WEB TECHNOLOGY

INTRODUCTION
DEBASISH CHATTERJEE,
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
DEROZIO MEMORIAL COLLEGE
GUEST FACULTY , SNU
 01 Overview

02 Network of Networks

CHAPTER CONTENTS
03 Intranet

04 Extranet and Internet

 01
Overview
This chapter helps you to understand the history and
fundamental building blocks of Networks and WEB.
What is Internet
Internet or Internetworking refers to a wide network through which computers are
interconnected globally with one another and capable of sharing resources among themselves
these network is called internet which refers to millions of computer connected in a gigantic
network communicated via TCP IP Protocol.

Network of Network
An Internetwork may be defined as a network of computer communication networks
every authorized member of which could communicate with every other authorized
member (node) directly or indirectly.

It may consist of several Local, Metropolitan or Wide Area Networks interconnected via a
LAN, MAN or a WAN oriented communication technology, depending upon the specific
context of use.
Classification of Internetworks
There exist three classes of Internetworks for most of the practical and analytical
purposes:
• The Global Public Internetwork: The Internet
• The Wholly Owned / Private Internetworks: Intranets
• The Hybrid Internetwork-- private networks / internetworks connected
through the Internet: Extranets
INTERNET SERVICES AND ACCESSIBILITY
Today the Internet offers an extensive range of services many of which were not speculated when
the Internet was first launched services.
• Electronic mail: A service that helps to send and receive messages and to attach files.
• Electronic mailing lists: Everyone subscribed to the list gets a message sent to the list.
• USENET newsgroups: Electronic bulletin board service
• Real-time communication: Chat, messengers, videoconferencing, white-boards, etc.
• File Transfer Protocol (FTP): A service that helps to send and receive files to and from a file
server.
• Telnet, ssh: A remote login to other computers on the Internet.
• Web World Wide Web (WWW): Documents and files of various types which are connected
using hypertext links to create a Web-like structure and are accessed through the Internet by
addresses called Uniform Resource Locators (URLs).
USES OF THE INTERNET
• Telecommuting (working from home or anywhere)
• Online conferencing business,
• Advertising and online shopping
• News, jobs, softwares online courses, virtual classrooms,
• Coachings government services,
• Electronic publishing
• Entertainment (television, radio, videos, audio MP3s, etc.)
• Teaching and learning (course websites, conferencing, simulation, visuali-
zation, etc.)
• Scholarly research (searchable databases of journal articles; individual Web
publishing, etc.)
• General information about a subject, especially which is not easily available
from other sources Correspondence (email, chatting, etc.)
PROTOCOLS
Protocol is a set of rules or an agreement that specifies a common language that
computers on a network use for communication with other computers.

• Ethernet: This is used to transfer information on a LAN. It specifies a number of wiring and signaling
standards for the physical layer, two ways of network access (Media Access Control/Data Link Layer)
and a common address format.
• Internet Protocol (IP): This protocol provides communicable global addresses of/to the computers. The
computers identify each other by the IP addresses.
• Transport Control Protocol (TCP): This protocol guarantees reliable, proper delivery of data from the
sender to the receiver. It breaks large messages, transports them reliably and reassembles them.
• File Transfer Protocol (FTP): This is used to connect two computers over the Internet so that the user of
one computer can transfer files and perform file commands on the other computer. It exchanges files
over any network that supports TCP/IP protocol.
• Hypertext Transport Protocol (HTTP): This protocol is used to retrieve Web pages from a Web server.
• Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP): This protocol is used for email transmissions.
 The Client/Server Model of the Web
• Most Internet services rely on the client/server model. The Internet user is the client and has the client
software installed on his computer to access various Internet services.

• When a user wants to connect to a particular information tool, he uses his client software to connect to
server programs, which provide the service or the information needed.

• The client/server model has become one of the central ideas of network computing, and is the basis of
the TCP/IP protocol.
Intranet
• An intranet is a computer network for sharing information, easier
communication, collaboration tools, operational systems, and other
computing services within an organization, usually to the exclusion of
access by outsiders.
• The term is used in contrast to public networks, such as the Internet,
but uses most of the same technology based on the Internet protocol
suite.
Intranet Use
• Intranets are being used to deliver tools, e.g. collaboration (to facilitate working in
groups and teleconferencing) or sophisticated corporate directories, sales and
customer relationship management tools, project management etc.,
• Intranets are also being used as corporate culture-change platforms.
• In large intranets, website traffic is often similar to public website traffic and
can be better understood by using web metrics software to track overall
activity.
Extranet
An extranet is a private network that enterprises use to provide trusted third parties
-- such as suppliers, vendors, partners, customers and other businesses -- secure,
controlled access to business information or operations.

• Extranets, which take the form of external-facing websites or platforms, can

sometimes be viewed as part of or an extension of the organization's intranet.

• Although information on an extranet is accessible to users outside the

company, access is tightly controlled and only awarded to authorized users.
Some use cases for extranets
• Exchanging large volumes of data using electronic data interchange;
• Sharing product catalogs exclusively with wholesalers;
• Collaborating with other companies on joint development projects;
• Jointly developing and using training programs with other companies;
• Providing services to a group of other companies, such as an online
banking application managed by one company on behalf of affiliated
banks;
• Sharing news of common interest exclusively with partner companies.
 01 Domain and Sub domain

02 Address Resolution

CHAPTER CONTENTS
03 DNS

04 Telnet, FTP, HTTP

 Domain
• A domain name is a string that identifies a realm of administrative autonomy, authority or control
within the Internet.
• Domain names are used in various networking contexts and for application-specific naming and
addressing purposes.
• Domain name identifies a network domain or an Internet Protocol (IP) resource, such as a personal
computer used to access the Internet, or a server computer.
Subdomain
A subdomain is an additional part to your main domain name. Subdomains are
created to organize and navigate to different sections of your website. You can
create multiple subdomains or child domains on your main domain.

For example:

store.yourwebsite.com

In this example, ‘store’ is the subdomain, ‘yourwebsite’ is the primary domain

and ‘.com’ is the top level domain (TLD).
 Use Cases of Subdomain
• For creating a testing or staging version of a website.
• Companies use subdomains for their mobile websites (m.yoursite.com), location-
specific sites (uk.yoursite.com), and creating sub-sections of the website.
• You can install WordPress on your subdomain, and it will work as a separate
installation from your main website.
• You can use a subdomain to serve a specific group of users on your site like
‘guest.yourwebsite.com’, ‘user.yourwebsite.com’.
• Subdomains can be very useful in organizing your website content more efficiently.
The right use of a subdomain does not affect your main website’s SEO.
Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)
Most of the computer programs/applications use logical address (IP address) to send/receive
messages, however, the actual communication happens over the physical address (MAC
address). This is where ARP comes into the picture, its functionality is to translate IP address
to physical addresses.

• ARP finds the hardware address, also known as Media Access Control (MAC) address, of a
host from its known IP address.
The important terms associated with ARP are:

ARP Cache: After resolving the MAC address, the ARP sends it to the source where it is stored in a table for future
reference. The subsequent communications can use the MAC address from the table.

