9-PLAN-1 CHEMICAL CALCULATIONS

THE MOLE CONCEPT B. The relationship between Mole number and Mass

The mole number is a chemical unit. It provides us with many advantages. a) Atomic Weight and Molecular Weight
For example, we say the distance between two cities in km not in cm or mm. Also, we
can make transitions among volume, mass, and number of atoms or molecules by Each student must learn how to find atomic weights of elements from the
means of the mole number. periodic table.

A. The relationship between Mole number and Number of atoms or molecules O : 16 g/mol , C : 12 g/mol, S : 32 g/mol, Cl : 35.5 g/mol etc.

1 mole contains 6.02×1023 atoms for an element and 6.02×1023 molecules for a 1 mole = 6.02×1023 atoms of Oxygen weigh 16 g so Aw = 16 g / mol
compound. 6.02×1023 is called Avogadro’s number and abbreviated by N A . If we O
show this relationship by a formula, we get 1 mole = 6.02×1023 atoms of Chlorine weigh 35.5 g so Aw = 35.5 g / mol
Cl
n : mole number ; N : number of atoms or molecules
n = N/NA N A : Avogadro’s number In periodic table, atomic weights are not whole numbers. Why? (Isotope)

Ex: Find the mole number of

Ex: Let us calculate the molecular weights of some compounds.
a) 12.04×1024 Iron atoms b) 3.01×1022 Water molecules
20
c) 24.08×10 Potassium atoms 1) Water: Mw(H 2 O) = 2.1 + 16 = 18 g/mol
2) Sodium hydroxide: Mw(NaOH) = 23 + 16 + 1 = 40 g/mol
a) There are two ways to solve this problem.
Classwork ; students must find the molecular weights of some compounds.
23
1. way : If 1 mole contains 6.02×10 atoms, 2. way : n = N/N A Carbon dioxide, Nitric acid, Sulfuric acid, Sodium chloride etc.
x mole contains 12.04×1024 atoms.
n = 12.04×1024/6.02×1023
24 23 b) Percentage Composition of a Compound
x = 12.04×10 /6.02×10 = 20 moles
n = 20 moles
The mass percentage of an element can be calculated by the following formula.
Ex: How many atoms are there in
Mass of X
a) 4 moles of Sodium
b) 0.1 mole of Chlorine W(%) of X = × 100
c) 2 moles of Carbondioxide Mass of compound

Ex: What is the mass percentage of oxygen in Magnesium oxide?

c) n = N/N A ⇒ N = 2×6.02×1023 = 12.04×1023 molecules
Mw(MgO) = 24+16 = 40 g/mol W(%) of O = (16/40).100 = 40 %
1 molecule CO 2 contains 3 atoms
12.04×1023 molecules CO 2 contain X atoms Ex: Calculate the mass percentage of each element in

X = 36.12×1023 atoms a) Aluminum sulfide b) Iron (III) oxide c) Ammonium nitrate d) Lithium
oxide
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9-PLAN-1 CHEMICAL CALCULATIONS
c) m m : mass (g) D. Particle number-Mass-Volume Calculations
n = Aw : atomic weight (g/mole)
Aw or Mw Mw : molecular weight (g/mole) Let’s explain these relationships with an analogy. Suppose that mole number
is Bishkek; mass is Karakol; volume is Osh; and the number of atoms or molecules is
Ex: Calculate the mole number of Istanbul.

a) 112 g of Iron b) 2.4 g of Carbon c) 16 g of Oxygen (N = the number of atoms or molecules)

d) 20 g of Sodium hydroxide e) 4.9 g of Sulfuric acid f) 12 g of Acetic acid Istanbul

a) n = m/Aw = 112/56 = 2 moles. n = N/N A

d) n = m/Mw ; Mw(NaOH) = 23 + 16 + 1 = 40 g/mole n = 20/40 = 0.5 mole

Bishkek (n = mole number)

Ex: What is the mass of n = V/22.4 n = m/Aw or Mw

a) 3 moles of Sulfur b) 0.5 mole of Phosphoric acid Osh Karakol

c) 0.1 mole of Zinc oxide d) 0.05 mole of Carbon dioxide (V = volume) (m = mass)

Ex: What is the mass of 8.96 L of Carbon dioxide gas at STP?

C. The relationship between Mole number and Volume of Gases
Ex: What is the volume of 3.2 g of Oxygen gas at STP?
1 mole gas occupies 22.4 L at STP. (not solid or liquid) What is STP?
It is standard temperature and pressure. Standard temperature is 0 0C, and Ex: How many atoms are there in 4 g of Calcium?
standard pressure is 1 atm. If temperature or pressure is not standard, 1 mole gas
will not occupy 22.4 L. Ex: What is the mass of 3.01×1023 molecules of Water?

Ex: There are 11.2 L of Oxygen gas at STP.

n = V/22.4 V : volume of gas (L) ; n : mole number
a) How many molecules are there?
b) How many atoms are there?
Ex: Fin the mole number of
Ex: What is the volume of 1.505×1023 molecules of Carbon dioxide gas at STP?
a) 11.2 L of oxygen b) 44.8 L of nitrogen
c) 2.24 L of carbon dioxide d) 112 mL of hydrogen E. Determination of Unknown Element

a) n = 11.2/22.4 = 0.5 mole Ex: 0.01 mole of XCl 2 weighs 1.11 g. Find X.

Ex: Calculate the volume of Ex: If 0.05 moles of X 2 O 3 weigh 5.1 g, calculate the atomic weight of X.

a) 3 moles of Helium b) 0.2 moles of Sulfur dioxide

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9-PLAN-1 CHEMICAL CALCULATIONS
0.05 = 5.1/ M w ⇒ M w = 102 ⇒ 2.X + 3.16 = 102 ⇒ X= 27 g/mol 0.1 0.3 0.05
(Al) 2 6 1
EMPIRICAL FORMULA DETERMINATION STOICHIOMETRIC CALCULATIONS

It is called also the simplest formula. By empirical formula, we can know only the aA + bB → cC
types of atoms and their ratios in a compound. a molecules b molecules c molecules

Molecular formula Empirical formula a mol of A react with b mol of B and produce c mol of C
C 6 H 12 O 6 (glucose) CH 2 O
The reaction coefficients (a, b and c) refer to mole number not mass. When we
H2O H2O
the reaction coefficients are used for mole relationship in chemical calculations, it is
called stoichiometry.
Ex: 8.8 g of a Nitrogen oxide contains 3.2 g of Oxygen. Find its empirical formula.

m O = 3.2 g m N = 8.8 − 3.2 = 5.6 g

2Na + S → Na 2 S
N O 2 atoms 1 atom 1 molecule
m 5.6 3.2
10 atoms 5 atoms 5 molecules
n 5.6/14 3.2/16 ⇒ N2O
n 0.4 0.2 500 atoms 250 atoms 250 molecules
2 1
2×(6.02×1023) (6.02×1023) (6.02×1023)
Ex: An oxide of Sulfur contains 50 % by mass. Find its empirical formula. 2 moles 1 mole 1 mole
S O
m 50 50
n 50/32 50/16 ⇒ SO 2 N2 + 3H 2 → 2NH 3
n 1.56 3.12 1 molecule 3 molecules 2 molecules
1 2
10 molecules 30 molecules 20 molecules
Ex: When a 2.3 g compound containing Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen is burned
6.02×1023 3×(6.02×1023) 2×(6.02×1023)
4.4 g of Carbon dioxide and 2.7 g of Water produce. Find its formula.
1 mole 3 moles 2 moles
C x H y O z + O 2 → CO 2 + H 2 O
Ex: How many moles of Oxygen are needed in order to react with 0.5 moles of
44 g CO 2 12 g C 18 g H 2 O 2gH Hydrogen? And, how many moles of water will produce after the reaction?
4.4 g x 2.7 g x
m C =1.2 g m H = 0.3 g m O = 2.3 − (1.2+0.3) = 0.8g 2 1 2
2H 2 + O2 → 2H 2 O
C H O
1.2 0.3 0.8 0.5 ? = 0.25 ? = 0.5
1.2/12 0.3/1 0.8/16 ⇒ C2H 6O
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9-PLAN-1 CHEMICAL CALCULATIONS
11.7
Mw NaCl = 23 + 35.5 = 58.5 g / mol =
n NaCl = 0.2 moles
Ex: How many grams of Magnesium oxide will produce when 120 g of Magnesium 58.5
are burnt with Oxygen gas? 2 1 2
2Na + Cl 2 → 2NaCl
2Mg + O 2 → 2MgO ? = 0.2 moles ? = 0.1 moles 0.2 moles

Given; m Mg = 120 g Asked; m MgO = ? g Aw Na = 23 g / mol Aw CI = 35.5 g / mol

Then, we should calculate the mole number of Mg so that we can calculate mole m Na = 0.2 × 23 = 4.6 g m Cl2 = 0.1 × 71 = 7.1 g
number of MgO by stoichiometry.
If you pay attention, you see that the total mass of Na and Cl 2 is equal to the
120 mass of NaCl. It proves a law in Chemistry which is known as “Conservation of
n=
Mg = 5 moles Mass”. This law states that the total mass of the reactants must be equal to the total
24
mass of the products. For the above reaction;
2 1 2
2Mg + O2 → 2MgO m Na + m Cl2 = m NaCl ⇒ 4.6 + 7.1 = 11.7
5 moles ? = 5 moles
As you see in the previous example, we can also use mass relationship instead of
Now, let’s calculate the mass of MgO from the mole-mass formula. mole relationship in order to solve “Chemical calculations” problems. We only need
to know the atomic weights of the elements in the reaction equation.
n MgO = 5 moles Mw MgO = 24 + 16 = 40 g / mol

m MgO m MgO Ex: Let’s solve the previous problem by using the mass relationship.
=
n MgO ⇒ =5 ⇒ m MgO = 200 g
Mw MgO 40 2Na + Cl 2 → 2NaCl

Ex: Sodium chloride, NaCl, is a compound which is known as table salt. How many Given; m NaCl = 11.7 g =
Asked; m Na ?=
g and m Cl2 ? g
grams of Sodium and Chlorine gas are required in order to produce 11.7 g of
Sodium chloride?
Let’s find the atomic weights from the Periodic Table.
2Na + Cl 2 → 2NaCl
Aw Na = 23 g / mol Aw Cl = 35.5 g / mol Mw NaCl =23 + 35.5 =58.5 g / mol
Given; m NaCl = 11.7 g =
Asked; m Na ?=
g and m Cl2 ? g
(2×23) (2×35.5) (2×58.5) As you see, total mass is conserved during
Then, we should calculate the mole number of NaCl so that we can calculate 2Na + Cl 2 → 2NaCl the reaction. In other words, the total mass
mole numbers of Na and Cl 2 by stoichiometry. of the reactants is equal to the total mass of
46 g + 71 g = 117 g the products.

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9-PLAN-1 CHEMICAL CALCULATIONS
If the mass of the one of the substances is increased or decreased by a factor,
then the mass of the others must be also increased or decreased by the same factor. CaCO 3 (s) → CaO (s) + CO 2 (g) ↑
So, we can solve the question by using the mass proportion as follows. Given; m CaCO3 = 50 g Asked; VCO2 = ? L at STP
46 71 117
2Na + Cl 2 → 2NaCl Firstly, let’s find the mole number of Calcium carbonate.

