Unit 5

5.0 Tools and skills

5.1. Practical use of the vernier caliper
5.1.1. Aim
To be familiar with the use of a Vernier caliper for the accurate measurements
5.1.2. Apparatus
 Vernier caliper
 Objects of different sizes (max 10cm)
5.1.3. Procedure
The Vernier caliper and micrometer will be used in order to make correct measurements of some
materials.
Figure 1.1 Vernier Caliper

Figure 1: Vernier Caliper

Fig 3. shows a Vernier caliper where you will set one length of a material into the measuring faces
for outside measurement part which will be between the parts of 'fixed jaw blade' and 'movable
jaw blade'. After that, you will firstly look at both scales of the 'main scale' and Vernier scale where
the last scale line of graduated scale' nearest to the 'Vernier' scale. You will write first this scale.
Then, you will look at the Vernier scale where you will detect a point which directly coincides
with the graduated scale'. After the detection of this point, you will write this point in terms of
Vernier scale and it should be multiplied by the measurement standard size which is 0.02 mm.
You are provided with vernier caliper, measure length of objects and fill the results in the table
below.
TRIAL LENGTH
1
 2
3

5.1.4. Questions
i Calculate:
 Average of your measurements

 Zero Reading

 Uncertainty

 Fractional uncertainty

 Diameter

 Diameter (m)

5.2. Screw Gauge

5.2.1. Aim
To become familiar with the use of screw gauges/micrometer calipers for the accurate
measurements of small lengths.
5.2.2. Introduction
Figure 1.2 shows a micrometer where you will open the measuring faces in order to set the
material into the micrometer thereby rotating the 'micrometer collar'. After you are sure that the
material has been set, you will use the scale in the 'micrometer collar' which is divided into 50
lines. Every line is equal to 0.05 mm. You will rotate it from the beginning point of zero, then
you will observe where the 'scale barrel' and 'micrometer collar' are when the material begins to
fall.
 5.2.3. Apparatus
 Micrometer
 Objects of different sizes
5.2.4. Procedure
Using the micrometer provided, measure the thickness of objects and fill the results in the table
below.

TRIAL TOP (mm) MIDDLE (mm) BOTTOM (mm)

1
2
3
5.2.5. Questions
i Calculate:
 Average of your measurements

 Zero Reading

 Uncertainty

 Fractional uncertainty

 Diameter
 Diameter (m)
Unit 6

6.0 Mechanics

6.1. Newton’s Second Law

6.1.1. Aim of the experiment
In this experiment you will investigate the relation between force and acceleration and thus test
Newton’s second law.
6.1.2. Introduction
Newton’s Second law says that the acceleration of an object is proportional to the sum of the
forces applied on that object:
1
𝑎= ∑𝐹
𝑚

Figure 2. Free body diagram for cart and hanging object

We then apply Newton’s second law to each object neglecting the mass of the string and pulley
and choosing the downward direction as the positive direction.
m1: T1 – Ffriction = m1 a (1)
m2: m2g – T2 = m2 a (2)
We omitted for simplicity the vertical projection for the cart. Because the two objects are
connected together through an inelastic string they both have the same acceleration, a. The
neglecting of the mass of the string implies that the tensions at its end are equal as it can be seen
by applying Newton’s second law to the string itself:

T2 – T1 = 0 a = 0
Or
T2 = T1 (3)
Using Eqs. 1-3 we get
m2g – m1a – Ffriction = m2a
and thus
𝑚2𝑔−𝐹𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
a= (4)
𝑚1 +𝑚2

Note that if m1 = 0, (Ffriction = 0 in this case of course) then a = g, i.e. object 2 will have a free
fall motion. Note also that if m2 = 0 (here too there is no friction) then a = 0, i.e. object 1 will
stay at rest on the track.
Because the acceleration a, Eq. 4, is constant, the distance covered by the cart depends
quadratically on time:
x = x0 + v0t + 1/2 at^2 (5)