ARP Cache Timeout: It indicates the time for which the MAC address in the ARP cache can reside.

ARP request: This is nothing but broadcasting a packet over the network to validate whether we came across the
destination MAC address or not.
• The physical address of the sender.
• The IP address of the sender.
• The physical address of the receiver is FF:FF:FF:FF:FF:FF or 1’s.
• The IP address of the receiver

ARP response/reply: It is the MAC address response that the source receives from the destination which aids in
further communication of the data.
Reverse ARP

Reverse ARP is a networking protocol used by a client machine in a local area

network to request its Internet Protocol address (IPv4) from the gateway-router’s
ARP table.
Inverse Address Resolution Protocol (InARP)

As the name suggests, InARP is just inverse of ARP. Reverse ARP has been
replaced by BOOTP and later DHCP but Inverse ARP is solely used for device
configuration.
Proxy ARP
Proxy ARP was implemented to enable devices which are separated into
network segments connected by a router in the same IP network or sub-
network to resolve IP address to MAC addresses.
Gratuitous ARP
Gratuitous Address Resolution Protocol is used in advance network scenarios. It is
something performed by computer while booting up. When the computer booted up
(Network Interface Card is powered) for the first time, it automatically broadcast its
MAC address to the entire network.
After Gratuitous ARP MAC address of the computer is known to every switch and allow
DHCP servers to know where to send the IP address if requested.
DNS
The domain name system (DNS) is a naming database in which internet domain names are
located and translated into Internet Protocol (IP) addresses. The domain name system
maps the name people use to locate a website to the IP address that a computer uses to
locate that website.

How DNS works

DNS servers convert URLs and domain names into IP addresses that computers can
understand and use. They translate what a user types into a browser into something the
machine can use to find a webpage. This process of translation and lookup is called
DNS resolution.
DNS servers talk to each other to answer a query from a client. Some DNS servers will have the
necessary information cached and relay that back to the client so they can get online.
DNS structure
The domain name is usually contained in a URL. A domain name is made of multiple parts, called
The domain hierarchy is read from right to left with each section denoting a subdivision.

The TLD appears after the period in the domain name. Examples of top-level domains
include .com, .org and .edu, but there are many others. Some may denote a country code or
geographic location, such as .us for the United States or .ca for Canada.

• There can be up to 127 levels of subdomains.

• Each label can have up to 63 characters.
• The total domain character length can have up to 253 characters.
• Other rules include not starting or ending labels with hyphens and not having a fully
numeric TLD name.
DNS Server Types
There are several server types involved in completing a DNS resolution. The following list
describes the four name servers in the order a query passes through them.

• Recursive server : The recursive server takes DNS queries from an application, such as a web browser. It's
the first resource the user accesses and either provides the answer to the query if it has it cached or
accesses the next-level server if it doesn't.

• Root name server : The root name server is an index of all the servers that will have the information being
queried.

• TLD server: The root server directs the query based on the top-level domain the .com, .edu or .org in the
URL. This is a more specific part of the lookup.

• Authoritative name server: These servers know everything about a given domain and deal with the
subdomain part of the domain name. They return the necessary record to the recursive server to send
back to the client and cache it closer to the client for future lookups.
Types of DNS Queries
The following types of DNS queries are the main ones that take place at different points in the DNS resolution.

• Recursive DNS queries are those that take place between the recursive server and the
client.Recursive queries end in either the answer or an error.

• Iterative DNS queries take place between the recursive resolver, which is a local DNS server, and
the nonlocal name servers, like the root, TLD and authoritative name servers.

• Nonrecursive queries are those for which the recursive resolver already knows where to get the
answer. If a recursive resolver has cached an IP address from a previous session and serves that
address upon the next request, that is considered a nonrecursive query.
DNS Records
DNS records are the information a query seeks. Depending on the query, client or
application, different information is required. Some records are required, such as the
A record.

• A record. This stands for address and holds the IP address of a domain. A records only apply to IPv4
addresses.

• NS record. These name server records denote which authoritative server is responsible for having
all the information about a given domain. Often, domains have both primary and backup name
servers to increase reliability, and multiple NS records are used to direct queries to them.

• TXT record. TXT records enable administrators to enter text into DNS.TXT records are used to
confirm domain ownership, secure email and counter email spam.

• CNAME record. Canonical name records are used instead of an A record when there is an alias.
They are used to retry the query of the same IP address with two different domains.
How does DNS increase web performance?
Servers can cache the A records, or IP addresses, they receive from DNS queries for a set
amount of time. Caching promotes efficiency, enabling servers to respond quickly the next
time a request for the same IP address comes in.

DNS data can be cached in a number of places. Some common ones include the following:

• Browser. The browser is the first cache that gets checked when a DNS request gets made, before
the request leaves the machine for a local DNS resolver server.

• Operating System (OS). Many OSes have built-in DNS resolvers called stub resolvers that cache DNS
data and handle queries before they are sent to an external server.

• Recursive Resolver. The answer to a DNS query can also be cached on the DNS recursive resolver.
For example, if the resolver has A records but not NS records, the resolver can skip the root server
and query the TLD server directly.
DNS queries look for the records in local caches, both on the DNS resolver within the operating system and
on local applications, before queries are sent to external recursive servers.
Telnet
Telnet is a network protocol used to virtually access a computer and to provide a two-way,
collaborative and text-based communication channel between two machines.

• It follows a user command Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP)

networking protocol for creating remote sessions.

• Through Telnet, users can log on to a remote computer as a regular user with the
privileges they are granted to the specific applications and data on that computer.

• While using telnet user are prompted to enter their username and password
combination to access the remote computer, which enables the running of command
lines as if logged in to the computer in person.
Uses of Telnet
• Telnet can be used for a variety of activities on a server, including editing files, running
various programs and checking email.

• Users are also able to connect to any software that utilizes text-based, unencrypted
protocols via Telnet, from web servers to ports.

Security
Telnet is not a secure protocol and is unencrypted. By monitoring a user's connection,
anyone can access a person's username, password and other private information that is
typed over the Telnet session in plaintext. With this information, access can be gained to
the user's device.
FTP
FTP (File Transfer Protocol) is a network protocol for transmitting files between computers
over Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) connections. Within the
TCP/IP suite, FTP is considered an application layer protocol.

How does FTP work?

FTP is a client-server protocol that relies on two communications channels between the
client and server: a command channel for controlling the conversation and a data channel
for transmitting file content.
Here is how a typical FTP transfer works:
• A user typically needs to log on to the FTP server, although some servers make some or all
of their content available without a login, a model known as anonymous FTP.

• The client initiates a conversation with the server when the user requests to download a
file.

• Using FTP, a client can upload, download, delete, rename, move and copy files on a server.
FTP is used for file transfers for the following purposes :
• Backup. FTP can be used by backup services or individual users to backup data from one
location to a secured backup server running FTP services.

• Replication. Similar to backup, replication involves duplication of data from one system to
another but takes a more comprehensive approach to provide higher availability and
resilience. FTP can also be used to facilitate this.