? ? 11.7 g Aw Ca = 40 g / mol Aw C = 12 g / mol Aw O = 16 g / mol

If 46 g Na 117 g NaCl If 71 g Cl 2 117 g NaCl 50

Mw CaCO3 = 40 + 12 + 16 × 3 = 100 g / mol ⇒ =
n CaCO = 0.5 moles
x g Na 11.7 g NaCl x g Сl 2 11.7 g NaCl 3 100
------------------------------------- -----------------------------------------
x = 4.6 g Na x = 7.1 g Cl 2 1 mol t 1 mol 1 mol
CaCO 3 (s) → CaO (s) + CO 2 (g) ↑
We can also calculate the mass of Cl 2 by the law of Conservation of mass.
0.5 moles ? = 0.5 moles
11.7 – 4.6 = 7.1 g
Now, we can calculate the volume of Carbon dioxide.
Ex: How many grams of Oxygen gas are required in order to burn 48 g of Carbon?
V CO V CO 2
And, how many grams of Carbon monoxide (CO) will produce? n CO2 = 2
⇒ 0.5 = ⇒ V CO2 = 11.2 L
22.4 22.4
2C + O2 → 2CO
Ex: Sodium carbonate is known as “Washing soda” and is used in the production of
detergents. How many liters of Carbon dioxide gas at STP will produce by the
Given; m C = 48 g =
Asked; m O2 ?=
g and m CO ? g
reaction of 37.1 g of Sodium carbonate with Hydrochloric acid?

Aw C = 12 g / mol Aw O = 16 g / mol Mw CO = 12 + 16 = 28 g / mol Na 2 CO 3 + 2HCl → 2NaCl + CO 2 ↑ + H 2 O

24 32 56 Given; m Na 2CO3 = 37.1 g Asked; VCO2 = ? L at STP

2C + O2 → 2CO
48 g ? = 64 g ? = 112 g Aw Na = 23 g / mol Aw C = 12 g / mol Aw O = 16 g / mol

In stoichiometric calculations, we can also determine the volume of a gaseous

Mw Na 2CO3 = (23 × 2) + 12 + (16 × 3) = 106 g / mol
substance at STP. As you remember, the volume of 1 mol of any gas is 22.4 L at STP.

Ex: Calcium carbonate is known as limestone and used in the construction industry. 106 g 22.4 L
It is found in Chalk, Marble and Cement. Na 2 CO 3 + 2HCl → 2NaCl + CO 2 ↑ + H 2 O
Calcium carbonate decomposes to Calcium oxide and Carbon dioxide by
heating. How many liters of Carbon dioxide gas can be obtained from the 37.1 g ? = 7.84 L
decomposition of 50 g Calcium carbonate at STP?
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9-PLAN-1 CHEMICAL CALCULATIONS
Ex: Mercury (II) oxide, which is a yellow colored solid, decomposes to liquid 46 g 67.2 L
Mercury and Oxygen gas when heated. Suppose 43.3 g of Mercury (II) oxide
decomposes by heating. C2H6O + 3O 2 → 2CO 2 + 3H 2 O
23 g ?
a) How many grams of Mercury will form?
b) How many liters of Oxygen gas will release at STP? 46 g C 2 H 6 O 67.2 L O 2
23 g C 2 H 6 O X L O2
2HgO → 2Hg + O 2 ↑
--------------------------------------
X = 33.6 L

Given; m HgO = 43.3 g Asked; m Hg = ? g , VCO2 = ? L at STP Note: We can use volume coefficient relationship if substances are all gases.

Aw Hg = 200.5 g / mol Aw O = 16 g / mol 1 3 2

N 2 (g) + 3H 2 (g) → 2NH 3 (g)
Mw HgO = 200.5 + 16 = 216.5 g / mol
1L 3L 2L
5L 15 L 10 L
433 g t 401 g 32 g (1mol = 22.4 L)
Ex: Calculate the volume of Hydrogen and Nitrogen to produce 60 L of Ammonia.
2HgO → 2Hg + O2↑
43.3 g ? g ? L at STP 1 3 2
N 2 + 3H 2 → 2NH 3

a) 433 g HgO 401 g Hg b) 433 g HgO 22.4 L O 2 ? ? 60 L

43.3 g HgO X g Hg 43.3 g HgO X
--------------------------------------- --------------------------------------- 1 L N2 2L NH 3 3 L H2 2L NH 3
X = 40.1 g X = 2.24 L x L N2 60 L NH 3 x L H2 60 L NH 3
---------------------------------------- --------------------------------------
x = 30 L x = 90 L
Ex: Ethanol, C 2 H 6 O, is one the most important organic compounds. It is used as a
solvent for paints and as fuel in cars. Calculate the volume of air at STP needed PURITY PROBLEMS
for the combustion of 23 g ethanol. (Air contains nearly 20 % oxygen by volume)
90 % pure Calcium sample means that it contains 10 % impure substances (impurity).
C 2 H 6 O + 3O 2 → 2CO 2 + 3H 2 O
Ex: An 8 g sample of Calcium that is 90 % pure.
Given; m C2 H6O = 23 g Asked; VO2 = ? L at STP
90
=
m Ca 8=
× 7.2 g pure calcium, 8 - 7.2 = 0.8 g impurity
100

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9-PLAN-1 CHEMICAL CALCULATIONS
Ex: Potassium chlorate, KClO 3 , is used as an explosive in gunpowder and fireworks. H2O2 → H2O + ½ O2
It decomposes to Potassium Chloride and Oxygen gas when heated. Given; msolution = 51 g Asked; WH 2 O2 =? %
How many liters of Oxygen gas at STP will release when a 27.23 g sample of
Potassium chlorate that is 90 % pure decomposes by heating? VO2 = 0.672 L at STP

2KClO 3 → 2KCl + 3O 2 ↑ Firstly, let’s find pure amount of H 2 O 2 in the sample from the reaction equation.

Given; msample = 27.23 g (90 % KClO 3 ) Asked; VO2 = ? L at STP

Mw H 2O2 = (2 × 1) + (2 × 16) = 34 g / mol
Firstly, let’s find the mass of pure KClO 3 in the sample. 34 g t 11.2 L
H2O2 → H2O + ½ O2 ⇒ If 51 g 100 %
90
= =
m KClO3 27.23 × 24.5 g Mw KClO3 = 39 + 35.5 + 48 = 122.5 g / mol ? = 2.04 g 0.672 L 2.04 g X
100 ----------------------------
X = 4 % pure H 2 O 2
245 g 67.2 L
2KClO 3 → 2KCl + 3O 2 ↑
24.5 g ? = 6.72 L EFFICIENCY (PERCENT YIELD) PROBLEMS

Ex: A sample of Calcium carbonate contains 20 % impurities. It is decomposed by In chemistry, there are two types of yield: Theoretical and practical
heating and the volume of Carbon dioxide is found to be 6.72 L. Determine the (experimental). Theoretical yield can be determined by stoichiometric calculations
initial mass of the sample. according to the reaction equation. Practical yield can only be obtained by
experiments.
In general, we may make several mistakes when we perform experiments.
Given; VCO2 = 6.72 L at STP Asked; msample = ? g (20 % impurity) Therefore, the practical yield obtained by an experiment is always smaller than the
theoretical yield calculated. Efficiency is a mass or volume percentage that shows
Firstly, let’s find pure amount of CaCO 3 in the sample from the reaction how perfect (correctly) we performed an experiment and it is calculated by the
equation. following formula.

100 g t 22.4 L Practical yield

CaCO 3 → CaO + CO 2 ⇒ If 80 % 30 g Efficiency =  × 100
Theoretical yield
? = 30 g 6.72 L 100 % X
(80 % pure amount) ---------------------------- Ex: How liters of Oxygen gas at STP can be obtained from the decomposition of
X = 37.5 g sample 129.9 g of Mercury (II) oxide if the efficiency of the reaction is 75 %?
Ex: Hydrogen peroxide, H 2 O 2 , is a colorless liquid and its aqueous solution is used in
2HgO → 2Hg + O 2 ↑
medicine as antiseptic. It decomposes to Water and Oxygen gas when heated.
A-51 g aqueous solution of Hydrogen peroxide is heated and 0.672 L of Oxygen
gas at STP produce. What is the percentage purity of Hydrogen peroxide in the Given; m HgO = 129.9 g , W = 75 % Asked; VO2 = ? L at STP
initial aqueous solution?
7
9-PLAN-1 CHEMICAL CALCULATIONS
Mw HgO = 200.5 + 16 = 216.5 g / mol

As you know, we can calculate the theoretical yield from the reaction equation. IDEAL GAS EQUATION

433 g t 22.4 L Studies show that;

2HgO → 2Hg + O2 ↑ P (pressure) ≈ n Pressure units: 1 atm=76cmHg
129.9 g ? = 6.72 L at STP P ≈ T 1 atm = 760mmHg
(theoretical) P ≈ 1/V 1 atm=760 torr
1 torr=1mmHg
1 kPa=1000 pascal
practical practical
Efficiency = ⇒ 75 = ⇒ practical = 5.04 L 1 Pa=101325 atm=105 atm
theoritical 6.72 P.V=n.R.T
P = pressure (atm)
Ex: In an experiment, 123 g of Magnesium sulfate hepta hydrate are heated and the V = volume (L)
mass of the salt decreases to 66.3 g. Determine the efficiency of the reaction. n = mole
T = temperature (K)
MgSO 4 .7H 2 O → MgSO 4 + 7H 2 O ↑ R = Ideal gas constant (0.082 atm.L/mol.K or 8.314 kPa.L/mol.K)
R = 22.4/273 atm.L/mol.K
Given; m MgSO4 .7H2O = 123 g , Asked; Efficiency = ?
Ex: What is the volume of 16 g of Helium at 0 0C and 2 atm?
246 g 120 g 126 g (7×18)
PV = nRT n = 16/4 = 4 T = 273 K
MgSO 4 .7H 2 O → MgSO 4 + 7H 2 O ↑
2.V = 4.22.4/273.273 → V = 44.8 L
123 g x g (loss)
Ex: A 10 g sample of Calcium is put into Hydrochloric solution. What is the volume
246 g 126 g of gas that can form at 0 oC and 3 atm?
123 g Xg Ca + 2HCl → CaCl 2 + H 2 ↑ n Ca = 10/40=0.25 mol
----------------------- 0.25mol 0.25mol
x = 63 g should evaporate (theoretical yield)
3. V=0.25 . 22.4/273 . 273
m water = 123 – 66.3 = 56.7 g evaporated in the experiment (practical yield) V= 1.86 L

Ex: How many grams of Potassium chlorate are needed to produce 8.2 L of Oxygen
practical 56.7 gas at 227 0C and 1140 mmHg?
Efficiency = × 100 = × 100 =
90 %
theoritical 63 t
KClO 3 → KCl + 3/2 O 2 P. V =n.R. T
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9-PLAN-1 CHEMICAL CALCULATIONS
0.2 mol 0.3 1140/760.8,2=n.0,082.500
m= 0,2.122,5=24,5g n=0.3 mol

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 9-PLAN-2 SOLUTIONS
SOLUTIONS 2. According to concentration of solutions: A solution containing high
Properties of Solutions concentration of solute is called concentrated solution. A solution containing low
concentration of solute, on the other hand is called dilute solution. For example; a
Homogeneous mixtures are called solutions. Homogeneous mixtures are uniform. spoonful of sugar dissolved in a cup of tea will produce a fairly concentrated
For example; solution, whereas the same amount of sugar in a teapot will produce a dilute
Salt + water → homogeneous mixture ( solution ) solution.
Sugar + water → homogeneous mixture ( solution )
Alcohol + water → homogeneous mixture ( solution ) Dilute and concentrated solutions show different physical and chemical
Carbon dioxide + water → homogeneous mixture ( solution ) properties. Their boiling points, densities, and reactions are different. For
Chalk + water → heterogeneous mixture ( not solution ) example; copper reacts in a different way with dilute and concentrated nitric and
Water → homogeneous, but not mixture ( not solution ) sulfuric acid solutions.