We can write this equation in a slightly different form:

(x-x0)/t = v0 + 1/2 at (6)

This equation is of the form y = 1 + Sx which is the equation of a straight line with slope S and
intercept /. This means that if we plot x against t (i.e. x vs t), we get a straight line from which we
can calculate the slope and thus the acceleration (Note that from the above equations S = a).
6.1.3. Materials
 Two photo-light sensors
 Timer
 Pulley
 Track & cart
 Masses
6.1.4. Procedure
i The setup should be already connected as shown in Fig. 3. If this is not the case, talk to
the instructor.
ii Check that the digital timer is working fine by passing your hand through the first sensor
to start the time (this is t=0), and then through the second sensor to stop the timer. The
time elapsed between starting and stopping the timer will be displayed on the timer
screen.
iii Estimate the amount of static friction exerted on the cart by the track. You can do that in
the following way:
 a. Remove the hanger and put a so small mass of paper m₂ so that the cart does not
move. This means that the friction is bigger than the weight corresponding to m2.
Ffriction > m2g.
b. Keep adding small masses (of paper) until the cart starts moving. At this moment, we
can say that the friction is smaller than the weight of object 2. Ffriction < m2g. This
gives us then an upper limit on the friction.
c. Weigh the total mass of paper m2 and record it.
i. Now we want to use a mass m₂ so that we can neglect the friction besides the weight m2g
(i.e. Ffriction < m₂g). A factor of 20 may be enough, so estimate m₂ such that m2g ≥ 20
Ffriction. Put this mass on the hanger.
ii. Measure the mass of the cart m₁ and estimate its error.
iii. Set a distance of 25 cm between the two sensors (the distance should be measured, say,
from the middle of one sensor to the middle of the other sensor). Do not forget to
estimate the error on your measurement.
iv. Choose a starting point x₀ for the cart, near the end of the track. Mark this point with a
pencil so that you can always start the cart from this same point. (Why this position must
not change?) Hold the cart steady at x₀ and then release it.
v. Record in the table below the time t₁ it takes the cart to cover the distance between the
two photo-gates. Repeat this measurement two more times.
vi. Repeat steps v-vii for the distances shown in the table.

Table 1. Table of results

Distance between the two Time Time Time Average Time ∆X/tm(s)
sensors ∆X (cm) t₁(s) t₂(s) t₃(s) tm(s)
25
30
35
40
45
50

6.1.5. Data Analysis

i Estimate the errors on the ∆X(cm) and calculate, using the standard deviation method,
those on the tm(s). (Use the row that would give you the biggest error).

∆𝑋(𝑐𝑚)
ii Calculate the error on 𝑡𝑚(𝑠)
 iii Plot, using Excel, ∆X/tm versus time tm (i.e. tm on the X-axis, and ∆X/tm along the Y-axis)
and draw the error bars on the same graph (Do not forget to put the titles and units on the
axes).
iv Fit linearly your data and get the slope and the intercept.
v Using the Excel function linest, calculate the errors on the slope and intercept.
vi Does your data represent the theory given by Eq.6? Look at the fit quality variable R².

vii Plot your data, error bars, fit line on a graph paper this time.
viii Calculate the (experimental) acceleration and its error (use the fit slope and its error).

ix Calculate the predicted (theoretical) acceleration using Eq. 4 (neglect the friction term).

x Calculate the error on the predicted acceleration. You should estimate the error on the
different masses and propagate them to the acceleration.

xi How does the experimental acceleration compare to the theoretical one?

Further Questions
i What are the effects of friction and air resistance, i.e., how do they affect your value of
the measured acceleration?
 ii You did estimate the upper limit of the static friction; by how much you expect it to
change your value of the measured acceleration? (The kinematic friction is always less
than the static one).

iii How does the acceleration obtained in this experiment compare with g? Does it make
sense to you?