• Access and Data loading. FTP is also commonly used to access shared web hosting and
cloud services as a mechanism to load data onto a remote system.
FTP Types
• Anonymous FTP. This is the most basic form of FTP. It provides support for data transfers without
encrypting data or using a username and password. It's most commonly used for download of material
that is allowed for unrestricted distribution. It works on port 21

• Password-protected FTP. This is also a basic FTP service, but it requires the use of a username and
password, though the service might not be encrypted or secure. It also works on port 21.

• FTP Secure (FTPS). Sometimes referred to as FTP Secure Sockets Layer (FTP-SSL), this approach enables
implicit Transport Layer Security (TLS) as soon as an FTP connection is established. It typically defaults to
using port 990.

• FTP over explicit SSL/TLS (FTPES). This approach enables explicit TLS support by upgrading an FTP
connection over port 21 to an encrypted connection. This is a commonly used approach by web and file
sharing services to enable secure file transfers.

• Secure FTP (SFTP). This is technically not an FTP protocol, but it functions similarly. Rather, SFTP is a subset
of the Secure Shell (SSH) protocol that runs over port 22. SSH is commonly used by systems administrators
to remotely and securely access systems and applications, and SFTP provides a mechanism within SSH for
secure file transfer.
HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol)
HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) is the set of rules for transferring files -- such as text,
images, sound, video and other multimedia files -- over the web. HTTP is an application
protocol that runs on top of the TCP/IP suite of protocols.

Client devices use HTTP to communicate with servers online and access web pages.
HTTP vs. HTTPS
• HTTPS is the use of Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) or Transport Layer Security (TLS) as a sublayer
under regular HTTP application layering.

• HTTPS encrypts and decrypts user HTTP page requests as well as the pages that are
returned by the web server.

• It also protects against eavesdropping and man-in-the-middle (MitM) attacks.

• Migrating from HTTP to HTTPS is considered beneficial, as it offers an added layer of security
and trust.
HTTP Requests and Responses
Each interaction between the client and server is called a message. HTTP messages are
requests or responses. Client devices submit HTTP requests to servers, which reply by
sending HTTP responses back to the clients.
Each HTTP request contains encoded data, with information such as:

• The specific version of HTTP followed. HTTP and HTTP/2 are the two versions.

• A URL. This points to the resource on the web.

• An HTTP method. This indicates the specific action the request expects to receive from the server
in its response.

• HTTP request headers. This includes data such as what type of browser is being used and what
data the request is seeking from the server. For example cookies.

• An HTTP body. This is optional information the server needs from the request, such as user forms
-- username/password logins, short responses and file uploads -- that are being submitted to the
website.
HTTP Responses
The HTTP response message is the data received by a client device from the web server.
HTTP responses typically include the following data:

• HTTP status code, which indicates the status of the request to the client device.
Responses may indicate success, an informational response, a redirect, or errors on the
server or client side
• .
• HTTP response headers, which send information about the server and requested
resources.

• An HTTP body (optional). If a request is successful, this contains the requested data in
the form of HTML code, which is translated into a web page by the client browser.
 HTTP Status Codes
In response to HTTP requests, servers often issue response codes, indicating the request is being processed,
there was an error in the request or that the request is being redirected. Common response codes include:

• 200 OK. This means that the request, such as GET or POST, worked and is being acted upon.

• 300 Moved Permanently. This response code means that the URL of the requested resource has been
changed permanently.

• 401 Unauthorized. The client, or user making the request of the server, has not been authenticated.

• 403 Forbidden. The client's identity is known but has not been given access authorization.

• 404 Not Found. This is the most frequent error code. It means that the URL is not recognized or the
resource at the location does not exist.

• 500 Internal Server Error. The server has encountered a situation it doesn't know how to handle.
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is a standard that defines how to establish and
maintain a network conversation by which applications can exchange data.

TCP works with the Internet Protocol (IP), which defines how computers send packets
of data to each other. Together, TCP and IP are the basic rules that define the internet.

How Transmission Control Protocol works

TCP is a connection-oriented protocol, which means a connection is established and

maintained until the applications at each end have finished exchanging messages.
TCP performs the following actions:
• Determines how to break application data into packets that networks can deliver;

• Sends packets to, and accepts packets from, the network layer;

• Manages flow control;

• Handles retransmission of dropped or garbled packets, as it's meant to provide

error-free data transmission;

• Acknowledges all packets that arrive.

How the TCP/IP Protocols Handle Data Communications
When a user issues a command that uses a TCP/IP application layer protocol, a series of events is
initiated.

• The user's command or message passes through the TCP/IP protocol stack on the local machine.

• Then the command or message passes across the network media to the protocols on the recipient.

• The protocols at each layer on the sending host add information to the original data.
How a Packet Travels Through the TCP/IP Stack
 Life cycle of a packet
• The life cycle starts when you issue a command or send a message.
• The life cycle finishes when the appropriate application on the receiving host
receives the packet.

• Application Layer—User Initiates Communication

• Transport Layer—Data Encapsulation Begins
• Internet Layer — Determines the IP addresses for the datagrams
• Data-Link Layer—Framing Takes Place
• Physical Network Layer—Preparing the Frame for Transmission
Application Layer
• The packet's history begins when a user on one host sends a message or issues a
command that must access a remote host.

• The application protocol formats the packet so that the appropriate transport layer
protocol, TCP or UDP, can handle the packet.
Transport Layer
When the data arrives at the transport layer, the protocols at the layer start the
process of data encapsulation.

TCP Segmentation
• TCP is often called a “connection-oriented” protocol because TCP ensures the
successful delivery of data to the receiving host.

• TCP divides the data that is received from the application layer into Segments
and attaches a header to each segment.

• Segment headers contain sender and recipient ports, segment ordering

information, and a data field that is known as a checksum. The TCP protocols on
both hosts use the checksum data to determine if the data transfers without
error.
 UDP Packets
• UDP is a “connectionless” protocol. Unlike TCP, UDP does not check that data
arrived at the receiving host. Instead, UDP formats the message that is received
from the application layer into UDP packets. UDP attaches a header to each packet.

• The header contains the sending and receiving host ports

• A field with the length of the packet
• A checksum

• The sending UDP process attempts to send the packet to its peer UDP process on
the receiving host. The application layer determines whether the receiving UDP
process acknowledges the reception of the packet. UDP requires no notification of
receipt.
Internet Layer
• TCP and UDP pass their segments and packets down to the Internet
layer, where the IP protocol handles the segments and packets.

• IP prepares them for delivery by formatting them into units called IP

datagrams.

• IP then determines the IP addresses for the datagrams, so that they can
be delivered effectively to the receiving host.
 IP Datagrams

• IP attaches an IP header to the segment or packet's header in addition to

the information that is added by TCP or UDP.

• Information in the IP header includes the IP addresses of the sending and

receiving hosts, datagram length, and datagram sequence order.

• This information is provided if the datagram exceeds the allowable byte size
for network packets and must be fragmented.
Data-Link Layer
• Data-link layer protocols, such as PPP, format the IP datagram into a frame.

