduits.
• Class A Conduit: Low gauge conduit (Thin layer steel sheet conduit)
• Class B Conduit: High gauge conduit (Thick sheet of steel conduit)

Non-metallic Conduit:
• A solid PVC conduit is used as non-metallic conduit now a days, which is
flexible and easy to bend.

Size of Conduit:
• The common conduit pipes are available in different sizes genially, 13, 16.2,
18.75, 20, 25, 37, 50, and 63 mm (diameter) or 1/2, 5/8, 3/4, 1, 1.25, 1.5,
and 2 inch in diameter.
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Advantage of Conduit Wiring Systems
• It is the safest wiring system (Concealed conduit wring)
• Appearance is very beautiful (in case of concealed conduit wiring)
• No risk of mechanical wear & tear and fire in case of metallic pipes.
• Customization can be easily done according to the future needs.
• Repairing and maintenance is easy.
• it is safe from corrosion (in case of PVC conduit) and risk of fire.
• It can be used even in humidity , chemical effect and smoky areas.
• No risk of electric shock (In case of proper earthling of metallic pipes).
• It is reliable and popular wiring system.
• sustainable and long-lasting wiring system.

Disadvantages of Conduit Wiring Systems

• It is expensive wiring system (Due to PVC and Metallic pipes, Additional
earthing for metallic pipes Tee(s) and elbows etc.
• Very hard to find the defects in the wiring.
• installation is not easy and simple.
• Risk of Electric shock (In case of metallic pipes without proper earthing
system)
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• Very complicated to manage additional connection in the future.
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 Two-way
STAIR CASE switches
WIRING CONECTION

The lamp can be switched ON at the bottom of the

staircase & then switched OFF at the top, & vice versa

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STAIR CASE WIRING CONECTION

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 Wiring of Two-way switch connection

The lamp can be switched on at the bottom of the

staircase & then switched off at the top, & vice versa.

on
off

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Single Phase Domestic Wiring Connection

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 Mains circuits

kilowatt-
consumer unit (‘fuse box’)
main supply electric hour meter
cable company’s
main fuse

in parallel lamps
water
heater air-
All electrical appliances are connected in parallel. conditioner

Why?
faults in one circuit will not affect other circuits.

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Mains circuits

kilowatt-
mains electric consumer unit (‘fuse box’)
hour meter
supply company’s
cable main fuse

lamps
water
heater
air-conditioner
• Each circuit branch has L, N & E wires.

• Earth wires are connected to an earthing electrode buried underground.

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 consumer unit (‘fuse box’)

It has a main switch:

one can switch off whole circuit
for repair work each circuit is
or in case of emergency fitted with a fuse
or circuit breaker

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Lighting circuit

5A

• 1 branch for ceiling

lamps: lighting circuit
• Each lamp is controlled by a
switch on wall lighting circuit
• Protected by 5 A fuse
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 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF EARTHING
• The non current carrying metallic parts of the
electrical equipment such as electric kettles, irons,
guitars, cookers, table lamps, washing machines,
vacuum cleaners, refrigerators and electric heaters
should be securely connected to the earth in order
to avoid shock under any fault condition.
• Connecting the metallic (conductive) Parts of an
Electric appliance or installations to the earth
(ground) is called Earthing or Grounding.

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 POINTS TO BE EARTHED
• All metal casing or metallic coverings containing or
protecting any electric supply line or apparatus such
as GI pipes and conduits enclosing VIR or PVC
cables, iron clad switches, iron clad distribution fuse
boards etc should be earthed (connected to earth).
• The frame of every generator, stationary motors
and metallic parts of all transformers used for
controlling energy should be earthed by two
separate and yet distinct connections with the
earth.
• In a dc 3-wire system, the middle conductors should
be earthed at the generating station.
• Stay wires that are for overhead lines should be
connected to earth by connecting at least one
strand to the earth wires.
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 Different Terms used in Electrical Earthing
• Earth: The proper connection between electrical installation
systems via conductor to the buried plate in the earth is known
as Earth.
• Earthed: When an electrical device, appliance or wiring system
connected to the earth through earth electrode, it is known as
earthed device or simple “Earthed”.
• Solidly Earthed: When an electric device, appliance or electrical
installation is connected to the earth electrode without a fuse,
circuit breaker or resistance/Impedance, It is called “solidly
earthed”.
• Earth Electrode: When a conductor (or conductive plate) buried
in the earth for electrical earthing system. It is known to be
Earth Electrode.
• Earth electrodes are in different shapes like, conductive plate,
conductive rod, metal water pipe or any other conductor with
low resistance.