Solutions are impure substances, and do not have a definite boiling and Cu + 4HNO 3(conc) → Cu(NO 3 ) 2 + 2NO 2 ↑ + 2H 2 O
melting point. And, impurity increases boiling point but decreases freezing point. (in Red blue
winter, salt is added onto ice or snow in order to decrease frezing point.)
In laboratories, in technology, and in daily life most of the chemical reactions Nitrogen dioxide is a brown colored and sharp odored gas. It is acidic oxide.
occur in solutions. For example, As antifreeze and coolant in automobile radiators a
solution of ethylene glycol in water is used. A solution of sulfuric acid in water is 3Cu + 8HNO 3(dil) → 3Cu(NO 3 ) 2 + 2NO↑ + 4H 2 O
used to conduct electricity in automobile batteries. Dental filling alloy is a solution of Red blue
mercury in silver.
In experiments we use solutions of hydrochloric acid, nitric acid, ethyl Nitrogen monoxide is a colorless, and odorless gas. It is neutral oxide.
alcohol, ammonia etc.
A solution has two components; solute and solvent. For example, salty water Cu + 2H 2 SO 4(conc) → CuSO 4 + SO 2 ↑ + 2H 2 O
is a solution, salt is solute and water is solvent. If solvent is water in a solution, it is Red blue
called aqueous solution. Types of solutions
Sulfur dioxide is a colorless, and sharp odored gas. It is acidic oxide.
1. According to physical states: There are mainly three types of solutions; solid
solutions, liquid solutions, and gas solutions. Copper does not react with dilute sulfuric acid solution. As you know, copper
does not react with HCl in any way.
Solid Solutions Liquid Solutions Gas Solutions 3. According to electrical conductivity: A substance that ionizes in aqueous
Solute Solvent Example Solute Solvent Example Solute Solvent Example
Nickel in Moisture
solution, is electrolyte. Strong acids, strong bases, some salts like table salt are
Salt in strong electrolytes because they ionize completely in water.
solid solid Copper solid liquid liquid gas in Air
Water
(coins) (fog)
Mercury in Alcohol in Oxygen in HCl (g) → H+ (aq) + Cl¯ (aq)
liquid solid Silver liquid liquid Water gas gas Nitrogen
(dental filling) (antifreeze) (air) NaCl (s) → Na+ (aq) + Cl¯ (aq)
CO 2 in
Hydrogen in
gas solid gas liquid Water (fizzy
Platinum NaOH (s) → Na+ (aq) + OH¯ (aq)
drinks)
A simple classification of solutions

1
9-PLAN-2 SOLUTIONS
Weak acids, weak bases are weak electrolytes because they ionize partially in temperature. Carbon dioxide is a good example to gases. We prefer cold cola Turka
water. And, pure water is itself also a weak electrolyte. because when it is cold, more carbon dioxide gas can be dissolved.
2. Pressure: The solubility of liquids and solids does not change much with pressure.
CH 3 COOH (l) H+ (aq) + CH 3 COO¯ (aq) But the solubility of gases increases with increasing pressure. Also, we can explain
this event by cola Turka example. When we open cola firstly, its taste is very good.
Some substances do not produce any ion in water, so they are called But if we open and close it a few times, its taste will not be good enough because the
nonelectrolyte. For example, sugar, alcohol, iodine. decrease in pressure decreases solubility of carbon dioxide gas.

C 2 H 5 OH (l) C 2 H 5 OH (aq) C 12 H 22 O 11(s) Solubility Graph

C 12 H 22 O 11(aq)
Alcohol Table sugar

Solubility

Solubility is defined as the maximum quantity of solute that can dissolve in

100 g of water. Each substance has a different solubility. The solubilities of some
substances are given below.

Solute Solubility (in 100 g of water)

NaCl 36 g
AgCl 8,9.10-5 g
NaF 4g
AgF 182 g
C 12 H 22 O 11 204 g
C 2 H 5 OH limitless

A solution that contains as much dissolved solute as it can hold at a certain

temperature is called saturated. A solution is called unsaturated if it contains less
solute than required for saturation. For example, the solubility of sodium chloride is Ex: a) What is the solubility of Potassium chlorate at 70 0C. (Use Solubility Graph)
36 g/100 g of water. If we obtained a solution by dissolving 30 g of sodium chloride
in 100 g of water, that solution would be unsaturated. When we dissolved 36 g of 30 g KClO 3 can be dissolved in 100 g of water at 70 0C.
sodium chloride in 100 g of water, the obtained solution would be saturated. If we put
40 g of sodium chloride in 100 g of water, 4 g of sodium chloride would precipitate b) How many grams of KClO 3 at most can be dissolved in 220 g of water at
and the remaining part would be saturated solution. 70 0C?

There are two important factors affecting solubility: Temperature and Pressure At 70 °C

1. Temperature: In general, the solubility of most solids and liquids increases with
increasing temperature but the solubility of gases decreases with increasing 30 g KClO 3 can be dissolved in 100 g of water

x g KClO 3 in 220 g of water

2
9-PLAN-2 SOLUTIONS
---------------------------------------------------------- x = 25 g KCl must be dissolved
x = 66 g KClO 3 25 – 14 = 11 g more KCl must be added
Ex: A solution is prepared by dissolving 25 g of Potassium nitrate in 150 g of water at Precipitation reactions
20 °C. (Use Solubility Graph)
When solutions are mixed, different ions are introduced into the same
a) Is the prepared solution saturated? solution. If any two of these ions form an insoluble salt, they will combine and form a
solid at the bottom of the solution. The formation of a solid from a solution is called
At 20 °C precipitation. And, solid itself is called precipitate.

30 g KNO 3 can be dissolved in 100 g of water For example, sodium chloride and silver nitrate are soluble in water.
x in 150 g of water
NaCl (s) → Na+ (aq) + Cl¯ (aq) AgNO 3(s) → Ag+ (aq) + NO 3 ¯ (aq)
x = 45 g solution is unsaturated
If these two solutions are mixed, the final solution contains Na+, Cl¯, Ag+,
b) If not, how many grams of Potassium nitrate must be added to make this and NO 3 ¯. But Cl¯, and Ag+ ions cannot stay in water at the same time, they form an
solution saturated? insoluble salt AgCl.

45 – 20 = 20 g more KNO 3 must be added to make the solution saturated. Na+ (aq) + Cl¯ (aq) + Ag+ (aq) + NO 3 ¯ (aq) → AgCl (s) + Na+ (aq) + NO 3 ¯ (aq)

Ex: There is 64 g of saturated Potassium chloride solution at 25 0C. If we simplify equation, we get the precipitation reaction of silver chloride.
The net ionic equation is:
a) How many grams of KCl and Water are there in this solution?
Ag+ (aq) + Cl¯ (aq) → AgCl (s) ↓
Solution = KCl + H 2 O ; Sample saturated solution = 28 + 100 = 128 g white ppt

At 25 0C Ex: Write the net ionic equation between barium chloride, BaCl 2 and sulfuric acid,
H 2 SO 4 solutions.
128 g solution 28 g KCl
64 g solution x g KCl Ba+2 (aq) + 2Cl¯ (aq) + 2H+ (aq) + SO 4 2− (aq) → BaSO 4(s) + 2H+ (aq) + 2Cl¯ (aq)
x = 14 g KCl and 64 – 14 = 50 g Water
Ba+2 (aq) + SO 4 2− (aq) → BaSO 4(s) ↓
b) How many grams of KCl must be added to make the solution saturated if the ppt
temperature of solution is increased from 25 0C to 80 0C?
Some important precipitates and their colors
KCl = 14 g H 2 O = 50 g
AgCl → white ppt
At 80 0C BaSO 4 , PbSO 4 → white ppt
AgI, PbI 2 → yellow ppt
In 100 g water 50 g KCl Cu(OH) 2 → blue ppt
In 50 g water x g KCl CuS, Ag 2 S, CuO → black ppt

3
9-PLAN-2 SOLUTIONS
Ag 3 PO 4 , BaCrO 4 → yellow ppt w(%) of sugar = (10/50).100 = 20 %
Ag 2 O → brown ppt
Note: If it is possible, demonstrations can be shown for the above precipitates. Ex: What is the mass of water in 250 g of 10 % sodium chloride solution?

Ex: In two different test tubes, there are sodium chloride and silver chloride as solid. mass of NaCl = 250.(10/100) = 25 g; mass of water = 250 – 25 = 225 g
How can you identify them?
or NaCl + H 2 O = Salty water ⇒ 100 – 10 = 90 % water
(10 %) x (100 %)
By adding water; if it is soluble, it must be sodium chloride, and if it is insoluble,
it must be silver chloride. then mass of water = 250.(90/100) = 225 g
Ex: In four different test tubes, there are the solutions of sodium chloride, sodium
Ex: What is the mass of sodium hydroxide in 200 mL of 10 % by mass of sodium
nitrate, sodium iodide and sodium sulfide. How can you identify them?
hydroxide solution (d solution = 1,2 g/mL)?
By adding silver nitrate; (m = d.V) mass of solution = 200.1,2 = 240 g
NaCl (aq) + AgNO 3(aq) → AgCl↓ + NaNO 3(aq) mass of sodium hydroxide = 240.(10/100) = 24 g
white

NaI (aq) + AgNO 3(aq) → AgI↓ + NaNO 3(aq) Crystal hydrates: Sometimes, salts are found together with water molecules in their
yellow structures. This type of salt is called hydrate.