• These protocols attach a third header and a footer to “frame” the datagram.

• The frame header includes a cyclic redundancy check (CRC) field that checks
for errors as the frame travels over the network media. Then the data-link
layer passes the frame to the physical layer.

Physical Network Layer

The physical network layer on the sending host receives the frames and converts the IP
addresses into the hardware addresses appropriate to the network media. The physical
network layer then sends the frame out over the network media.
How the Receiving Host Handles the Packet
When the packet arrives on the receiving host, the packet travels through the TCP/IP
protocol stack in the reverse order from that which the packet travels on the sender.
Moreover, each protocol on the receiving host strips off header information that is
attached to the packet by its peer on the sending host.
The following process occurs:
• The physical network layer receives the packet in its frame form. The physical network layer computes
the CRC of the packet, then sends the frame to the data link layer.

• The data-link layer verifies that the CRC for the frame is correct and strips off the frame header and CRC.
Finally, the data link protocol sends the frame to the Internet layer.

• The Internet layer reads information in the header to identify the transmission. Then Internet layer
determines if the packet is a fragment. If the transmission is fragmented, IP reassembles the fragments
into the original datagram. IP then strips off the IP header and passes the datagram on to transport layer
protocols.

• The transport layer (TCP and UDP) reads the header to determine which application layer protocol must
receive the data. Then TCP or UDP strips off its related header. TCP or UDP sends the message or stream
up to the receiving application.

• The application layer receives the message. The application layer then performs the operation that the
sending host requested.
Three-Way Handshaking
• TCP uses segments to determine whether the receiving host is ready to receive the
data. When the sending TCP wants to establish connections, TCP sends a segment
that is called a SYN to the TCP protocol on the receiving host.

• The receiving TCP returns a segment that is called an ACK to acknowledge the
successful receipt of the segment.

• The sending TCP sends another ACK segment, then proceeds to send the data. This
exchange of control information is referred to as a three-way handshake.
Continue...
TCP provides reliable communication with something called Positive Acknowledgement with
Re-transmission(PAR). There are three segments are exchanged between sender(client) and
receiver(server) for a reliable TCP connection to get established. let us see the detailed
process.
• Step 1 (SYN): In the first step, the client wants to establish a connection with a server,
so it sends a segment with SYN(Synchronize Sequence Number) which informs the
server that the client is likely to start communication and with what sequence
number it starts segments with.

• Step 2 (SYN + ACK): Server responds to the client request with SYN-ACK signal bits
set. Acknowledgement(ACK) signifies the response of the segment it received and
SYN signifies with what sequence number it is likely to start the segments with.

• Step 3 (ACK): In the final part client acknowledges the response of the server and
they both establish a reliable connection with which they will start the actual data
transfer
Flow Control
Flow control is the management of data flow between computers or devices or between nodes
in a network so that the data can be handled at an efficient pace.

Too much data arriving before a device can handle it causes data overflow, meaning the data is
either lost or must be retransmitted.

In order to achieve this, the TCP protocol uses a mechanism called the Sliding Window
Protocol.
The sliding window protocol
• In the sliding window protocol method, when we are establishing a connection
between sender and receiver, there are two buffers created. Each of these two
buffers are assigned to the sender, called the sending window, and to the receiver,
called the receiving window.

• When the sender sends data to the receiver, the receiving window sends back the
remaining receiving buffer space. As a result, the sender cannot send more data
than the available receiving buffer space.
• In this example, the sending window sends data to the receiving window. The receiving
window sends the acknowledgment after receiving the data and then the sending
window sends another data frame.

• However, this time, along with the received acknowledgment, the receiving window also
sends another message saying that the available memory is full.

• The sending window pauses the transmission of data until it gets the acknowledgment of
the receiving window that space has been released and it can continue the transmission
process.
Error Control in Data Link Layer
• Error control is a process in data link layer for detecting or identifying and re-
transmitting data frames that might be lost or corrupted during transmission.

• The Data-link layer follows technique known as re-transmission of frames to detect or

identify transit errors and also to take necessary actions that are required to reduce or
remove such errors.

• Each and every time an error is detected during transmission, particular data frames
are retransmitted and this process is known as ARQ (Automatic Repeat Request).
Error Detection : Error detection means detection or identification of errors. These errors
may cause due to noise or any other impairments during transmission from transmitter to
the receiver, in communication system. It is class of technique for detecting garbled i.e.
unclear and distorted data or message.

Error Correction : Error correction, as name suggests, simply means correction or solving or
fixing of errors. It simply means reconstruction and rehabilitation of original data that is
error-free. But error correction method is very costly and is very hard.
Various Techniques for Error Control
Stop-and-Wait/ARQ
Stop-and-Wait ARQ is also known as alternating bit protocol. It is one of simplest flow
and error control techniques or mechanisms. This mechanism is generally required in
telecommunications to transmit data or information among two connected devices.

Characteristics
• Used in Connection-oriented communication.
• It offers error and flows control
• It is used in Data Link and Transport Layers
• Stop and Wait for ARQ mainly implements the Sliding Window Protocol concept
with Window Size 1
Simple Stop and Wait
Sender:
Rule 1) Send one data packet at a time.
Rule 2) Send the next packet only after receiving acknowledgement for the previous.

Receiver:
Rule 1) Send acknowledgement after receiving and consuming a data packet.
Rule 2) After consuming packet acknowledgement need to be sent (Flow Control)

Problems :

1. Lost Data
2. Lost Acknowledgement:
3. Delayed Acknowledgement/Data:
Stop and Wait for ARQ (Automatic Repeat Request)
These problems are resolved by Stop and Wait for ARQ (Automatic Repeat Request) that
does both error control and flow control.
Time Out Sequence Number (Data)
Delayed Acknowledgement can be resolved by introducing sequence numbers for acknowledgement also.
Working of Stop and Wait for ARQ:
1) Sender A sends a data frame or packet with sequence number 0.

2) Receiver B, after receiving the data frame, sends an acknowledgement with

sequence number 1 (the sequence number of the next expected data frame or packet)

3) There is only a one-bit sequence number that implies that both sender and receiver
have a buffer for one frame or packet only.
Characteristics of Stop and Wait ARQ:
• It uses a link between sender and receiver as a half-duplex link
• Throughput = 1 Data packet/frame per RTT (Round Trip Time)
• If the Bandwidth*Delay product is very high, then the stop and wait for protocol is
not so useful. The sender has to keep waiting for acknowledgements before
sending the processed next packet.
• It is an example of “Closed Loop OR connection-oriented “ protocols
• It is a special category of SWP where its window size is 1
• Irrespective of the number of packets sender is having stop and wait for protocol
requires only 2 sequence numbers 0 and 1
Sliding Window ARQ
This technique is generally used for continuous transmission error control.