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• Earthing Lead: The conductor wire or conductive strip connected
between Earth electrode and Electrical installation system and
devices in called Earthing lead.
• Earth Continuity Conductor: The conductor wire, which is
connected among different electrical devices and appliances like,
distribution board, different plugs and appliances etc. in other
words, the wire between earthing lead and electrical device or
appliance is called earth continuity conductor. It may be in the
shape of metal pipe (fully or partial), or cable metallic sheath or
flexible wire.
• Sub Main Earthing Conductor: A wire connected between switch
board and distribution board i.e. that conductor is related to sub
main circuits.
• Earth Resistance: This is the total resistance between earth
electrode and earth in Ω (Ohms). Earth resistance is the algebraic
sum of the resistances of earth continuity conductor, earthing lead,
earth electrode and earth.
• According to IEEE rules, resistance between consumer earth
terminal and earth Continuity conductor (at the end) should not be
increased than 1Ω. In simple words, resistance of earth wire should
be less than 1Ω.
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1) Plate Earthing:
• In plate earthing system, a plate made up of
either copper with dimensions 60cm x 60cm x
3.18mm (i.e. 2ft x 2ft x 1/8 in)
• (Or) galvanized iron (GI) of dimensions 60cm x
60cm x 6.35 mm (2ft x 2ft x ¼ in) is buried
vertical in the earth (earth pit) which should not
be less than 3m (10ft) from the ground level.
• For proper earthing system, follow the above
mentioned steps in the (Earth Plate introduction)
to maintain the moisture condition around the
earth electrode or earth plate. 58
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2)Pipe Earthing:
• A galvanized steel and a perforated pipe of
approved length and diameter is placed vertically
in a wet soil in this kind of system of earthing. It is
the most common system of earthing.
• The size of pipe to use depends on the magnitude
of current and the type of soil.
• The dimension of the pipe is usually 40mm
(1.5in) in diameter and 2.75m (9ft) in length for
ordinary soil or greater for dry and rocky soil.
• The moisture of the soil will determine the length
of the pipe to be buried but usually it should be
4.75m (15.5ft).
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3)Rod Earthing
• It is the same method as pipe earthing.
• A copper rod of 12.5mm (1/2 inch) diameter
or 16mm (0.6in) diameter of galvanized steel
(or) hollow section 25mm (1inch) of GI pipe of
length above 2.5m (8.2 ft) are buried upright
in the earth manually or with the help of a
pneumatic hammer.
• The length of embedded electrodes in the soil
reduces earth resistance to a desired value.

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 General method of Earthing / Proper Grounding Installation
(Step by Step)

• First of all, dig a 5x5ft (1.5×1.5m) pit about 20-30ft (6-9 meters) in
the ground. (Note that, depth and width depends on the nature and
structure of the ground)
• Bury an appropriate (usually 2’ x 2’ x 1/8” (600x600x300 mm) copper
plate in that pit in vertical position.
• Tight earth lead through nut bolts from two different places on earth
plate.
• Use two earth leads with each earth plate (in case of two earth
plates) and tight them.
• To protect the joints from corrosion, put grease around it.
• Collect all the wires in a metallic pipe from the earth electrode(s).
Make sure the pipe is 1ft (30cm) above the surface of the ground.
• To maintain the moisture condition around the earth plate, put a 1ft
(30cm) layer of powdered charcoal (powdered wood coal) and lime
mixture around the earth plate of around the earth plate.
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 General method of Earthing / Proper Grounding
Installation (Step by Step)
• Use thimble and nut bolts to connect tightly wires to the bed plates of
machines. Each machine should be earthed from two different places. The
minimum distance between two earth electrodes should be 10 ft (3m).
• Earth continuity conductor which is connected to the body and metallic
parts of all installation should be tightly connected to earth lead.
• At last (but not least), test the overall earthing system through earth tester.
If everything is going about the planning, then fill the pit with soil. The
maximum allowable resistance for earthing is 1Ω.
• If it is more than 1 ohm, then increase the size (not length) of earth lead
and earth continuity conductors.
• Keep the external ends of the pipes open and put the water time to time to
maintain the moisture condition around the earth electrode which is
important for the better earthing system.