Na 2 S (aq) + 2AgNO 3(aq) → Ag 2 S↓ + 2NaNO 3(aq) Na 2 CO 3 .10H 2 O : sodium carbonate decahydrate

black CuSO 4 .5H 2 O : copper II sulfate pentahydrate
MgSO 4 .7H 2 O : magnesium sulfate hepta hydrate
NaNO 3(aq) + AgNO 3(aq) → no reaction
Ex: What is the mass percentage of CuSO 4 in a solution prepared by dissolving 25 g
of copper (II) sulfate pentahydrate in 175 g of water?
Percent concentration by mass
MwCuSO 4 .5H 2 O = 64 + 32 + 64 + 5.18 = 250 g
The concentration unit is widely used in industry and medicine. 160 g

Mass of solute
W(%) = x 100 CuSO 4 .5H 2 O CuSO 4
Mass of solution (not mass of solvent) 250 g 160 g
25 g xg

Ex: Determine the mass percent concentration of a solution prepared by dissolving x = 16 g CuSO 4 is found in solution. Mass of solution = 25 + 175 = 200
10 g of sugar in 40 g of water. g

mass of sugar = 10 g ; mass of solution = 10 + 40 = 50 g w(%) of CuSO 4 = (16/200).100 = 8 %

4
9-PLAN-2 SOLUTIONS
c 1 .m 1 = c 2 .m 2 ⇒ 40.500 = 50.x ⇒ x = 400 g ⇒ m 2 = 400 g

Therefore, m 2 – m 1 = 500 – 400 = 100 g water must be evaporated.

Dilution: The concentration of a solution increases by adding more solute or
evaporating water and decreases by adding more water (dilution). We can Ex: How many grams of table salt must be added to 300 g of 15 % sodium chloride
use the following expression for percent concentration changes. solution in order to make solution 20 %?

c 1 .m 1 = c 2 .m 2 ⇒ used when water evaporated from or added to a mass of NaCl in initial solution = 300.15/100 = 45 g
solution

c 1 = initial concentration, m 1 = initial mass of solution initial final

c 2 = final concentration, m 2 = final mass of solution
W = 15 % 20 %
Solute = 45 g (45+x) g
Ex: 200 g of water is added to 400 g of 60 % sodium hydroxide solution. Calculate
the percent concentration after dilution. Solution = 300 g (300+x) g

mass of solute = 400.(60/100) = 240 g ; mass of solution = 400 + 200 g = 600 g 20 = [(45 + x) / (300+x)].100 ; x = 18,75 g
w(%) of NaOH = (240/600).100 = 40 %
Molar Concentration-Molarity

Ex: How many grams of water must be evaporated from 500 g of 40 % sugar Molarity is a concentration unit used widely in chemistry. It is abbreviated as M. It is
solution to obtain 50 % sugar solution? defined as the moles of solute dissolved per liter of solution. In other words, molarity
is the ratio of moles of solute to the volume of the solution in liters.
mass of solute = 500.(40/100) = 200 g

initial final Moles of solute

Molarity = or M = n solute /V solution
% = 40 % 50 % Volume of solution
Note: Volume must be in liters.
Solute = 200 g 200 g
Solution = 500 g (500 – x) g ⇒ 50 = [200/(500-x)].100 ; x = 100 g Ex: There are 0.5 moles of Hydrochloric acid in 200 mL of a solution. What is the
molarity of this solution?
or
n = 0,5 moles ; V = 200 mL = 0,2 L
initial final
M = n / V = 0,5.0,2 = 2.5 Molar
c 1 = 40 % c 2 = 50 %
m 1 = 500 g m2 = x g Ex: A 5.6 g of solid potassium hydroxide is dissolved in sufficient amount of water to
obtain 500 mL of an aqueous solution. Find the molar concentration of the
solution.
5
9-PLAN-2 SOLUTIONS
Volume of LiOH solution must be 0,32 L = 320 ml
Mw (KOH) = 39 + 16 + 1 = 56 g/mol ; n NaOH = 5.6/56 = 0,1 mole ; V = 0,5 L

M = 0,1/0,5 = 0,2 M
Ex: How many grams of sodium hydroxide are needed to prepare 300 ml of 0.5 M Ex: How many liters of hydrogen gas at STP can be produced by the reaction between
KOH solution? 200 ml of 5 M hydrochloric acid solution and excess aluminum?

M = 0.5 M ; V = 300 ml = 0,3 L 2Al + 6HCl → 2AlCl 3 + 3H 2

6 moles 3 moles
M=n/V ⇒ n = M.V = (0,5).(0,3) = 0,15 moles NaOH are needed
1 mole x = 0.5 moles

Mw (NaOH) = 23 + 16 + 1 = 40 g/mol V = 200 ml = 0,2 L ⇒ n HCl = M.V = 5.(0,2) = 1 mole

x = n Hydrogen = 0,5 moles ⇒ V hydrogen = (0,5).(22,4) = 11,2 L
m = n. Mw ⇒ m NaOH = (0,15).40 = 6 g of NaOH are needed

Dilution
Ex: How many milliliters of 0.5 M lithium hydroxide solution are required to
neutralize 400 ml of 0.2 M sulfuric acid solution completely? Note: We can use the following expression for molarity changes.
H 2 SO 4 + 2LiOH → Li 2 SO 4 + 2H 2 O M 1 .V 1 = M 2 .V 2
1 mole 2 moles Ex: Suppose that you will prepare a solution with 4 g sample of solid Sodium
hydroxide.
H 2 SO 4 LiOH a) How can you prepare 4 M of Sodium hydroxide solution with that amount of
NaOH?
M = 0,2 Molar M = 0,5 Molar

V = 400 ml = 0,4 L V = ? ml
n NaOH = 4 / 40 = 0.1 mole
We should prepare 4 M solution by using 0.1 mole of NaOH.
M=n/V ⇒ n = M.V = (0,2).(0,4) = 0,08 moles H 2 SO 4
M=n/V ⇒ V=n/M ⇒ V = 0.1 / 4 ⇒ V = 0.025 L = 25 ml

b) By using the solution obtained in a, how can you prepare 2.5 M of Sodium
n LiOH = 2.n H2SO4 ⇒ n LiOH = 2. (0,08) = 0,16 moles LiOH hydroxide solution

M=n/V ⇒ V=n/M ⇒ V = (0,16) / (0,5) = 0,32 L n = 0,4.2 = 0,8 mole ; when water is evaporated, mole number of sodium
hydroxide does not change.

6
9-PLAN-2 SOLUTIONS

8 = 0,8/V final solution ⇒ V final solution = 0,1 L = 100 mL

Then, 400-100 = 300 mL of water must be evaporated.

7
9-PLAN-3 REDOX REACTIONS
BALANCING REDOX REACTIONS Ex: Classify each reaction as redox or not.

Oxidation Number: Oxidation number is the charge of an element in a compound. a) AgNO 3 + KCl → AgCl + KNO 3 b) 4Al + 3O 2 → 2Al 2 O 3
The sum of the oxidation numbers of all elements in a compound must be equal to 0.
Before starting redox reactions, let’s learn oxidation numbers of important elements. c) Na + H 2 O → NaOH + 1/2H 2 d) CaCO 3 + 2HCl → CaCl 2 + CO 2 + H 2 O

1) If any element is uncombined (not in a compound) then its oxidation number is 0. Writing and Balancing Oxidation and Reduction Half Reactions
2) In Compounds, elements may have the following oxidation numbers.
Ex: Find the oxidized and reduced elements in the following chemical reaction. Then,
* 1A group metals (Li, Na, K) and Ag → +1 write the oxidation and reduction half reactions.

2A group metals (Mg, Ca, Ba) and Zn → +2

oxidation +2 0
3A group metals (Al) → +3 Mg S

Mg + S → Mg S− Mg (oxidation) S (reduction)
0 0 +2 2
→ +1 when it combines with a nonmetal Ex: H Cl−
+1 1
* Hydrogen 0 −2
Mg S
→ −1 Ex: K H− reduction
+1 1
Hydrogen when it combines with a metal

* Fluorine is the most active nonmetal, so its charge is always −1 in all compounds.
Magnesium is oxidized from 0 to +2 and Sulfur is reduced from 0 to −2.
* Oxygen is the second most active nonmetal, so its charge is −2 in most
2 e−
compounds. Mg
+2

0 0
* Other nonmetals; 5A 6A 7A Mg S
S−
2
-3, +1, +2, +3, +4, +5 -2, +4, +6 -1, +1, +2, +3, +4, +5, +6, +7
N S Cl
-3, +3, +5 -1, +1, +2, +3, +4, +5, +6, +7
P Br
-1, +1, +2, +3, +4, +5, +6, +7 Let’s write oxidation and reduction half reactions step by step;
I

Ex: Find the oxidation number of each element in the following compounds or st
1 Step: Writing oxidized and reduced elements separately in half reactions.
polyatomic ions.
Oxidation: Mg → Mg Reduction: S → S−
0 +2 0 2
1− 2− 2−
a) CaH 2 b) NO 3 c) SO 4 d) Cr 2 O 7 e) NaNO 3 f) KMnO 4

g) Na 2 C 2 O 4 h) Mg(ClO 3 ) 2 i) Cu 2 O j) FeSO 4 k) NH 4 NO 3 2
nd
Step: Balancing the number of elements if needed. (No need in this example)

Oxidation: Mg → Mg Reduction: S → S−
0 +2 0 2
Redox reaction: Redox reaction is a chemical reaction in which Oxidation and
Reduction occur.
rd
3 Step: Balancing the charges of the half reactions with electrons.
Oxidation is the increase in oxidation number of any element. Oxidation occurs by
losing electron(s). Oxidation: Mg → Mg
0 +2
+ 2e− Reduction: S + 2e− → S−
0 2

(loss of electrons) (gain of electrons)

Reduction is the decrease in oxidation number of any element. Reduction occurs by
gaining electron(s).
1
9-PLAN-3 REDOX REACTIONS
2Ca + O 2 → 2Ca O− →
0 0 +2 2
Ex: Ex: Given the reaction; Fe (s) + CuCl 2 (aq)

In this reaction, Ca is oxidized from 0 to +2 and O is reduced from 0 to −2. a) Find the oxidation number of each element.

Fe: 0, Cu: +2, Cl: −1

st
1 Step: Writing oxidized and reduced elements in half reactions.

Oxidation: Ca → Ca → O−
0 +2 0 2
Reduction: O 2 b) Which metal is more reactive; Iron or Copper?

Iron is more reactive.

nd
2 Step: Balancing the number of elements if needed.

Oxidation: Ca → Ca → 2O−
0 +2 0 2
Reduction: O 2 c) Which element will be oxidized and which one will be reduced?

Iron will be oxidized since it is more reactive and Copper will be reduced.
rd
3 Step: Balancing the charges of the half reactions with electrons.

Oxidation: Ca → Ca + 2e− + 4e− → 2O−

0 +2 0 2 d) Write the oxidation and reduction half reactions.
Reduction: O 2

Oxidation: Fe → Fe + 2e− + 2e− → Cu

0 +2 +2 0
Reduction: Cu

Ex: Write the oxidation and reduction half reactions in the given redox reactions.
e) What are the oxidizing and reducing agents?
a) 4Li + O 2 → 2Li 2 O b) 2Al + 3Cl 2 → 2AlCl 3

Oxidizing agent is an agent that oxidizes another element while it is being reduced.
Note: In redox reactions, there cannot be only oxidation or reduction. There is at least
Reducing agent is an agent that reduces another element while it is being oxidized.
one oxidation and one reduction in a redox reaction. But, sometimes two oxidations
and one reduction or vice versa can be seen.
Iron is oxidized so it is reducing agent, Copper is reduced so it is oxidizing agent.