It is further categorized into two categories as given below :

• Go-Back-N ARQ
• Selective Repeat ARQ
Go-Back-N ARQ

Go-Back-N ARQ is form of ARQ protocol in which transmission process continues

to send or transmit total number of frames that are specified by window size even
without receiving an ACK (Acknowledgement) packet from the receiver.
It uses sliding window flow control protocol. If no errors occur, then operation is
identical to sliding window.
In the picture given above, after sender has transmitted packet 0, it will immediately transmit packets 1, 2, 3.
Acknowledgement for 0 will arrive after 2*1.5 = 3ms. In Stop and Wait, in time 1 + 2*1.5 = 4ms, we were
transferring one packet only. Here we keep a window of packets that we have transmitted but not yet
acknowledged.
After we have received the Ack for packet 0, window slides and the next packet can be assigned sequence
number 0. We reuse the sequence numbers which we have acknowledged so that header size can be kept
minimum as shown in the diagram given above
 Go Back N (GBN) Protocol Cont..

Suppose the sender has sent the packets 0, 1, 2 and 3. After acknowledging the packets 0 and 1, receiver is now expecting
packet 2 and sender window has also slided to further transmit the packets 4 and 5. Now suppose the packet 2 is lost in
the network, Receiver will discard all the packets which sender has transmitted after packet 2 as it is expecting sequence
number of 2. On the sender side for every packet send there is a time out timer which will expire for packet number 2.
Now from the last transmitted packet 5 sender will go back to the packet number 2 in the current window and transmit all
the packets till packet number 5. That’s why it is called Go Back N.
Selective Repeat Protocol (SRP)
This protocol(SRP) is mostly identical to GBN protocol, except that buffers are used and
the receiver, and the sender, each maintains a window of same size.

• SRP works better when the link is very unreliable.

• SRP also requires full-duplex link.
• Sender’s Windows ( Ws) = Receiver’s Windows ( Wr).
• Window size should be less than or equal to half the sequence number in SR
protocol.
• Sender can transmit new packets as long as their number is with W of all unACKed
packets.
• Sender retransmit un-ACKed packets after a timeout – Or upon a NAK if NAK is
employed.
• Receiver ACKs all correct packets.
Congestion Control
Congestion Control is a mechanism that controls the entry of data packets into the
network, enabling a better use of a shared network infrastructure and avoiding
congestive collapse.
• Congestive-Avoidance Algorithms (CAA) are implemented at the TCP layer as the
mechanism to avoid congestive collapse in a network.

• Congestion-avoidance algorithms work by detecting congestion and adjusting the

data transmission rate to avoid it. This ensures the network is usable by everyone.

• Congestion control occurs at different parts of the network, from Active Queue
Management that reorders packets in the Network Interface Controller (NIC) to
variations of Random Early Detection in routers.
Some terminologies we must aware of..

• Maximum Segment Size (MSS): A property of the TCP layer, MSS is the maximum size of a
payload that can be sent in a single data packet. This size does not include the header size.

• Maximum Transmission Unit (MTU): The maximum size of a payload including the headers
that can be sent in a single packet. This is a property of the Data Link layer. The difference from
MSS is that if a packet exceeds MTU, it is broken into multiple chunks obeying the MSS of the
link. However, if a packet exceeds the MSS, it is dropped altogether.

• Cwnd (Congestion Window): The number of unacknowledged packets (MSS) at any given
moment that can be in transit. The congestion window increases, decreases, or stays the same
depending on how many of the initial packets were acknowledged and how long it took to do
so.
• Initcwnd (Initial Congestion Window): The initial value of cwnd. Usually, algorithms start with
a small multiple of MSS and increase sharply.
TCP Connection Lifecycle
When a connection is established, the sender does not immediately overwhelm
the network; instead, it starts slow and then adjusts according to the network
bandwidth.

In TCP, the congestion-avoidance mechanisms kick in when the network detects

loss because TCP perceives every loss as an event due to congestion.
There are two ways in which TCP assumes that packets are getting lost:

• When there is a timeout

• When the server receives three duplicate ACKs for a data packet
Additive Increase Multiplicative Decrease (AIMD)
In this approach, senders increase the cwnd by 1 MSS on every successful ACK
(additive increase). On the detection of loss, the cwnd is cut in half (multiplicative
decrease). This shows a saw-tooth behavior in cwnd.
Slow Start
Contrary to its name, this algorithm starts with initcwnd set to 1 and doubles
the cwnd after every successful ACK until it reaches the ssthresh (Slow Start
threshold), after which it increases the cwnd linearly by 1 MSS on every ACK.

When a loss is detected, the ssthresh is set to one-half of the cwnd at that
time, and cwnd is decreased.
IP Datagram General Format
• Data transmitted over an internet using IP is carried in messages called IP datagrams.
Like all network protocol messages, IP uses a specific format for its datagrams.

• The IPv4 datagram is conceptually divided into two pieces: the header and the
payload. The header contains addressing and control fields, while the payload carries
the actual data to be sent over the internetwork. Unlike some message formats, IP
datagrams do not have a footer following the payload.

• Even though IP is a relatively simple, connectionless, “unreliable” protocol, the IPv4

header carries a fair bit of information, which makes it rather large. At a minimum, it is
20 bytes long, and with options can be significantly longer.
Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPv4) Datagram Format
Field Name Size Description
(bytes)
Version 1/2 Version: Identifies the version of IP used to generate the datagram. For IPv4, this
(4 bits) is of course the number 4. The purpose of this field is to ensure compatibility
between devices that may be running different versions of IP.
IHL 1/2 Internet Header Length (IHL): Specifies the length of the IP header, in 32-bit
(4 bits) words. This includes the length of any options fields and padding.
TOS 1 Type Of Service (TOS): A field designed to carry information to provide quality of
service features, such as prioritized delivery, for IP datagrams. (DS).

TL 2 Total Length (TL): Specifies the total length of the IP datagram, in bytes. Since
this field is 16 bits wide, the maximum length of an IP datagram is 65,535 bytes,
though most are much smaller.
Identification 2 This field contains a 16-bit value that is common to each of the fragments
belonging to a particular message; for datagrams originally sent unfragmented it
is still filled in, so it can be used if the datagram must be fragmented by a router
during delivery. This field is used by the recipient to reassemble messages
without accidentally mixing fragments from different messages.
Field Name Size Description
(bytes)
Flags 3/8 Three Control Flags, two of which are used to control fragmentation, another is
(3 bits) reserved.
• Reserved (Not used)
• DF (Dont Fragment)
• MF (More fragment)
Fragment 1 5/8 Fragment Offset: When fragmentation of a message occurs, this field specifies
Offset (13 bits) the offset, or position, in the overall message where the data in this fragment
goes. It is specified in units of 8 bytes (64 bits). The first fragment has an offset of
0.
TTL 1 Time To Live (TTL): Specifies how long the datagram is allowed to “live” on the
network, in terms of router hops. Each router decrements the value of the TTL
field (reduces it by one) prior to transmitting it. If the TTL field drops to zero, the
datagram is assumed to have taken too long a route and is discarded.
Header 2 Header Checksum: A checksum computed over the header to provide basic
Checksum protection against corruption in transmission. It's just a 16-bit checksum. It is
calculated by dividing the header bytes into words (a word is two bytes) and then
adding them together. The data is not checksummed, only the header.
 Field Name Size (bytes) Description

Protocol 1 Protocol: Identifies the higher-layer protocol (generally either a transport layer
protocol or encapsulated network layer protocol) carried in the datagram.