6.2. Verification of Newton’s second law

6.2.1. Aim
Measuring Constant Velocity Motion
6.2.2. Objective
Measure the speed of a glider on an air track under uniform motion.
6.2.3. Apparatus
i. Linear air track
ii. Two gliders of known masses
iii. Ruler or tape measure to measure distances
iv. Stopwatch or manual timer to measure time
v. Small weights to add mass to the gliders
vi. Elastic bumpers and Velcro strips for collisions
6.2.4. Procedure
i. Position the air track horizontally on a stable surface.
ii. Mark several points along the air track (e.g., every 20 cm) to serve as reference points for
distance measurement.
iii. Place one glider at the starting point and gently push it along the track to create a uniform
motion.
iv. Use the stopwatch to measure the time it takes for the glider to pass between two or more
marked points (e.g., from 0 cm to 20 cm and 20 cm to 40 cm).
v. Repeat the timing several times to get an average time for each interval. This reduces
human error.
 6.2.5. Questions
i. Calculate the speed of the glider at multiple times.

ii. Compare the speeds you have found.

iii. What could be the possible sources of errors?

6.3. Determining the coefficient of static friction μs

6.3.1. Apparatus
 Adjustable inclined plane
 Wood block; some have felt on the bottom, some don’t. It doesn’t matter which
kind you use.
 Two flat 100-grams weights.

6.3.2. Objectives
 To measure the angle of repose for a block on a plane
 To determine if, within experimental error, the angle of repose is independent of
the mass of the block
 To verify that the coefficient of friction is independent of mass

6.3.3. Introduction
A toolbox is placed on a sloping roof, held briefly in place, and then released. Will it slide down
the roof, or will it remain in place?
If you hadn't taken physics courses, you might think that the weight of the toolbox played a role
in answering that question. You might think that a heavy toolbox was more likely to slide than a
light one, or vice versa.
In your physics lecture, you've been taught otherwise. You've been told that the toolbox's fate
depends solely on the slope of the roof, and on the coefficient of friction between box and roof;
that the latter depends on the materials of which box and roof are made; and that the weight of the
toolbox has no bearing on the question.
In this lab, you'll test the truth of what your instructors have told you about friction. Instead of a
toolbox and a roof, you'll use a block and an adjustable wooden plane. You will elevate the plane
until the block begins to slip, and use that angle of elevation to calculate the coefficient of static
friction between block and plane. You'll then put weights on the block and repeat the experiment,
to see whether changing the mass of the sliding block affects the angle at which it begins to slide.
As you conduct this experiment, you'll need to keep in mind the difference between static and
kinetic friction. You will be looking at the former, so you will want to find the angle at which a
block initially at rest begins to slide. You will have to take great care not to jostle or bump the
apparatus, which could cause the block to start sliding at a smaller angle than the coefficient of
static friction would require.

6.3.4. Theory
A wooden block is initially at rest on top of an adjustable inclined plane apparatus. The plane is
initially horizontal; a hinge allows its angle to the horizontal to be adjusted between 0° (horizontal)
and about 45°.
The plane is slowly raised until it makes an angle of θ, with the horizontal; at this point, the block
starts to slide downward. This angle θ, is known as the angle of repose. What is the coefficient of
static friction μ, between the block and the plane?
At right are a picture of the situation and a free-body diagram. The x-axis is parallel to the plane
and points upward along it. The y-axis is perpendicular to the plane and pointing upward.
The block does not sink into the plane or rise above it. Hence, the net force along the y-direction
is zero. This means that the component of the weight mg cos θ that acts downward in that direction
is balanced by the normal force N that acts upward.

𝑚𝑔x = mg sin θs 𝑓 s = μsN

θs
Mgy = 𝑚𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑠 θs
mg

Figure 3. Free body diagram showing the forces acting on a block on an inclined plane

When the block is on the verge of sliding, the net force along the x-direction is also zero. This
means that the component of the weight mg sin θ that acts downward along the plane is equal to
the force of static friction, Fs. Hence
mg sin θs = fs = μsN = μs mg cosθs
𝑚𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝑠 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝑠
μs = 𝑚𝑔 cos 𝜃𝑠 = = tan 𝜃𝑠
𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃𝑠

Notice that θs depends only on the constant μs. In particular, notice that the weight of the block w
does not appear in the equation for tan θs. This suggests that the angle of repose of the block does
not depend on its weight. It is this that you will be testing in this lab.