Metal-Metal Displacement Reactions as a Redox Reaction f) Write the overall (net) reaction.
Metal-Metal displacement reactions are good examples for redox reactions. Fe + CuCl 2 → FeCl 2 + Cu
Metals can displace with each other according to the reactivity order. The more
reactive metal oxidizes whereas the less reactive metal reduces. Ex: Write the oxidation and reduction half reactions in the given redox reactions.

a) 4Li + O 2 → 2Li 2 O b) 2Al + 3Cl 2 → 2AlCl 3 c) Mg + H 2 SO 4 → MgSO 4 +

(Li, Na, K, Ca, Ba) > (Al, Mg, Zn , Fe, Ni, Mn, Cr) > H > (Cu, Hg, Ag, Pt, Au) H2
very reactive metals reactive metals unreactive metals

2
9-PLAN-3 REDOX REACTIONS
th
Balancing of a Redox Reaction by Oxidation Number Method 4 Step: Electron balance

Balancing of a Redox reaction can be completed in six steps. The first three No need electron balance because the number of given and taken electrons
is the same.
steps are as in balancing the Oxidation and Reduction half reactions. The fourth step is
Oxidation: Mg → Mg + 2e− Reduction: 2e− + 2H → H2
0 +2 +1 0
to make the number of given and taken electrons in half reactions equal. The fifth step
is to add half reactions to each other. The last step is to balance the number of other
elements in the given reaction if needed. We can simply all steps as follows; th
5 Step: Adding half reactions

Mg → Mg + 2e−
1) Writing oxidized and reduced elements as half reactions (Oxidation-Reduction) 0 +2

2e− + 2H → H 2
2) Balancing the number of elements in the half reactions (Element balance) +1 0

------------------------------------
3) Balancing the charge of each half reaction (Charge balance) Mg + 2H → Mg + H 2
0 +1 +2 0

4) Balancing the number of given and taken electrons (Electron balance) Mg + 2HCl → MgCl 2 + H 2
5) Adding half reactions (Adding half reactions) th
6 Step: Balancing all elements
6) Balancing the number of all elements in the reaction (Balancing all elements)
No need to balance any other elements. Therefore the answer is;
Ex: Balance the given redox reaction by oxidation number method.
Mg + 2HCl → MgCl 2 + H 2
−1 −1
→ Mg Cl 2
0 +1 +2 0
Mg + 2H Cl + H2

st Ex: Balance the following reaction by using oxidation number method.

1 Step: Oxidation and Reduction
0 +1 +6 −2 +4 −2 +4 −2 +1 −2
Oxidation: Mg → Mg → H2
0 +2 +1 0
Reduction: H
C + H 2 SO 4 → CO 2 + SO 2 + H 2 O

C → C + 4e−
nd 0 +4
2 Step: Element balance Oxidation: 1
−
+ 2e → S
+6 +4
Reduction: S 2
Oxidation: Mg → Mg → H2
0 +2 +1 0
Reduction: 2H

C + 2H 2 SO 4 → CO 2 + 2SO 2 + 2H 2 O
rd
3 Step: Charge balance

Oxidation: Mg → Mg + 2e− Reduction: 2e− + 2H → H2

0 +2 +1 0

3
9-PLAN-3 REDOX REACTIONS

Ex: Balance the following reaction by using oxidation number method. Ex: Balance the following reaction by using oxidation number method.

−1 −2 0 0 +1 −2 +1 +1 +5 −2 +1 −1 +1 −2
H2O2 → H2O + O2 Cl 2 + NaOH → NaClO 3 + NaCl + H 2 O

O 2 − → O 2 + 2e− Cl → Cl + 5e−
1 0 0 +5
Oxidation: Oxidation: 1
−1
O 2 + 2e− → 2O −2
Reduction: Cl +1e− → Cl −1
0
Reduction: 5
------------------------------
2O 2 − → 2O− + O 2 ⇒ 2H 2 O 2 → 2H 2 O + O 2
1 2 0

Note: If the same element is oxidized and reduced in a reaction, that reaction is called
disproportion.

Ex: Balance the following reaction by using oxidation number method. 3Cl 2 + 6NaOH → NaClO 3 + 5NaCl + 3H 2 O

0 +1 +5 −2 +2 +5 −2 +2 −2 +1 −2
Cu + HNO 3 → Cu(NO 3 ) 2 + NO + H 2 O Exercises: Balance the following reactions by using oxidation number method.

1. Li + N 2 → Li 3 N
Cu → Cu + 2e−
0 +2
Oxidation: 3
2. Al + ZnCl 2 → AlCl 3 + Zn
+ 3e− → N
+5 +2
Reduction: N 2
3. S + HNO 3 → SO 2 + NO 2 + H 2 O
3Cu + 8HNO 3 → 3Cu(NO 3 ) 2 + 2NO + 4H 2 O 4. NH 3 + O 2 → NO + H 2 O

5. KI + H 2 SO 4 → K 2 SO 4 + H 2 S + I 2 + H 2 O

6. Na 2 SO 3 → Na 2 S + Na 2 SO 4
Ex: Balance the following reaction by using oxidation number method.
7. KNO 2 + KMnO 4 + H 2 SO 4 → KNO 3 + K 2 SO 4 + MnSO 4 + H 2 O
0 +1 +5 −2 +3 +5 −2 0 +1 −2
Al + HNO 3 → Al (NO 3 ) 3 + N 2 + H 2 O
8. KMnO 4 + HCl → KCl + MnCl 2 + Cl 2 + H 2 O

9. Cr 2 O 3 + Br 2 + NaOH → Na 2 CrO 4 + NaBr + H 2 O

Al → Al + 3e−
0 +3
Oxidation: 10
+10e− → N 2
+5 0
Reduction: 2N 3

10Al + 36HNO 3 → 10Al (NO 3 ) 3 + 3N 2 + 18H 2 O

4
9-PLAN-4 NOBLE GASES
NOBLE GASES Uses of Noble gases

• Noble gases are colorless, odorless, monoatomic gases at room Helium: Since helium is lighter than air and is not flammable, it is used in air
temperature. balloons. Also, it is used for artificial respiration by divers (He-Ne-Ar). And, it is
• They are called noble or inert gases because they are very unreactive. used in rocket fuel to keep pressure constant.
• They exist in trace amount in air. Argon is the most abundant, and Radon
is the least abundant noble gas. Neon: It is used in Helium – Neon lasers. (orange colored light). It is used in
• They are insoluble in water. advertisement signs called neon lights. (Red lights)
•
0 0
Helium has the lowest boiling (−267 C) and freezing point (−272 C).
• Helium is the lightest element after Hydrogen. Argon: Argon is used in ordinary electric lamps. Argon and Mercury are used
• When electric current is passed through a closed tube filled with a noble in fluorescent lamps.
gas, each noble gas produces a different color.
Krypton and Xenon: They are used in photography. Also, Krypton is used in
• Radon is a radioactive element.
lasers to cure the retina behind the eye.
•
2 6
Their electron configurations end with s p except He. (Its electron
2
configuration is 1s ).
Radon: It is used in cancer treatment.
• During the formation of compounds, elements take or give electrons and
they make their valence shell similar to noble gases. This is called octet
rule.

11 Na 11 17 Cl 17

+1 -1
11 Na 10 17 Cl 18 NaCl
- -
(p) (e ) (p) (e )

• Helium has the highest ionization energy in the periodic table.

• The first compound of noble gases was found in 1962 by Neil Bartlett. Its
formula is XePtF 6 . In the following years, the compounds of Xe, Kr, and
Rn (XeF 2 , XeF 4 , RnCl 2 , KrF 4 etc.) were found. Despite our modern
technology, no compounds of He, Ne, and Ar have yet been produced. All
these show that the activity increases from top to bottom in noble gases.
9-PLAN-5 HYDROGEN
The properties of Hydrogen B) In industry
• Hydrogen is a colorless, odorless and tasteless gas at room temperature.
• It is the lightest element. It can be obtained when steam is passed through hot charcoal and
• Hydrogen is insoluble in water but soluble is palladium, nickel, and hydrocarbons.
platinum metals, so it is used to saturate compounds in organic reactions
in the presence of these metals. C (s) + H 2 O (g) → CO (g) + H 2(g)
• Hydrogen forms ionic hydrides with very active metals. In hydrides,
charge of hydrogen is –1. Ex: KH, NaH, BaH 2 . The mixture of CO-H 2 is called water gas and is used as fuel in industry.
• It can form covalent compounds with nonmetals such as HCl, HF, H 2 O.
(in covalent compounds, its charge is +1). Chemical properties and Uses of Hydrogen
• Hydrogen is found in diatomic form in the nature (H 2 ).
• Hydrogen has three isotopes in nature. The most abundant isotope of 1) Hydrogen is used to produce Ammonia under high pressure and
Hydrogen is Protium (ordinary hydrogen). It has 1 proton but no neutron. temperature.
1
( 1 H It constitutes 99,985 % of naturally occurring Hydrogen. The second
2
isotope is Deuterium ( 1 D). It has 1 proton and 1 neutron. D 2 O is called N 2(g) + 3H 2(g) → 2NH 3(g)
heavy water. The third isotope is Tritium. It is unstable and radioactive. It
3
is found in trace amount. It has 1 proton and 2 neutrons. ( 1 T). 2) Hydrogen is used to saturate oils. As a result, margarine is produced.
• Hydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe. It forms the
greater part of the sun by mass. In each second, 550 millions tons of 3) Hydrogen is a good reducing agent. So, it is used in the extraction of
hydrogen are consumed to give us heat and light. metals from their oxides.