Source 4 The 32-bit IP address of the originator of the datagram. intermediate devices
Address such as routers may handle the datagram, they do not normally put their
address into this field—it is always the device that originally sent the datagram.
Field Name Size Description
(bytes)
Destination 4 Destination Address: The 32-bit IP address of the intended recipient of the datagram.
Address Again, even though devices such as routers may be the intermediate targets of the
datagram, this field is always for the ultimate destination.
Options Variable Options: One or more of several types of options may be included after the standard
headers in certain IP datagrams.
Padding Variable Padding: If one or more options are included, and the number of bits used for them
is not a multiple of 32, enough zero bits are added to “pad out” the header to a
multiple of 32 bits (4 bytes).
Data Variable The data to be transmitted in the datagram, either an entire higher order message or
a fragmented one.
IPV4 VS IPV6
IPV4 IPV6

IPv4 has a 32-bit address length IPv6 has a 128-bit address length

It Supports Manual and DHCP address It supports Auto and renumbering address
configuration configuration

In IPv4 end to end, connection integrity is In IPv6 end to end, connection integrity is
Unachievable Achievable

It can generate 4.29×109 address space Address space of IPv6 is quite large it can
produce 3.4×1038 address space

The Security feature is dependent on IPSEC is an inbuilt security feature in the

application IPv6 protocol

Address representation of IPv4 is in Address Representation of IPv6 is in

decimal hexadecimal
 IPV4 IPV6

Fragmentation performed by Sender and In IPv6 fragmentation performed only by

forwarding routers the sender

In IPv4 Packet flow identification is not In IPv6 packet flow identification are
available Available and uses the flow label field in
the header

In IPv4 checksum field is available In IPv6 checksum field is not available

It has broadcast Message Transmission In IPv6 multicast and anycast message

Scheme transmission scheme is available

In IPv4 Encryption and Authentication In IPv6 Encryption and Authentication are

facility not provided provided

IPv4 has a header of 20-60 bytes. IPv6 has header of 40 bytes fixed

IPv4 consist of 4 fields which are IPv6 consist of 8 fields, which are
separated by dot (.) separated by colon (:)
 Classful IP Addressing
IP address is an address having information about how to reach a specific host, especially
outside the LAN. An IP address is a 32 bit unique address having an address space of 232.

Generally, there are two notations in which IP address is written, dotted decimal notation
and hexadecimal notation.

• Dotted Decimal Notation

• Hexadecimal Notation

Dotted Decimal Notation Hexadecimal Notation

 Classful Addressing
The 32 bit IP address is divided into five sub-classes. These are:

• Class A
• Class B
• Class C
• Class D
• Class E

• Each of these classes has a valid range of IP addresses.

• Classes D and E are reserved for multicast and experimental purposes respectively.
• The order of bits in the first octet determine the classes of IP address.
IPv4 address is divided into two parts:
• Network ID
• Host ID

The class of IP address is used to determine the bits used for network ID and host ID and the
number of total networks and hosts possible in that particular class.
Class A:
IP address belonging to class A are assigned to the networks that contain a large
number of hosts.
• The network ID is 8 bits long.
• The host ID is 24 bits long.

Class B:
IP address belonging to class B are assigned to the networks that ranges from
medium-sized to large-sized networks.

• The network ID is 16 bits long.

• The host ID is 16 bits long.
Class C:
IP address belonging to class C are assigned to small-sized networks.

• The network ID is 24 bits long.

• The host ID is 8 bits long.

Class D:
IP address belonging to class D are reserved for multi-casting. The higher order bits of
the first octet of IP addresses belonging to class D are always set to 1110. The
remaining bits are for the address that interested hosts recognize.

Class D does not posses any sub-net mask. IP addresses belonging to class D ranges
from 224.0.0.0 – 239.255.255.255.
Class E:
• IP addresses belonging to class E are reserved for experimental and research purposes.
• IP addresses of class E ranges from 240.0.0.0 – 255.255.255.254.
• This class doesn’t have any sub-net mask. The higher order bits of first octet of class E are
always set to 1111.
Range of special IP addresses:

169.254.0.0 – 169.254.0.16 : Link local addresses

127.0.0.0 – 127.0.0.8 : Loop-back addresses
0.0.0.0 – 0.0.0.8 : used to communicate within the current network.

Rules for assigning Host ID:

• Within any network, the host ID must be unique to that network.

• Host ID in which all bits are set to 0 cannot be assigned because this host ID is used to represent the
network ID of the IP address.
• Host ID in which all bits are set to 1 cannot be assigned because this host ID is reserved as a broadcast
address to send packets to all the hosts present on that particular network.

Rules for assigning Network ID:

• The network ID cannot start with 127 because 127 belongs to class A address and is reserved for internal
loop-back functions.
• All bits of network ID set to 1 are reserved for use as an IP broadcast address and therefore, cannot be
used.
• All bits of network ID set to 0 are used to denote a specific host on the local network and are not routed
and therefore, aren’t used.
Summary of Classful addressing
Classless Addressing
Classless addressing is an IPv4 addressing architecture that uses variable-length subnet
masking.
The solution would come in 1993, as Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR)
introducing the concept of classless addressing. You see, with classful addressing, the
size of networks is fixed. Each address range has a default subnet mask. Classless
addressing, however, decouples IP address ranges from a default subnet mask,
allowing for variable-length subnet masking (VLSM).

Using classless addressing and VLSM, addresses can be allocated much more efficiently.
This is because network admins get to pick network masks, and in turn, blocks of IP
addresses that are the right size for any purpose.
 Lets understand it clearly

• No concept of class Block ID Host ID

• Only cocept of blocks.
• There is no default subnetting mask.

32 BITS

NOTATION

N is the mask/ number of bits represent the block/network

X.Y.Z.W/N

200.10.20.40/28
(for example)
 Our example

200.10.20.40/28
• The the no. hosts will be 32-28 = 4 ie. 24=16
• Now the subnet mask will be 11111111.11111111.11111111.11110000 (255.255.255.240)
• We can easyly find our network id by AND ing with the subnet mask
• 200.10.20.40 AND 255.255.255.240 = 200.10.20.32 (Network ID)(First id in the Network)
• 200.10.20.48 is the last IP in the network.
 Rules for class less addressing
• IP addresses has to be contiguous
• No. of adresses in a block must be in power of 2
• The first IP address has to be perfectly divisible by block size.