6.3.5. Lab Procedure

For this lab, you will use the adjustable inclined plane apparatus. This consists of a base, which
should be horizontal when placed with all four feet solidly on a horizontal surface; an adjustable
section, hinged where it joins the base so that it can be raised to make different angles with the
horizontal; and a protractor-like arc with angles marked on it, to measure the adjustable section's
angle to the horizontal.
With the adjustable section horizontal, place the wood block near its upper end (farthest from the
hinge). Slowly and carefully raise the adjustable section, until the block just begins to slide. Read
and record the angle of elevation θs of the adjustable section at this point. Repeat this a total of
three times, recording three different measurements of θs.
Please note “slowly and carefully” in the preceding paragraph. Remember that there are both static
and kinetic coefficients of friction, with μk < μs. If the adjustable section is at an angle θ such that
tan−1(μk) < θ < tan−1(μs), then the block will not start sliding if it is at rest, but a slight nudge or
vibration will start it moving, and it will then continue to slide. You need to avoid giving it that
slight nudge; the block moving at θ < θs, then you should discard the measurement and take a new
one.
When you’ve recorded three good measurements of θs for the block by itself, place one of the 100-
gram weights atop the block and repeat the procedure, recording three values of θs for the block
plus the weight.
Repeat the entire procedure one more time, this time with two 100-g weights atop the block. (Don’t
stack the weights one atop another, you want two 100-g weights atop the block and three weights
as low a profile as possible, to avoid complications from torque.) Record three values of θs for the
block plus the two weights.
Once you’ve got these nine measurements of θs—three each for the block by itself, for the block
with a single 100-g weight, and for the block with two 100-g weights—you are finished with the
laboratory part of this exercise and can begin analyzing the data. It’s best to have at least two
people working together on this lab: one to increase the angle slowly and carefully; another to
watch the angle scale at eye level.
 6.3.6. Questions
i The data analysis for this lab is fairly short and simple. For each of the three situations -
block alone; block plus 100 g; block plus 200 g - calculate the average of your three
measurements of θs.

ii From each of these three average angles, calculate the coefficient of static friction μs.

iii Are your three values of μs reasonably similar to one another?

iv You will not have enough data to calculate useful standard deviations or to do any other
kind of rigorous error analysis, so you will not be asked to do that. However, from doing
the experiment, you should have some sense of how much error there was in your
measurements of θs. Do your values of μs seem to agree with one another, within that error?
If not, does there appear to be a consistent trend of μs increasing or decreasing with
increasing weight?

Coefficient of friction: μs = tan(θs), where θs is called the angle of repose

Table 2. Data for computing coefficient of friction μs

Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 θs (degrees) μs

Block without weight
Block + 100 grams
Block + 200 grams

6.3.7. Further Questions

After you’ve filled in the above table, answer the following questions. Turn in this page with your
data, analysis, and the answers to the following questions typed up on a separate piece of paper
and attach it to this page.
i According to theory, should μs increase with increasing weight, decrease with increasing
weight, or remain the same with increasing weight? Justify your answer.
ii Is μs more or less constant as you increase the weight on the block? If not, does there appear
to be a trend (i.e., μs increasing or decreasing with increasing weight)?

iii Suppose instead of a wooden block, you place a square ice cube on one of the metal inclined
planes. Would you expect the angle of repose, and hence the coefficient of friction, to be
larger, or smaller than the coefficient of friction due to a wooden block? Justify your
answer, and then put it to the test by conducting an experiment to justify your educated
guess. How did it turn out?
Unit 7

7.0 Waves and vibrations

7.1. Extension of a spring
7.1.1. Objectives

i To use the half table method, also known as the method of overlapping pairs.
ii To become familiar with a "LINEAR" system.