Preparation of Hydrogen CuO + H 2 → Cu + H 2 O

A) In laboratory 4) It is used in the production of Methanol, CH 3 OH at high pressure and

temperature
1) It can be obtained from the reactions of acid-metal, base-amphoteric
metal, and water-very active metal. CO + 2H 2 → CH 3 OH

Fe + 2HCl → FeCl 2 + H 2 5) Since the burning reaction of Hydrogen is exothermic, it is used as a

potential fuel. And, its products do not damage the environment.
Zn + 2NaOH → Na 2 ZnO 2 + H 2
2H 2 + O 2 → 2H 2 O + 485 kJ
Na + H 2 O → NaOH + ½ H 2
6) Hydrogen can be used also to produce acids and hydrides.
2) It can be obtained from the reactions of hydrides with water.
2Na + H 2 → 2NaH
KH + H 2 O → KOH + H 2
H 2 + Cl 2 → 2HCl
3) It can be obtained from the electrolysis of water.
elect 7) Also, Hydrogen is used in refining petroleum, and used as a rocket fuel in
2H 2 O 2H 2 + O 2 USA. Tritium is used in the production of Hydrogen bomb.
9-PLAN-6 HALOGENS
M General Properties of Halogens HF and its properties:

• The elements of group 7A produce salts with metals, so they are called halogens, The most important compound of Fluorine is HF. It attacks SiO 2, the main
from a Greek word halos –genes, meaning ‘salt former’. This group contains constituent of glass, so it cannot be stored in glass containers.
fluorine (F), Chlorine (Cl), Bromine (Br), Iodine (I) and Astatine (At). Astatine is
radioactive. SiO 2 (s) + 4HF (aq) → SiF 4 (g) + 2H 2 O (l)
• Fluorine is the most electronegative element of the periodic table. Within this group
the electronegativity decreases from Fluorine to Iodine. Halogens are the elements HF is used in glass industry to decorate glassware. It is the only acid that
with the highest electronegativity in each period, so Halogens are the most active can dissolve glass.
nonmetals of each period.
• Halogens are found as diatomic.
• At room temperature, F 2 and Cl 2 are gases, Br 2 is liquid and I 2 is solid. CHLORINE
• The activity order of Halogens is F > Cl > Br > I.
• Their compounds with Hydrogen are acidic. • The word “Chlorine” is derived from the Greek word ‘chloros’ meaning greenish
• The acidity of their water solutions increases as follows; HF < HCl < HBr < HI yellow.
• Chlorine is a greenish yellow gas with a characteristic pungent odor.
• It is poisonous. It is used for disinfection of water. Also, it is used in the production
FLUORINE of insecticides (DDT).
• It is found in salt beds and sea water mostly as NaCl.
• At room temperature, Fluorine is a gas with pale yellow color. It is heavier than air. • AgCl is poisonous and its weak concentration is used as disinfectant.
• It is found as the minerals such as Fluorite (CaF 2 ).
• It is the best oxidizing agent.
• It is the most electronegative element. Preparation:
• Fluorine gas and all fluoride compounds are toxic in large amounts.
• It can have only −1 oxidation number in compounds. • 2KMnO 4 + 16HCl → 2KCl + 2MnCl 2 + 5Cl 2 ↑ + 8H 2 O
• F¯ ions are very important for the health of teeth. (CaF 2 : Calcium fluoride is added
to toothpastes to prevent dental cavities). electrolysis
• Fluorine is also used in the production of Teflon. • 2NaCl (l) 2Na (l) + Cl 2(g)
• Fluorine is a constituent of Freon gas (CCl 2 F 2 ) that is used in refrigerators.
Reactions:
Preparation:
+
1. The Chloride ion (Cl¯) reacts directly with Ag and yields a white precipitate.
Preparation of pure Fluorine gas (F 2 ) is extremely hard. Fluorine is found in
nature as Fluoride compounds such as CaF 2 and none of the other elements can
+ Cl¯ (aq) → AgCl (s) ↓ (white ppt)
+
0
oxidize fluoride (F¯) ion to pure Fluorine (F 2 ) since Fluorine is the most powerful Ag (aq)

oxidizing element. Therefore, it can be obtained by the electrolysis of molten KHF 2 .

2. Chlorine is very reactive gas and can react with metals to form the chlorides.
electrolysis
2KHF 2 (l) 2H 2 (g) + F 2 (g) + 2KF (l)
2Na + Cl 2 → 2NaCl Zn + Cl 2 → ZnCl 2

Reactions: 3. Chlorine has an affinity for Hydrogen so it reacts not only with free Hydrogen, but
also with compounds in which Hydrogen is present.
• Fluorine oxidizes all elements except He, Ne and Ar. That means it can react with
other noble gases: Kr, Xe and Rn. H 2 + Cl 2 → 2HCl

Xe + 2F 2 → XeF 4 H 2 + F 2 → 2HF

1
9-PLAN-6 HALOGENS

4. Chlorine readily dissolves in water to form Chlorine water. On average 0.1 to 4 BROMINE
milligrams of Chlorine per liter of water is added at different stages in the water
supply system. Chlorine prevents the growth of bacteria and micro-organisms in • The name bromine is derived from the Latin word “Bromos”, meaning “dirty odor”.
the water. • Bromine is dark red colored, very reactive, and toxic.
• It is the only liquid nonmetal at room temperature.
Cl 2(g) + H 2 O (l) → HCl (aq) + HClO (aq) • It can be easily vaporized (very volatile) because of quite dense (3.1 g/ml).
• The organic compounds of Bromine with Ethylene are used in agriculture as drugs.
HCl and its properties: They are used to protect engines from knocking.
• The Bromide ion (Br¯), like chloride and iodide, reacts directly with Ag and yields a
+

• Hydrogen chloride is a colorless gas with an irritating odor. dirty yellow precipitate (AgBr). AgBr is used to produce photographic films.
• Its aqueous solution conducts electricity.
+ Br¯ (aq) → AgBr (s) ↓ (dirty-yellow ppt)
+
• It is very soluble in water. Ag (aq)

• The concentrated HCl used in the laboratories is % 36.

• HCl is used in manufacture of PVC, dyes, rubber and medicines.
Preparation:
• It is found in our stomach for digestion.
In the laboratory:
Preparation:
2NaBr (aq) + Cl 2(g) → 2NaCl (aq) + Br 2(s)
In the laboratory:
IODINE
NaCl (s) + H 2 SO 4(con) → NaHSO 4(aq) + HCl (g)

• The word “Iodine” is derived from the Greek word “iodos”, meaning violet color.
• Iodine is a grayish black solid.
In the industry: • It sublimes easily by releasing violet vapor.
• It is poisonous and has an unpleasant odor.
H 2(g) + Cl 2(g) → 2HCl (g) • Iodine is used to detect starch because it turns to blue when it comes in contact
with starch.
• A deficiency of Iodine in the body causes goiter. Therefore, Potassium iodide, KI is
Reactions: added to table salt to prevent the enlargement of thyroid gland)
• Iodine is insoluble in water but soluble in alcohol.
• It reacts with bases to give neutralization reactions. • The solution of Iodine in alcohol is used as antiseptic in medicine.
(The tincture of iodine = KI + I 2 + Ethyl alcohol)
•
+
HCl (g) + NH 3(g) → NH 4 Cl (s) Iodide ion (I¯) forms a yellow precipitate with silver ion (Ag ).

+ I¯ (aq) → AgI (s) ↓ (yellow ppt)

+
• It reacts with silver nitrate solution, and a white precipitate silver chloride forms. Ag (aq)

HCl (g) + AgNO 3 (aq) → AgCl (s) + HNO 3(aq)

Preparation:
• HCl reacts with active metals to produce the chloride salts and H 2 gas.
In the laboratory:
2HCl + Mg → MgCl 2 + H 2
2NaI (aq) + Cl 2(g) → 2NaCl (aq) + I 2(s)

2
9-PLAN-7 OXYGEN AND SULFUR

Group 6A is also known as oxygen family. The members of group 6A are Reactions
Oxygen (O), Sulfur (S), Selenium (Se), Tellurium (Te) and Polonium (Po). Oxygen and
Sulfur are nonmetals. Selenium and Tellurium are semiconductors used in the Oxygen is the most reactive nonmetal after Fluorine. Mostly it takes the charge of −2 in
electronics. Polonium is a radioactive metal. Oxygen is a gas, but the others are solid its compounds. Oxygen has only +2 charge in OF 2 . The ions of Oxygen are;
at room temperature. (Kimyanın diliyle hikmetler kitabindan sayfa 90’da ilme adanan
bir hayat ve vatan sevgisi adlı bölüm okunabilir) O − : Oxide ion
2
[O 2 ] − : Peroxide ion
2
[O 2 ] − : Superoxide ion
1

OXYGEN 1. Reactions with metals

Oxygen is the most abundant element in the world (50 % by mass). Oxygen is a) Oxygen reacts with alkali metals to form the following compounds
present as oxides of both metals and nonmetals, which make up the rocks. Water, one
of the most abundant compounds on the earth, contains 89 % Oxygen by mass. Free 4Li + O 2 → 2Li 2 O 2Na + O 2 → Na 2 O 2 K + O 2 → KO 2
Oxygen constitutes about 21 % by volume of the air. There are three isotopes of (Oxide) (Peroxide) (Superoxide)
16 17 18
Oxygen: O, O, O. It has two allotropes: Oxygen gas; O 2 , and Ozone; O 3 . O 2 is a
colorless, tasteless and odorless gas and it exists in a diatomic structure. O 3 is a light b) Oxygen gives thermal reactions with other metals to form oxides.
blue colored gas with a sharp, pleasant odor. Both O 2 and O 3 are slightly soluble in
water. (Kimyanın diliyle hikmetler kitabindan sayfa 115`de ozon ve insan sağlığı adlı 2Mg + O 2 → 2MgO + heat 4Al + 3O 2 → 2Al 2 O 3 + heat
bölüm okunabilir)
2. Oxygen reacts with all nonmetals.
Preparation
C + O 2 → CO 2 S + O 2 → SO 2 2H 2 + O 2 → 2H 2 O
1. In Laboratory
3. When organic compounds are burned with Oxygen, CO 2 and H 2 O are formed.
a) Heating of peroxides such as Na 2 O 2 and H 2 O 2 .
CH 4 + 2O 2 → CO 2 + 2H 2 O 2C 2 H 2 + 5O 2 → 4CO 2 + 2H 2 O
MnO2 Methane Acetylene
2H 2 O 2 → 2H 2 O + O 2 ↑
4. When Oxygen is passed through electric discharge tube ozone can be prepared.
b) Heating of chlorate (ClO 3 ¯ ) compounds.
3O 2 + energy → 2O 3
2KClO 3 → 2KCl + 3O 2 ↑
Ozone exists in the upper atmosphere. The ozone layer is important to
c) Heating of potassium permanganate. absorb ultraviolet light which can cause skin cancer.
2KMnO 4 → K 2 MnO 4 + MnO 2 + O 2 ↑ Uses
- Oxygen is required for the respiration by divers, patients and astronauts.
d) Electrolysis of water.
2H 2 O → 2H 2 + O 2 ↑ - Liquid Oxygen mixed with Hydrogen is used as a powerful rocket fuel.
0
- It is used in the burning of Acetylene with a temperature of over 2000 C to cut
metals. (Welding process)
2. In Industry - Water is the most common compound of Oxygen It is essential for all living
organisms. Water cools automobile engines and nuclear power plants. Water in the
Firstly, air is liquefied by compressing and cooling. Then, Oxygen is obtained form of steam is used to generate electricity.
by fractional distillation of liquefied air. - Hydrogen peroxide (H 2 O 2 ) is a colorless and syrupy liquid used as bleaching and
disinfecting agent. A 3 % solution of it is used for medical purposes as antiseptic. Its
pure form carries a risk of fire and explosion, and can be highly toxic.
1
9-PLAN-7 OXYGEN AND SULFUR

SULFUR 5. Sulfuric Acid; H 2 SO 4 : Sulfuric acid is a colorless, nonvolatile and hydrophilic liquid.
It is one of the strongest acids. It is be prepared by the contact process in industry.
Sulfur is a yellow solid. It is insoluble in water but soluble in CS 2 . In nature, sulfur
exists both in free form and in compounds. It has three allotropes; Rhombic, S + O 2 → SO 2 , 2SO 2 + O 2 ⇔ 2SO 3 , SO 3 + H 2 SO 4 → H 2 S 2 O 7 ,
Monoclinic, Plastic. One of the ores of sulfur is FeS 2 (pyrite, fool’s gold)
H 2 S 2 O 7 + H 2 O → 2H 2 SO 4
Reactions
Sulfur has -2, +4, +6 oxidation states in its compounds. Uses

1. It may form compounds with all metals at high temperature except Au and Pt. - Sulfur is used in dyes, paper and in the production of rubber.
- Some compounds of Sulfur are used as fertilizer.
2Na + S → Na 2 S Zn + S → ZnS 2Al + 3S → Al 2 S 3
- Sulfur is used in the production of gunpowder with Carbon and Potassium nitrate.
2. It can be burned with oxygen.
- Sulfuric acid is very important chemical substance in industry. It is used to produce
catalyst
fertilizers, as an electrolyte in lead accumulators, in tanning leather, in the
S + O 2 → SO 2 2SO 2 + O 2 2SO 3 (reversible)
manufacture of paints, soaps, detergents and plastics. It is also used in the nitration
temperature
of compounds, from which explosives such as TNG (dynamite), TNT, are made.
Today, the development level of a country is measured by its consumption of H 2 SO 4 .
3. It also reacts with other nonmetals at high temperature.