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 Indian Standards (IS) specification for Earthing
An earthing electrode should not be situated (installed) close to
the building whose installation system is being earthed at least
more than 1.5m away
• The earth resistance should be low enough to cause the flow of
current sufficient to operate the protective relays or blow
fuses. It’s value is not constant as it varies with weather
because it depends on moisture (but should be less than 1
Ohm)
• The earth wire and earth electrode will be the same material
• The earthing electrode should always be placed in a vertical
position inside the earth or pit so that it may be in contact with
all the different earth layers

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 GENERAL SAFETY REQUIREMENTS AS
PER INDIAN ELECTRICITY(IE) RULES
THE INDIAN ELECTRICITY RULES, 1956
• All electric supply lines and apparatus shall be of
sufficient ratings for power, insulation and
estimated fault current and of sufficient
mechanical strength, for the duty which they may
be required to perform under the environmental
conditions of installation, and shall be
constructed, installed, protected, worked and
maintained in such a manner as to ensure safety
of human beings, animals and property.

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• The material and apparatus used shall conform to
the relevant specifications of the Bureau of Indian
Standards
• Service-lines placed by the supplier on the
premises of a consumer which are underground or
which are accessible shall be so insulated and
protected by the supplier as to be secured under
all ordinary conditions against electrical,
mechanical, chemical or other injury to the
insulation.
• The consumer shall, as far as circumstances permit,
take precautions for the safe custody of the
equipment on his premises belonging to the
supplier.
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• Where more than one consumer is supplied
through a common service-line, each such
consumer shall be provided with an independent
cut-out at the point of junction to the common
service.
• Accessibility of bare conductors- Where bare
conductors are used in a building, the owner of
such conductors shall ensure that they are
inaccessible
• Danger Notices- The owner of every medium,
high and extra-high voltage installation shall affix
permanently in a conspicuous position a danger
notice in Hindi or English and the local language
of the district, with a sign of skull and bones

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• Every person who is working on an electric supply
line or apparatus or both shall be provided with
tools and devices such as gloves, rubber shoes,
safety belts, ladders, earthing devices, helmets,
line testers, hand lines and the like for protecting
him from mechanical and electrical injury. Such
tools and devices shall always be maintained in
sound and efficient working conditions
• No person shall work on any live electric supply
line or apparatus and no person shall assist such
person on such work, unless he is authorised in
that behalf, and takes the safety measures
approved by the Inspector

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• Flexible cables shall not be used for portable or
transportable motors, generators, transformer
rectifiers, electric drills, electric sprayers, welding
sets or any other portable or transportable
apparatus unless they are heavily insulated and
adequately protected from mechanical injury.
• Fire buckets filled with clean dry sand and ready
for immediate use for extinguishing fires, in
addition to fire extinguishers suitable for dealing
with electric fires, shall be conspicuously marked
and kept in all generating stations, enclosed sub-
stations and switch stations in convenient
situation.

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• Instructions, in English or Hindi and the local
language of the district and where Hindi is the
local language, in English and Hindi for the
restoration of persons suffering from electric
shock, shall be affixed by the owner in a
conspicuous place
• All electric supply lines and apparatus shall be
sufficient in power and size and of sufficient
mechanical strength for the work they may be
required to do and so far as is practicable shall be
constructed, installed, worked and maintained in
accordance with the standards of the ISI to
prevent danger.

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• All electric supply lines, wires, fittings and
apparatus on a consumer’s premises shall be
in a safe condition fit for supplying energy.
• A suitable cut-out shall be provided by the
supplier in each conductor (other than an
earthed neutral)
• A suitable earthed terminal should be
provided in an accessible portion at or near
the point of commenced of supply.
• Only licence contractors can carry out
installation work, addition, alteration, repairs
etc., in a consumer premises.
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• All overhead conductors (including service
lines) when erected across a street shall have
a minimum clearance of 19 feet (for low and
medium voltages) and 20 feet(for high
voltage lines)
• When erected along a street, the minimum
ground clearance shall be 18 to 19 feet
respectively.

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• The maximum intervals between supports
shall not exceed 220 feet in the case of over
head lines carrying low or medium voltages.
• Where two lines across the crossing shall be
arranged nearly at right angles as possible.
• Suitable guarding arrangement is provided
while crossing, the cost being borne by the
person whose line is last erected.