7.1.2. Aim

To find the force constant of a given spring.

7.1.3. Theory

When a spring is extended by applying a load to one end, the magnitude of the extension is given
by an appropriate expression. Obtain this expression from a suitable book and define your
symbols.

7.1.4. Procedure

The extension of the spring is measured for various loads, beginning with zero load on the scale
pan. Two readings of the extension at each load must be made, one as the load is incremented
and then again as the load is reduced. The two readings are thus separated by the event of
maximum extension of the spring.

Choose a suitable, unmoving reference point and, using the method of no parallax, determine the
position of the lower end of the spring to a precision of 0.1 mm or as near to this as you can
manage. Increase or decrease the load on the spring by 20 g between each measurement.
Maximum load 220 g.

Readings:

NOTE that yn = position of mass

Table 3. Table of results, Hooke's law

Label Load in Position of load / (cm) Real

yn Newtons Increasing Decreasing average Value
 7.1.5. Analysis

Use the half table method to find the mean value of the extension of the spring corresponding to
the appropriate increase of the mass of the load. Compile another table to facilitate this analysis.

Table 4. Half table

yn + N/2 – yn Difference

7.1.6. Questions

i Determine the S.I. units of the force constant? (There are two possibilities.)
ii A spring has an elastic limit. What is meant by this term?
iii How does this limit affect your experiment?
iv Why is it necessary to take two readings of the extension separated by the event of
maximum extension of the spring?
v Average extension for a mass of ____ g is ____ cm
vi Average extension for a mass of ____ kg is ____ m
vii Uncertainty in average extension is ____ cm
viii Fractional uncertainty in average extension is _____
ix The formula for calculating the force constant, k, is k = _____
x The fractional uncertainty in k is _____
xi The uncertainty in k is _____
xii k = _____ ± _____
xiii Plot a graph of load versus spring extension and again determine k using your graph.
xiv k = _____ ± _____
 7.2. Dependence of period on mass
7.2.1. Aim
The aim of this experiment is to determine the local magnitude of the acceleration (g) due to
gravity.
7.2.2. Objective
To investigate if the period of a simple pendulum depends on mass
7.2.3. Introduction
The period of a simple pendulum is the time it takes for one complete oscillation, moving from
its starting point to the opposite extreme and back again. Understanding the factors that affect
this period is crucial in both theoretical and practical applications, as pendulums have historically
been used in timekeeping and are a fundamental concept in physics. In this experiment, we aim
to explore whether the period of a simple pendulum depends on the mass of the bob.
Theoretically, the period of a simple pendulum is independent of mass, depending primarily on
its length and the acceleration due to gravity. This investigation will test this theoretical
prediction by measuring the period with bobs of varying masses, offering insights into the
physical properties governing pendulum motion.

7.2.4. Apparatus
i Pendulum stand or a stable support
ii String (approximately 1 meter)
iii Set of masses (e.g., metal balls or pendulum bobs of varying masses)
iv Stopwatch or timer
v Ruler or measuring tape
vi Protractor (for measuring initial angle of displacement)
vii Clamp or attachment for securing the string

7.2.5. Procedure
i Set Up the Pendulum
 Attach one end of the string securely to the stand so that it can swing freely.
Ensure that the string is of a fixed length, around 1 meter.
 Attach the first mass (bob) to the other end of the string.