H2 + S → H2S C + 2S → CS 2 S + 2F 2 → SF 4

Compounds of Sulfur

1. Hydrogen Sulfide, H 2 S: It is highly toxic, colorless gas. It smells like rotten egg.

2. Carbon Disulfide, CS 2 : It is a flammable and colorless liquid. It is toxic but has a

pleasant odor. It is slightly soluble in water. It is a good solvent for nonpolar
substances such as iodine, plastics and phosphorous.

3. Sulfur Dioxide, SO 2 : It is a toxic, colorless gas with a sharp and bad odor. It is an
acidic oxide, so it reacts with basic substances.

It dissolves in water to form sulfurous acid, H 2 SO 3 ; SO 2 + H 2 O → H 2 SO 3

Sulfurous acid is not a stable compound. It is a weak and diprotic acid.

Sulfur dioxide plays a major role in acid rain and in air pollution.

4. Sulfur Trioxide; SO 3 : It is a very active and volatile liquid. It is also an acidic oxide
like SO 2 .

It dissolves in water to form sulfuric acid, H 2 SO 4 ; SO 3 + H 2 O → H 2 SO 4

Sulfur trioxide has also a major role in producing acid rain.

2
9-PLAN-8 NITROGEN AND PHOSPOROUS

INTRODUCTION Some nitrogen compounds

The members of group 5A are Nitrogen (nonmetal), Phosphorus (nonmetal), 1. Ammonia (NH 3 )
Arsenic (metalloid), Antimony (metalloid) and Bismuth (metal).
It is a colorless gas with a characteristic sharp smell. It’s highly soluble in water.
2 3
The electron configuration of the elements in this group end with ns np . Each
element has 5 valence electrons. Thus, the elements show oxidation states of −3, +3 NH 3 (g) + H 2 O (l) → NH 4 OH (aq)
and +5, but nitrogen takes several oxidation states, such as −3, +1, +2, +3, +4 and +5.
In the laboratory, Ammonia can be prepared by heating a solution of
NITROGEN Ammonium chloride with a strong base, such as Sodium hydroxide.

It’s also called ‘azot’, meaning ‘dead’ in Latin. It’s a colorless, odorless and NH 4 Cl (aq) + NaOH (aq) → NaCl (aq) + NH 4 OH (aq)
tasteless gas that exists as free diatomic molecules, N≡N, in the atmosphere. The
percentage of nitrogen gas in the atmosphere is 78 % by volume and 75 % by mass. (NH 4 OH is unstable at reaction conditions and readily decomposes to NH 3 and H 2 O)

Nitrogen is a very important element for living organisms. It’s a part of the In industry, ammonia is obtained by the Haber process in which Nitrogen and
structure of proteins and nucleic acids. Hydrogen gases are heated under high pressure:

Preparation N 2 (g) + 3H 2 (g) → 2NH 3 (g)

It’s obtained by the fractional distillation of liquefied air in industry. In the Important reactions of Ammonia are as follows:
laboratory, heating the mixture of Sodium nitrite and saturated Ammonium chloride
gives pure Nitrogen gas. • Ammonia + Acid → Ammonium salt

NaNO 2 (aq) + NH 4 Cl (aq) → NaCl (aq) + 2H 2 O (l) + N 2 (g) NH 3 + HCl → NH 4 Cl

2NH 3 + H 2 SO 4 → (NH 4 ) 2 SO 4
Chemical Properties
• Ammonia + Oxygen → Nitrogen + Water
Nitrogen in elemental form (N 2 ) hardly reacts because of strong triple
covalent bonds between nitrogen atoms. Therefore, it does not react with acids, bases, 4NH 3 + 3O 2 → 2N 2 + 6H 2 O
water or halogens at STP.
2. Oxides of Nitrogen
Reactions Dinitrogen monoxide (N 2 O): Its common name is Nitrous oxide, or laughing gas. It’s
−3
often used as a mild anesthetic by dentists.
1. At high temperatures, it reacts with metals to produce Nitride (N ) compounds. In laboratory, it can be prepared by heating Ammonium nitrate.

6Li + N 2 → 2Li 3 N 2Al + N 2 → 2AlN NH 4 NO 3 (s) + ∆ → N 2 O (g) + 2H 2 O (g) (caution: reaction is highly exothermic!)

2. At high temperatures (2500 °C) or in high electrical current (lightning or in car Nitrogen monoxide (NO): Commonly called Nitric oxide. It is a colorless gas which
engines), it reacts with Oxygen to produce Nitrogen monoxide gas. can be produced by the reaction of dilute Nitric acid solution and Copper metal.

N 2 (g) + O 2 (g) → 2NO (g) 3Cu (s) + 8HNO 3 (dil) → 3Cu(NO 3 ) 2 (aq) + 4H 2 O (l) + 2NO (g)

1
9-PLAN-8 NITROGEN AND PHOSPOROUS

In nature, it’s produced by lightning in a Nitrogen and Oxygen gas mixture. heat
1. 2KNO 3 (s) → 2KNO 2 (s) + O 2 (g)↑ (Na, K)
It’s also produced during ignition of car motors. It has harmful effects. When it’s
heat
inhaled, it forms NO 2 gas by combining O 2 in the lungs. NO 2 attaches to water
molecules in the lungs and causes the formation of Nitric acid. 2. 2Mg(NO 3 ) 2 (s) → 2MgO (s) + 4NO 2 (g)↑ + O 2 (g)↑ (Li, Mg, Ca, Al, Zn, Fe, Cu)
heat
Nitrogen dioxide (NO 2 ): A reddish-brown gas which can be prepared in laboratory by 3. 2AgNO 3 (s) → 2Ag (s) + 2NO 2 (g)↑ + O 2 (g)↑ (Ag, Hg)
the reaction of copper metal and concentrated Nitric acid.

Cu (s) + 4HNO 3 (dil) → Cu(NO 3 ) 2 (aq) + 2H 2 O (l) + 2NO 2 (g) Uses of Nitrogen compounds

It dissolves in water to form a mixture of Nitrous acid and Nitric acid. In metallurgy, Nitrogen gas is used in the preparation of inert atmosphere
(atmosphere without oxygen). This atmosphere is also used to keep food without
2NO 2 (g) + H2O (l) → HNO 2 (aq) + HNO 3 (aq) decomposing and spoiling during packaging and storing.

Liquid Nitrogen is used to preserve frozen food when transporting.

3. Nitric acid (HNO 3 )
By the reactions of Nitric acid with some organic compounds, some
It is a colorless, fuming liquid. It’s one of the strongest acids. Nitric acid was explosives are produced, such as trinitroglycerine (TNG), trinitrotoluene (TNT).
originally prepared by heating a mixture of Potassium nitrate and concentrated Sulfuric
acid. Ammonia and ammonium salts are used as fertilizer.
KNO 3 (s) + H 2 SO 4 (aq) → KHSO 4 (s) + HNO 3 (g)
KNO 3 (saltpeter) and NaNO 3 (Chile saltpeter) are used as fertilizer. KNO 3 is
In industry, Nitric acid is obtained by Ostwald process as follows, used in the production of gunpowder together with Carbon and Sulfur.

4NH 3 + 5O 2 → 4NO + 6H 2 O
PHOSPHORUS
2NO + O 2 → 2NO 2
Phosphorus is a very reactive nonmetal, so it cannot be found in nature in
4NO 2 + O 2 + 2H 2 O → 4HNO 3 elemental form. As a result of its ability to glow in the dark, the element was named
phosphorus, meaning light-spreader in Greek. In nature, it is mostly found in rock
In industry, it’s used to prepare fertilizers, explosives, nylon and polyurethane plastics. phosphates which include calcium phosphate, Ca 3 (PO 4 ) 2 .

4. Nitrates It’s an essential component of living organisms. Bones and teeth have a high
percentage of calcium phosphate. Many proteins, especially in seeds, eggs, nerve
The salts of nitric acid are called nitrates. The nitrates of alkaline metals like tissues and brain cells, also contain phosphorus.
sodium, potassium have the common name saltpeter. For example; KNO 3 is
potassium saltpeter and NaNO 3 is sodium saltpeter. Sodium saltpeter is also called Phosphorus can be obtained by the following reaction.
Chile saltpeter since it is found in Chile (A South American Country).
2Ca 3 (PO 4 ) 2 + 6SiO 2 + 10C → 6CaSiO 3 + P 4 + 10CO
All nitrates are solid crystal compounds, which are highly soluble in water.
They decompose by producing O 2 gas when heated. Depending on the chemical
reactivity of the metal, which is in the structure of salt, the decomposition of nitrates
occurs differently.

2
9-PLAN-8 NITROGEN AND PHOSPOROUS

It has 3 allotropes: White, Red and Black. Important compounds

a) White phosphorus: A soft, poisonous and translucent (yarı şeffaf) solid with garlic a) Phosphorus (III) oxide (P 4 O 6 ) and Phosphorus (V) oxide (P 4 O 10 ): They are both
smell. It exists as tetra atomic molecules. Each phosphorus atom is attached to three white solids and acidic oxides.
others by simple covalent bonds to produce tetrahedral molecules of P 4 . It’s not stable
at room temperature. It changes slowly but spontaneously to red phosphorus. It is b) Phosphine (PH 3 ): Phosphine is a colorless and poisonous gas. It has a
more reactive than red one. It is insoluble in water. characteristic smell like that of rotting fish.