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 General Safety Requirements
• Do not work on live circuits. However wherever the energised circuits like
control panel are to be handled always use rubber mats, rubber sole shoes,
rubber gloves ect.,
• Always use proper size of wire of proper voltage grade for all electrical
appliances, equipments, wiring installations.
• All electrical connections should be made tight and these should be checked
periodically so as to avoid fire due to loose connections.
• All non current carrying metal parts of the equipment and of installations
should be properly earthed.
• Always keep earthing in good condition. The earth resistance should be kept
very low all the time since safety depends upon perfect earthing.
• Put off the main switch immediately when a person experience a shock with
live conductor.
• Do not touch the person who is experiencing electric shock by touching him
directly, push him with dry wood or with any insulating material.
• In case a person is electrocuted immediately apply artificial respiration and
call the doctor.
• Never use water for extinguishing fire due to electric sypply. Use only sand.
Use only carbon tetra chloride liquid carbon dioxide fire extinguishers.
• Switch OFF the main switch and keep the fuse carrier with you while working
on an electrical installation.
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• Do not plug anything into light sockets except light bulbs.
• Make sure leads are not worn, frayed, cut or show bare wire at any
point.
• Do not overload sockets.
• Do not run extension leads into the bathroom.
• Pull out the plug before changing fuses or filling an electric kettle.
Do not trust sockets. Switches can go wrong and "OFF" may still be
"ON".
• Do not poke into sockets or electrical equipment.
• Keep fingers and other objects away from electrical outlets.
• Never touch anything electrical when you are wet.
• Never use radios, hair dryers, or any other electrical appliance near
a bathtub or pool.
• Stay away from utilities' electrical equipment such as transformers
and meters.
• Always disconnect an appliance by pulling the plug, not by yanking
the cord.
• Obey all safety signs.

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 Electric power supply system

• An electric power system or electric grid is known as a

large network of power generating plants which
connected to the consumer loads.
• As, it is well known that “Energy cannot be created nor
be destroyed but can only be converted from one
form of energy to another form of energy”.
• Electrical energy is a form of energy where we transfer
this energy in the form of flow of electron. So,
electrical energy is obtained by converting various
other forms of energy. Historically, we have done it
from chemical energy using cells or batteries.

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• However, as the invention of generator had occurred, it
became the technique to first convert some form of
energy into mechanical form of energy and then
converting it into electrical form of energy using
generator.
• Generators produce two type of power AC and DC.
Nevertheless, 99% of the present power systems use AC
generators.
• Electrical energy has grown immensely over two
centuries because the flexibility it provides for its use.
The variety of use has led its demand to increase
monotonously. However, as the load or demand has
increased practically one requirement is consistent. That
is, we must generate the amount required by the load at
that very instant because this large amount cannot be
stored for delivering this high amount of demand.
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• The lines network between Generating Station
(Power Station) and consumer of electric power
can be divided into two parts.
1. Transmission System
2. Distribution System

We can explore these systems in more categories such

as primary transmission and secondary transmission
as well as primary distribution and secondary
distribution.

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• The main objective of an electric power
system is to obtain electrical energy and make
it reachable safely to the load point where it is
being used in usable form. This is done in five
stages namely
• Generating Station
• Primary Transmission
• Secondary Transmission
• Primary Distribution
• Secondary Distribution

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Electrical Power Grid - Structure and Working

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 Single line diagram of AC power transmission system
• A typical single line diagram that represents the flow of
energy in a given power system is shown below:

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 BASICS OF ELECTRICAL POWER
TRANSMISSION SYSTEM
• Electrical power is generated in a power plant at voltage levels
11kV, 33kV etc., But to transmit the power generated to a long
distance the voltage level has to be stepped up to a very high
voltage by using a power transformer prior to the transmission.
When the voltage level is increased the current level will come
down and power remain constant. If the power is transmitted at
higher voltage level with reduced current level the I2R
transmission losses will be reduced. The stepped up high voltage
output secondary is connected to the transmission lines.
• Transmission lines are sets of wires, called conductors, that carry
electric power from generating plants to the substations that
deliver power to customers. At substations another power
transformer step down the power to a lower voltage and deliver
it to distribution lines.
• Distribution lines carry power to farms, homes and businesses.
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• The 11kV generating voltage is stepped up to
110kV, 132kV, 220kV, 400kV or 765kV etc.
Stepping up the voltage level depends upon the
distance at which power is to be transmitted.
Longer the distance, higher will be the voltage
level. This stage is called as primary
transmission.
• The voltage is then stepped down at a receiving
station to 33kV or 66kV. This is called Secondary
transmission. These lines will be connected to
the substation.
• A transmission substation connects two or more
transmission networks.
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 Main Elements of a Transmission Line
• Due to the economic considerations, three-phase three-wire overhead system is widely
used for electric power transmission. Following are the main elements of a typical power
system.