Advantages
More IP address allocations. It will resolve the problem of IP wastage as classless addressing was used as a
medium-term solution to help us stretch the life of IPv4.
More balanced use of IP address ranges. Classless addressing decoupled the relationship between network
size and IP address and allowed for balanced use across what used to be the Class A, B, and C ranges. Far less
wasted addresses.
More efficient routing. VLSM and subnetting make route aggregation and classless routing protocols
possible. With route aggregation (sometimes called route summarization or supernetting), routing tables can
be smaller, reducing resource consumption on routers, and saving bandwidth.
What Is NAT?
NAT stands for network address translation. It’s a way to map multiple local private
addresses to a public one before transferring the information. Organizations that want
multiple devices to employ a single IP address use NAT, as do most home routers.
How Does NAT Work?
Let’s say that there is a laptop connected to a home router. Someone uses the laptop to search for
directions to their favorite restaurant. The laptop sends this request in a packet to the router, which
passes it along to the web. But first, the router changes the outgoing IP address from a private local
address to a public address.

If the packet keeps a private address, the receiving server won’t know where to send the information back
to — this is akin to sending physical mail and requesting return service but providing a return address of
anonymous. By using NAT, the information will make it back to the laptop using the router’s public address,
not the laptop’s private one.
NAT Types
There are three different types of NATs. People use them for different reasons, but they all still work
as a NAT.

1. Static NAT
When the local address is converted to a public one, this NAT chooses the same one. This means
there will be a consistent public IP address associated with that router or NAT device.

2. Dynamic NAT
Instead of choosing the same IP address every time, this NAT goes through a pool of public IP
addresses. This results in the router or NAT device getting a different address each time the router
translates the local address to a public address.

3. PAT
PAT stands for port address translation. It’s a type of dynamic NAT, but it bands several local IP
addresses to a singular public one. Organizations that want all their employees’ activity to use a
singular IP address use a PAT, often under the supervision of a network administrator.
Advantages:
• The internet has exploded, and while not all 7 billion people on the planet
access the internet regularly, those that do often have multiple connected
devices: phones, personal desktop, work laptop, tablet, TV, even refrigerators.

• Therefore, the number of devices accessing the internet far surpasses the
number of IP addresses available. Routing all of these devices via one
connection using NAT helps to consolidate multiple private IP addresses into
one public IP address. This helps to keep more public IP addresses available
even while private IP addresses proliferate.
IP Masquerading
IP masquerading is a process where one computer acts as an IP gateway for a
network. All computers on the network send their IP packets through the gateway,
which replaces the source IP address with its own address and then forwards it to
the internet. The source IP port number is also replaced with another port number.
All hosts on the internet see the packet as originating from the gateway.

Any host on the Internet which wishes to send a packet back, ie in reply, must
necessarily address that packet to the gateway. The gateway is the only host seen
on the internet. The gateway rewrites the destination address, replacing its own
address with the IP address of the machine which is being masqueraded, and
forwards that packet on to the local network for delivery.
IP Masq is available on Linux and a few ISDN routers such or as the Zytel Prestige128,
Cisco 770, NetGear ISDN routers, etc.

Pro: + Only (1) IP address needed (cheap)

+ Doesn't require special application support
+ Uses firewall software so your network can become
more secure

Con: - Requires a Linux box or special ISDN router

(though other products might have this.. )
- Incoming traffic cannot access your internal LAN
unless the internal LAN initiates the traffic or
specific port forwarding software is installed.
Many NAT servers CANNOT provide this functionality.
- Special protocols need to be uniquely handled by
firewall redirectors, etc. Linux has full support
for this (FTP, IRC, etc.) capabilty but many routers
do NOT (NetGear DOES).
iptables
In linux operating system, the firewalling is taken care of using netfilter. Which is a
kernel module that decides what packets are allowed to come in or to go outside.

iptables are just the interface to netfilter. The two might often be thought of as the
same thing. A better perspective would be to think of it as a back end and a front end.

To cover the fundamentals, firewalling is the idea of deciding which packets are
allowed to go in/out of the system.

To decide which port is allowed to communicate to the outside world (or even on
the localhost) is the firewall’s responsibility. You would command it to either accept,
reject or drop a packet.
Why use iptables?
• It’s a full feature tool providing you with everything you need
• You get more flexibility regarding the things you want to with a packet
• It is more powerful feature than firewalld and ufw whiche are used commonly for
filtering the packets in Linux Box.
• firewalld and ufw only allow you to accept or reject a packet.
• But there are lot more you can do with a packet. NAT, logging and forwarding are
just a few to name.
iptables architecture
iptables consists of different components which are discussed below:
chains: There are 5 chains in iptables and each is responsible for a specific task.

• Prerouting: this chain decides what happens to a packet as soon as it arrives at

the network interface. We have different options such as altering the packet,
dropping a packet, or doing nothing at all.
• Input: This is one of the popular chains, If you want to open/block a port, this is
where you’d do it.
• Forward: This chain is responsible for packet forwarding. Which is what the name
suggests.
• Output: This chain is the one responsible for all your web browsing among many
others. You can’t send a single packet without this chain allowing it. You have a lot
of options whether you want to allow a port to communicate or not.
• Postrouting: This chain is where packets leave their trace last, before leaving our
computer. This is used for routing among many other tasks just to make sure the
packets are treated the way we want them to.
tables: Again, different tables are responsible for different tasks.
• Filter: This is the table most used on a daily basis. Which is why it’s the default table. In this table
you would decide whether a packet is allowed in/out your computer. If you want to block a port to
stop receiving anything, this is your stop.

• NAT: This table is the second most popular table and is responsible for creating new connection.

• Mangle: For specialized packets only. This table is for changing something inside the packet either
before coming in or leaving out.

• Raw: This table is dealing with the raw packet as the name suggests. Mainly this is for tracking the
connection state.

• Security: It is responsible for securing your computer after the filter table.
Routing
Routing is the process of choosing a path for transferring data from a source to a
destination. Routing is performed using devices called routers. In order to send the
packet by determining the best route from one network to another, routing is carried out
at the network layer. The network layer primarily makes sure that each packet arrives at
its intended destination from the point of origin.
Interdomain Routing
Interdomain Routing is the protocol in which the routing algorithm works both within and
between domains. Domains must be connected in some way, for hosts inside one domain
to exchange data with hosts in other domains. This connection within domains is governed
by the interdomain routing protocols. This is often done using the Border Gateway
Protocol (BGP). It is used in Path Vector Routing using which interdomain routing is
performed.

Intradomain Routing
Intradomain Routing is the routing protocol that operates only within a domain. In other
words, intradomain routing protocols are used to route packets within a specific domain,
such as within an institutional network for e-mail or web browsing. Unlike interdomain
routing protocols, it doesn't communicate with other domains.
There are two types of protocols used for intradomain routing:

Distance Vector Routing (uses Routing Information Protocol or RIP) In distance vector routing,
each node in a domain stores information about its neighboring nodes. The information is stored
in a table known as a routing table, which is maintained by each node in the domain. RIP is one
of the earliest distance-vector routing protocols, and it uses hop count as a routing statistic. By
placing a cap on the maximum number of hops that may be taken between a source and a
destination, RIP avoids routing loops.