ii Measure the length of the pendulum from the point of attachment to the center of the
mass and record this length. Make sure your setup looks like the one in figure
 t
Figure 4. a setup of a simple pendulum

iii Pull the pendulum bob to a small angle (e.g., 5–10 degrees from the vertical) to minimize
any effect of large amplitude on the period. Use the protractor to ensure the angle is
consistent throughout the experiment.
iv Release the pendulum bob gently without pushing it to ensure it swings naturally under
gravity.
v Use the stopwatch to measure the time it takes for the pendulum to complete 10 full
oscillations (one complete swing back and forth).
vi Repeat the measurement three times for accuracy, recording each trial. Take the average
of these measurements as the period for the given mass and record this time in the table
of findings.
vii Replace the bob with another mass, keeping the length of the string and the initial angle
of displacement the same.
viii Repeat steps 4–6 for each different mass.
Table 5. Mass dependence table of results

Mass Time for 10 Swings Period

7.2.6. Questions
i Why is it important to release the pendulum from a small angle? How might larger angles
affect the period?
 ii Why is it recommended to measure the time for 10 oscillations rather than timing a single
swing? How does this improve accuracy?

iii Based on your results, did you observe any significant differences in the period when the
mass was changed? If so, what could explain these differences?

iv What conclusion do you draw from the experiment?

7.3. Investigating the Dependence of Period on the Length of a Simple

Pendulum
7.3.1. Introduction

The simple pendulum is a fundamental example of oscillatory motion and has been studied
extensively in physics due to its applications in timekeeping, mechanics, and the study of
harmonic motion. A simple pendulum consists of a mass (or "bob") attached to a string,
swinging back and forth under the influence of gravity. According to theoretical models, the
period of a simple pendulum, defined as the time for one complete swing back and forth,
depends on the length of the pendulum and the acceleration due to gravity but is independent of
the bob's mass. Specifically, the period T is predicted by the formula;

𝑇 = 2𝜋√𝐿⁄𝑔

where L is the length of the pendulum and g is the gravitational acceleration.

In this experiment, we aim to investigate the relationship between the period of a pendulum and
its length. By systematically varying the length and measuring the resulting periods, we can
verify the square-root dependence of the period on length and explore how closely our results
align with theoretical expectations. Understanding this relationship is essential for appreciating
the role of length in pendulum-based timing devices and in broader studies of harmonic motion.
This investigation will also enhance practical skills in data collection, graphing, and analyzing
mathematical relationships in physics.

7.3.2. Aim

To investigate how the period of a simple pendulum depends on the length of the pendulum.

7.3.3. Objective

To determine the relationship between the period T of a simple pendulum and its length L and
verify if the period increases with the square root of the length.

7.3.4. Apparatus

i Pendulum stand or a stable support

ii String (up to 1 meter, with markings at various lengths)
iii Single mass bob (constant throughout the experiment)
iv Stopwatch or timer
v Ruler or measuring tape
vi Protractor (for measuring the initial angle of displacement)
vii Clamp or attachment to secure the string

7.3.5. Procedure

i Attach the string to the stand so that it can swing freely as in fig. 3. Use a mass bob at the
end of the string, ensuring that the mass remains constant throughout the experiment.
ii Set the length of the string to a specific length, starting at around 50 cm. Measure the
length from the point of attachment to the center of the mass and record it as L.
iii Pull the pendulum bob to a small angle (e.g., 5–10 degrees from the vertical) to minimize
effects due to large oscillations. Use the protractor to confirm the angle remains
consistent throughout the experiment.
iv Release the pendulum bob without pushing it, allowing it to swing freely and start the
stopwatch and measure the time taken for 10 complete oscillations. Repeat the
measurement for each length three times, calculate the average period for each length to
ensure accuracy.
v Record your findings in the table of results.
vi Change the length of the string to another value (e.g., 50 cm, 60 cm, and 70 cm…150cm)
and repeat steps 2–4.

Length Average time for 10 Period T T2

oscillations (t)
7.3.6. Questions

i Plot a graph of T2 against L and observe the nature of the relationship to confirm the
square-foot dependence.
ii What does the graph indicate about the relationship between period and length?

iii Given the theoretical formula;

𝑇 = 2𝜋√𝐿⁄𝑔

How does your experimental data align with this model? Does your graph support
the square-root dependence of T on L?

vii. What are potential sources of error in this experiment?