Conductors: . Usually, ACSR (Aluminium-core Steel-reinforced) conductors are used. Three

wires are used for a single circuit line and six wires for a double circuit line. Conductors
must be of proper size (i.e. cross-sectional area). This depends upon its current capacity.

• Transformers: Step-up transformers are used for stepping up the voltage level and step-
down transformers are used for stepping it down. Transformers permit power to be
transmitted at higher efficiency.

• Line insulators: To mechanically support the line conductors while electrically isolating
them from the support towers.

• Support towers: To support the line conductors suspending in the air overhead.

• Protective devices: To protect the transmission system and to ensure reliable operation.
These include ground wires, lightening arrestors, circuit breakers, relays etc.

• Voltage regulators: To keep the voltage within permissible limits at the receiving end.

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 Different Types of Transmission Systems
• Single phase AC system
– single phase, two wires
– single phase, two wires with midpoint earthed
– single phase, three wires
• Three phase AC system
– three-phase, three wires
– three-phase, four wires
• DC system
– DC two wires
– DC two wires with midpoint earthed

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Double circuit transmission system

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Underground Power Transmission Using Power Cables
• Electric power transmission can also be carried out
using underground cables. But, construction of an
underground transmission line generally costs 4 to 10
times than an equivalent distance overhead line.
However, it is to be noted that, the cost of
constructing underground transmission lines highly
depends upon the local environment. Also, the cost
of conductor material required is one of the most
considerable charges in a transmission system. Since
conductor cost is a major part of the total cost, it has
to be taken into consideration while designing. The
choice of transmission system is made by keeping in
mind various factors such as reliability, efficiency and
economy. Usually, overhead transmission system is
used.
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 ELECTRICAL POWER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

• Electric power distribution is the final stage in the delivery of electric; it

carries electricity from the transmission system to individual
consumers.
• Distribution substations connect to the transmission system and lower
the transmission voltage to medium voltage ranging between 2 kV and
33 kV with the use of step down transformers.
• Large industrial consumers can be supplied at 11kV directly from these
substations. Also, feeders emerge from these substations. This stage is
called as primary distribution.
• Feeders (11kV) are either overhead lines or underground cables which
carry power close to the load points (end consumers) up to a couple of
kilometres.
• Finally, the voltage is stepped down to 415V by a pole-mounted
distribution transformer and delivered to the distributors. This is called
secondary distribution.

• End consumers are supplied through a service mains line from

distributors. The secondary distribution system consists of feeders,
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distributors and service mains.
• A distribution substation is located near or inside
city/town/village/industrial area. It receives power from a
transmission network. The high voltage from the transmission
line is then stepped down by a step-down transformer to the
primary distribution level voltage. Primary distribution voltage
is usually 11 kV, but can range between 2.4 kV to 33 kV
depending upon region or consumer.

A typical power distribution system consists of

• Distribution substation
• Feeders
• Distribution Transformers
• Distributor conductors
• Service mains conductors
• Along with these, a distribution system also consists of
switches, protection equipment, measuring equipments etc.
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• Distribution substation: A distribution substation
transfers power from the transmission system to
the distribution system of an area.
• Distribution transformer: A distribution
transformer, also called as service transformer,
provides final transformation in the electric power
distribution system. It is basically a step-down 3-
phase transformer.
• Distribution transformer steps down the voltage to
415V/230 V
• Voltage between any one phase and the neutral is
230 volts and phase to phase voltage is 415 volts.
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Feeders
• Those electric power lines which connect
generating station (power station) or sub
station to distributors are called feeders.
Remember that current in feeders (in each
point) is constant while the level of voltage
may be different. The current flowing in the
feeders depends on the size of conductor.