Formerly, it was used in match manufacturing. Today, because of its c) Phosphoric acid (H 3 PO 4 ): It’s obtained by treating phosphate rocks with sulfuric
poisoning effect, some phosphorus compounds, like tetra phosphorus tri sulfide, P 4 S 3 , acid. This impure product is used in the manufacture of phosphate fertilizers. It is a
are used in match manufacturing. weak and triprotic acid. Pure phosphoric acid is a colorless solid melting at 42 °C
and it can be obtained by reacting phosphorus (V) oxide (P 4 O 10 ) with water.
b) Red phosphorus: When white phosphorus is heated to 300 °C in the absence of
air and in the presence of a catalyst, red phosphorus forms. It’s not poisonous, and as Ca 3 (PO 4 ) 2 (s) + 3H 2 SO 4 (aq) → 3CaSO 4 (s) + 2H 3 PO 4 (aq) (impure)
active as white phosphorus. It is mono atomic and stable at room temperature. It’s
used on match boxes where the match is struck. P 4 O 10 (s) + 6H 2 O (l) → 4H 3 PO 4 (aq) (pure)

c) Black phosphorus: The most stable allotrope of Phosphorus. It’s obtained by

heating white phosphorus under high pressure. It’s used as semiconductor. Uses

Today, most of the phosphorus produced is used in the manufacture of fertilizers.

Chemical properties Additionally, pesticides, detergents, water softeners and baking powder are produced
from phosphorus compounds. White phosphorous is used in fireworks.
White phosphorus must be kept under water, because it’s highly reactive with
Oxygen. It must never be handled, even the warmth of fingers may be sufficient to Note: The use of phosphates in fertilizers contributes to the over-fertilization of plants
ignite it. and algae in lakes. Such lakes become oxygen-deficient by decomposition of
these plants and killing fish.
In addition, slow oxidation occurs when it is exposed to air, thus resulting in a
greenish glow. This phenomenon is known as phosphorescence.
3−
Phosphate ion; PO 4 forms a yellow precipitate with silver nitrate solution.
In chemical equations, P 4 indicates white phosphorus and P shows red phosphorus.
3−
→ Ag 3 PO 4 (yellow ppt)
+
3Ag + PO 4
Important reactions The importance of Nitrogen, Phosphorous and Potassium in fertilizers

• Metals react with phosphorus to form phosphides. (N) Nitrogen is included in the structure of proteins. Its absence causes slow growth.
3Na + P → Na 3 P 3Mg + P → Mg 3 P 2
(P) Phosphorous is included in the structure of nucleic acids. It is needed for the
• It reacts with halogens, except iodine, to give trihalides. development of roots of plants.

2P + 3Cl 2 → 2PCl 3 (K) Potassium accelerates photosynthesis.

• It reacts with Oxygen.

P 4 + 3O 2 → P 4 O 6 P 4 O 6 + 2O 2 → P 4 O 10

3
9-PLAN-9 CARBON AND SILICON
Carbon (C), Silicon (Si), Germanium (Ge), Tin (Sn) and Lead (Pb) are Chemical Properties
placed in 4A group. Since the first member of 4A group is Carbon, group 4A is called
carbon group or carbon family. Carbon is nonmetal, Silicon and Germanium are Carbon is a nonmetal. It has an atomic number of 6 and its electronic
2 2 2
metalloids, Tin and Lead are metals. They can have oxidation states between −4 and configuration is 6 C: 1s 2s 2p .
+4.
It takes oxidation states between −4 and +4.
Carbon
• is one of the most well-known elements in the world. By transferring electrons, Carbon can form ionic compounds with reactive
• is a nonmetal. metals such as Al 4 C 3 and CaC 2 . But it tends to make covalent bonds by sharing its
• makes covalent bonds. valence electrons.
• is the basic element of living organisms.
•
12 13 14
has three natural isotopes ; C (98,9 %), C (1,1 %), and C (trace). Reactions of Carbon
12 13 14
C, and C are stable isotopes whereas C is radioactive.
1. It burns. The product is CO 2 at low temperature, CO at high temperature (limited
There are strong covalent bonds between the Carbon atoms. Because of these Oxygen).
strong bonds Carbon has the highest melting and boiling point in the group.
C + O 2 → CO 2 ↑ (low temp)
Carbon has two allotropes, graphite and diamond.
2C + O 2(limited) → 2CO ↑ (high temp)
Diamond Graphite
The hardest natural substance Soft CO is not stable and decomposes to CO 2
Nonconductor Good conductor
Transparent Opaque (Dark black) 2CO + O 2 → 2CO 2
Used as an abrasive Used as a lubricant
2. Carbon forms Calcium carbide by reacting with Calcium or Calcium oxide at
high temperature.
Graphite crystals have a layered structure formed by hexagonal carbon
cycles. They are bonded to each other with weak bonds. It is good conductor of 2C + Ca → CaC 2 3C + CaO → CaC 2 + CO↑
electricity, so it is used as electrodes in dry cells. In pencils, a graphite and clay
mixture is used. 3. Carbon reacts with Fluorine, Sulfur, and Hydrogen at high temperatures..

Diamond is solid. Each carbon atom in the structure of diamond is bonded C + 2F 2 → CF 4 C + 2S → CS 2 C + 2H 2 → CH 4

with strong bonds to 4 neighbor carbon atoms in the shape of tetrahedral. It does not
conduct the electricity. It is the hardest substance in nature. So, it is used to cut hard 4. Since carbon is a good reducing agent, it is used to produce metals from their
materials. oxides at high temperature.

Occurrence 2PbO + C → 2Pb + CO 2 ↑ 2CuO + C → 2Cu + CO 2 ↑

Free carbon is found in nature as diamond and graphite. It is also found in 5. Carbon is used in the production of Gunpowder which is a mixture of Carbon,
natural gas, coal and petroleum as its compounds (CO 2 and carbonates). Sulfur and Potassium nitrate.

Carbon is the basic element of the living organisms. In the structure of 2KNO 3 + 3C + S → K 2 S + 3CO 2 ↑ + N 2 ↑
proteins, carbohydrates and fats, carbon is the main element.

1
9-PLAN-9 CARBON AND SILICON
Carbon monoxide, CO Uses of CO 2
• CO 2 is used in fire extinguishers. (because it stops burning )
• Carbon monoxide is found in atmosphere in trace amounts.
• Carbonated drinks (soft drinks)
• It is colorless, odorless and poisonous gas.
• As dry ice (The solid form of carbon dioxide). It is used as refrigerating agent.
• It is slightly soluble in water.
• In the production of washing soda Na 2 CO 3 .10H 2 O and baking soda, NaHCO 3
• If Carbon monoxide is inhaled it combines in the lungs with the hemoglobin
in red blood cells and changes it into carboxy hemoglobin and that cannot
Carbonic acid, H 2 CO 3 is a weak and diprotic acid. It is used in the preparation of
carry oxygen.
soft drinks. It is known also as mineral acid. It is unstable, easily decomposes into
• Carbon monoxide is a neutral oxide. It does not react with acids or bases.
carbon dioxide and water.
• The exhausts of motor cars and the incomplete combustion of fuels cause
an increase in the concentration of Carbon monoxide in air. Carbonate, CO 3 − ion such as Calcium carbonate is found in nature in large amounts
2

as limestone, chalk, and marble. Calcium carbonate is insoluble in water.

• It can be obtained from Charcoal and Carbon dioxide at high temperature. Carbides
CO 2 + C → 2CO • Metal carbides are ionic compounds of Carbon. In which carbon takes oxidation
states between −1 and −4.
• It is a strong reducing agent. It reduces metal oxides to metals.
• When calcium carbide is reacted with water acetylene gas is produced.
ZnO + CO → Zn + CO 2 ↑
CaC 2 + 2H 2 O → C 2 H 2 + Ca(OH) 2
Carbon dioxide, CO 2
Acetylene is used in welding process (cutting metals)
• Carbon dioxide is found in atmosphere (0,03 %) ¯
Cyanide, CN ion is very poisonous. For example, HCN kills in a few minutes a
• It is colorless, odorless and nonpoisonous gas person who inhales a 1 % mixture by volume.
• It is moderately soluble in water.
• It is an acidic oxide. It forms Carbonic acid when it is dissolved in water.
Uses of Carbon
CO 2 + H 2 O ⇔ H 2 CO 3
•
14
C is used in archeology to determine the age.
• After combustion reactions of Carbon, Carbon dioxide is obtained. • Graphite is used as electrodes in dry cells since it is good conductor of
• It can also be obtained in the following reactions. electricity.
• Graphite-clay mixture is used in pencils.
t • It is used as an energy source.
CaCO 3 → CaO + CO 2 ↑ • It is used in printers and photocopy machines as toner.
• It is used in tires, and stainless steel.
CaCO 3 + 2HCl → CaCl 2 + CO 2 ↑ + H 2 O

• Carbon dioxide gas can be detected by means of limewater, Ca(OH) 2 .

Carbon dioxide makes colorless limewater solution milky white.

CO 2 + Ca(OH) 2 → CaCO 3 + H 2 O

2
9-PLAN-9 CARBON AND SILICON
SILICON Important Compounds of Silicon

• It is the most abundant element after oxygen in earth’s crust. (28 % by mass) Silicon dioxide, SiO 2 is the stable compound of silicon. Its structure is similar to
0
• It is found in nature as SiO 2 in sand, quartz and silicates which form 95 % of the diamond. So, it is very hard like diamond. It melts at 1600 C. When it is cooled, it
rocks in the earth. solidifies without crystallization and quartz glass is formed. Since the thermal
• It is similar to metalloids in terms of physical properties. It is grayish blue, quite expansion coefficient of quartz glass is very low, it is not affected when heated to high
hard and brittle substance. And, it is similar to nonmetals in terms of chemical temperatures. Due to this property, it is used to make laboratory glassware, various
properties. lenses, lambs and etc.
• It has 4 valence electrons. It is similar to carbon.
• Silicon can be obtained in a few ways as follows. It is insoluble in water and acids, except HF.

heat heat
SiO 2 + 2C Si + 2CO SiO 2 + 4HF SiF 4 + 2H 2 O

heat Silicon dioxide forms silicates when reacted with oxides.

SiO 2 + 2Mg Si + 2MgO
heat
SiO 2 + MgO MgSiO 3
Reactions of Silicon
Silicates
1. Silicon reacts with nonmetals at high temperatures.
a. Clay: Clays occur naturally as alumina silicate, H 4 Al 2 Si 2 O 9 . (Al 2 O 3 .2SiO 2 .2H 2 O)
heat
Si + C SiC b. Glass: Glass is a super cooled liquid. SiO 2 is used in the production of glass.
Calcium carbonate (CaCO 3 ), sodium carbonate (Na 2 CO 3 ) and sand
heat (mainly SiO 2 ) are heated at high temperature and glass is formed.
Si + O 2 SiO 2
Na 2 O.CaO.6SiO 2 (glass)
heat
Si + 2Cl 2 SiCl 4 c. Cement: A mixture of limestone (CaCO 3 ) and clay are pulverized (powdered) and
then roasted at about 1500 °C. After that, the mixture is grounded with
2. Silicon does not react with acids at low temperatures, except HF. little gypsum (CaSO 4 .2H 2 O) to very fine powder.

Si + 4HF SiF 4 + 2H 2 Uses of Silicon

3. Silicon reacts with hot, strong base solutions to form silicates. • Elemental silicon is used to prepare silicone polymers.
• It is used to prepare electronic devices such as computer chips and
heat transistors since it is a semi-conductor.
Si + 2KOH + H 2 O K 2 SiO 3 + 2H 2 • Copper-silicon alloy is used in the preparation of telephone wires.
• Used in glass industry.
• Used in the production of cement.