Link State Routing (uses Open Shortest Path First or OSPF) In link state routing, each node in a
domain stores information about all the other nodes in the domain, in other words, the routing
table of each node stores information about the entire topology of the domain. Since each node
has all the information about the domain at its disposal, Dijkstra's algorithm is used to calculate
the best routing path. This is possible due to OSPF, and this is also its advantage.
 Basis Interdomain Routing Intradomain Routing
Definition The interdomain routing algorithms The intradomain routing algorithms are used
are used for routing within as well as for routing within domains.
with other domains.
Router It requires information about the It requires information only about the routers
information routers in the current domain as well in the current domain.
as other domains.
Protocols For interdomain routing, the protocols For intradomain routing, the protocols used are
used are known as exterior-gateway known as interior-gateway protocols as they
protocols as they route traffic outside route traffic within a domain.
as well as inside a domain.
Types Interdomain routing is done using Intradomain Routing is of two types: Distance
Path Vector Routing which uses the Vector Routing (uses Routing Information
Border Gateway Protocol (BGP). Protocol (RIP) and Link State Routing (uses
Open Shortest Path First (OSPF).
Internet The internet is assumed to be a The internet outside the autonomous system is
collection of interconnected ignored by intradomain routing protocols.
autonomous systems by the
interdomain routing protocol.
Unicast Routing
Unicast means the transmission from a single sender to a single receiver. It is a
point-to-point communication between sender and receiver. There are various
unicast protocols such as TCP, HTTP, etc.

• TCP is the most commonly used unicast protocol. It is a connection-

oriented protocol that relies on acknowledgement from the receiver side.

• HTTP stands for HyperText Transfer Protocol. It is an object-oriented

protocol for communication.
There are three major protocols for unicast routing:

• Distance Vector Routing

• Link State Routing
• Path-Vector Routing

Distance Vector Algorithm

• A router transmits its distance vector to each of its neighbors in a routing

packet.
• Each router receives and saves the most recently received distance vector
from each of its neighbors.
• A router recalculates its distance vector when:
• It receives a distance vector from a neighbor containing different
information than before.
• It discovers that a link to a neighbor has gone down.
Link State Routing

• Link state routing is the second family of routing protocols.

• While distance-vector routers use a distributed algorithm to compute their routing
tables, link-state routing uses link-state routers to exchange messages that allow
each router to learn the entire network topology.
• Based on this learned topology, each router is then able to compute its routing
table by using the shortest path computation.

Path Vector Routing

• Path vector (PV) protocols, such as BGP, are used across domains aka autonomous
systems.
• In a path vector protocol, a router does not just receive the distance vector for a
particular destination from its neighbor; instead, a node receives the distance as
well as path information (aka BGP path attributes)
• The node can use to calculate (via the BGP path selection process) how traffic is
routed to the destination
 Multicast Routing
Multicast routing is a networking method for efficient distribution of one-to-many traffic. A
multicast source, such as a live video conference, sends traffic in one stream to a multicast
group. The multicast group contains receivers such as computers, devices, and IP phones.

Common uses include these technologies:

• Voice over IP (VOIP)

• Video on demand (VOD)
• Video conferencing
• IP television (IPTV)

When you enable multicast routing on your Firebox, the Firebox acts as a local multicast
router. It forwards multicast traffic from the source to receivers on your network.
There are two types of multicast routing protocols:

• Dense Mode
• Sparse Mode

Dense Mode
Dense mode multicast routing protocols are used for networks where most subnets in your network should
receive the multicast traffic. When a router receives the multicast traffic, it will flood it on all of its interfaces
except the interface where it received the multicast traffic on.
Sparse mode
As we can see that dense mode is very inefficient with its flooding of multicast
traffic. When you only have a few receivers on your network then yes, you will be
wasting a lot of bandwidth and resources on your routers.
The alternative is sparse mode which is far more efficient. Sparse mode multicast
routing protocols only forward the multicast traffic when another router requests it.
It’s the complete opposite of dense mode:
Broadcast Routing
In broadcast routing, the network layer provides a service of delivering a packet
sent from a source node to all other nodes in the network.

Broadcast Routing Algorithms

Perhaps the most straightforward way to accomplish broadcast communication is
for the sending node to send a separate copy of the packet to each destination. Given
N destination nodes, the source node simply makes N copies of the packet, addresses
each copy to a different destination, and then transmits the N copies to the N
destinations using unicast routing. This N-way unicast approach to broadcasting is
simple—no new network-layer routing protocol, packet-duplication, or forwarding
functionality is needed.
Drawbacks to this Approach
• The first drawback is its inefficiency
• If the source node is connected to the rest of the network via a single link,
then N separate copies of the (same) packet will traverse this single link.
• It would clearly be more efficient to send only a single copy of a packet over
this first hop and then have the node at the other end of the first hop make
and forward any additional needed copies.
• For example, in the figure above only a single copy of a packet traverses the
R1-R2 link. That packet is then duplicated at R2, with a single copy being sent
over links R2-R3 and R2-R4.
• Additional protocol mechanisms (such as a broadcast membership or
destination-registration protocol) is required to know all the destination
addresses which would add more overhead and, importantly, additional
complexity to a protocol that had initially seemed quite simple.
 Approaches to achive broadcast routing efficiently

• Uncontrolled Flooding
• The most obvious technique for achieving broadcast is a flooding approach in which the
source node sends a copy of the packet to all of its neighbors. When a node receives a
broadcast packet, it duplicates the packet and forwards it to all of its neighbors (except
the neighbor from which it received the packet).

Drawback : Broadcast Storm

• Controlled Flooding
• Sequence-number-controlled flooding
• Reverse path forwarding
• Spanning-Tree Broadcast
Sequence-number-controlled flooding
In sequence-number-controlled flooding, a source node puts its address (or other unique
identifier) as well as a broadcast sequence number into a broadcast packet, then sends the
packet to all of its neighbors. Each node maintains a list of the source address and sequence
number of each broadcast packet it has already received, duplicated, and forwarded. When a
node receives a broadcast packet, it first checks whether the packet is in this list. If so, the
packet is dropped; if not, packet is duplicated and forwarded to all the node’s neighbors
(except the node from which the packet has just been received).
Reverse path forwarding (RPF)
A second approach to controlled flooding is known as reverse path forwarding (RPF) , also sometimes
referred to as reverse path broadcast (RPB). The idea behind RPF is simple, yet elegant. When a router
receives a broadcast packet with a given source address, it transmits the packet on all of its outgoing
links (except the one on which it was received) only if the packet arrived on the link that is on its own
shortest unicast path back to the source. Otherwise, the router simply discards the incoming packet
without forwarding it on any of its outgoing links. Such a packet can be dropped because the router
knows it either will receive or has already received a copy of this packet on the link that is on its own
shortest path back to the sender.
Spanning-Tree Broadcast
Another approach to providing broadcast is for the network nodes to first construct a spanning tree.
When a source node wants to send a broadcast packet, it sends the packet out on all of the
incident links that belong to the spanning tree. A node receiving a broadcast packet then forwards
the packet to all its neighbors in the spanning tree (except the neighbor from which it received the
packet). Not only does spanning tree eliminate redundant broadcast packets, but once in place, the
spanning tree can be used by any node to begin a broadcast.
2022
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