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Distributors: Output from a distribution transformer is
carried by distributor conductor. Tappings are taken
from a distributor conductor for power supply to the
end consumers. The current through a distributor is
not constant as tappings are taken at various places
throughout its length. So, voltage drop along the length
is the main consideration while designing a distributor
conductor.
Service Lines or Service Mains
• The normal cable which is connected between
Distributors and Consumer load terminal called Service
Line or Service Mains. It is used to get three phase or
single phase power supply. Phase or Live to Neutral
power is 230V AC (110 in US) and 415V AC (208 in US)
in three phase (phase to phase) system.

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 Classification of Power Distribution Systems
According to nature of current
• DC distribution system
• AC distribution system
According to type of construction
• Overhead distribution system
• Underground distribution system
According to the scheme of connection
• Radial distribution system
• Ring main distribution system
• Inter-connected distribution system 100
 ELECTRICAL LOADS
• An electrical load is a device or an electrical
component that consumes electrical energy
and convert it into another form of energy.
Electric lamps, fans, air conditioners, motors,
heaters etc. are some of the examples of
electrical loads.

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• Electrical loads can be classified according to their nature as Resistive,
Capacitive, Inductive and combinations of these.
Resistive Load
• Two common examples of resistive loads are incandescent lamps and
electric heaters.
• Resistive loads consume electrical power in such a manner that the
current wave remains in phase with the voltage wave. That means, power
factor for a resistive load is unity.

Capacitive Load
• A capacitive load causes the current wave to lead the voltage wave. Thus,
power factor of a capacitive load is leading.
• Examples of capacitive loads are: capacitor banks, buried cables,
capacitors used in various circuits such as motor starters etc.

Inductive Load
• An inductive load causes the current wave to lag the voltage wave. Thus,
power factor of an inductive load is lagging.
• Examples of inductive load include motors, transformers, coils etc.

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Combination Loads
• Most of the loads are not purely resistive or
purely capacitive or purely inductive. Many
practical loads make use of various
combinations of resistors, capacitors and
inductors. Power factor of such loads is less
than unity and either lagging or leading.
• Examples: Single phase motors have windings.
But it use capacitors for starting and running.
Also the motor winding will have some
resistance.
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 Types of loads in power system

Domestic load / Residential load

• Domestic load consists of lights, fans, home electric appliances (including TV, AC,
refrigerators, heaters etc.), small motors for pumping water etc. Most of the
domestic loads are connected for only some hours during a day. For example,
lighting load is connected for few hours during night time.

Commercial load
• Commercial load consists of electrical loads that are meant to be used
commercially, such as in restaurants, shops, malls etc. This type of load occurs for
more hours during the day as compared to the domestic load.

Industrial load
• Industrial load consists of load demand by various industries. It includes all
electrical loads used in industries along with the employed machinery. Industrial
loads may be connected during the whole day.

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Municipal load
• This type of load consists of street lighting, water
supply and drainage systems etc. Street lighting is
practically constant during the night hours. Water
may be pumped to overhead storage tanks.
Irrigation load
• Motors and pumps used in irrigation systems to
supply the water for farming come under this
category.
Traction load
• Electric railways, tram cars etc. come under traction
loads.
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 SINGLE PHASE AND THREE PHASE LOADS

Single phase AC loads are operated at 230 V AC, 50 Hz, supply. They
will have only two terminals. Phase or live and Neutral.

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•Low tension three phase AC loads are operated at 415V, AC, 50 Hz, supply. They
will have three phase terminals namely red, yellow, and blue terminals. Some
loads may have neutral terminal also.
•If it is a star connected load it will have 4 terminals.
•If it is delta connected load it will have 3 terminals.
•The voltage between any two phase conductor will be 415 V.
•The voltage between any one phase conductor & neutral conductor will be 230 V.
•Large size High tension 3 phase loads such as industrial motors will operate
at 11 kV.

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Power Rating of Home Appliances

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109
 3 phase loads

• Three-phase induction motor

• Electric boilers.
• Space heater
• Rectifiers may use a three-phase source to
produce DC output. Such rectifiers may be
used for battery charging, electrolysis
processes such as aluminium production or for
operation of DC motors.
• Electric arc furnace used in steel
manufacturing plants and in refining of ores.
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Name plate details

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112
CALCULATION OF ENERGY CONSUMPTION

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 SIMPLE PROBLEMS

• If a 100 W LED light is switched on for 40

Hours, calculate the energy consumption.

• A house uses seven 40 W tube lights and two

80 W fans. The light is switched on for 4
hours/ day and fan is switched on for 6
hours/day. Calculate the energy consumption
for 4 days.

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