UNIT III (MODULE)

TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
Traffic engineering

the science of measuring traffic and travel

the study of basic laws relating to traffic flow and generation and application of this
knowledge to the practice of planning, designing, and operating traffic systems to
achieve safe and efficient movement of people and goods on streets and highways

Basic Characteristics of Traffics

Flow or Volume
Speed
Density
Relationship among Traffic Parameters

Flow Rate (q)

The number of vehicles (n) passing some designated roadway point in a given time
interval (t)

n
q =
t

units are typically vehicles/hour

flow rate is different than volume

Spacing
The distance (ft) between successive vehicles in a traffic stream, as measured from front
bumper to front bumper

Headway (h)
The time (in seconds) between successive vehicles, as their front bumpers pass a given
point.
 Sum of all headways is equal to time period

average headway (h bar)

Density (k)
The number of vehicles (n) occupying a given length (l) of a lane or roadway at a particular
instant

Unit of density is vehicles per mile (vpkm or vpm)

u is speed

Level of Service (LOS)

 a letter code; a (excellent quality) to f (poor or unsatisfactory) operation

Common Quantitative Measures

1. Volume or Flow Rates

demand volume, discharge volume

2. Speed or Delays

spot speeds
space mean speed
average journey speed
stopped delay

3. Trip Times

average travel time

4. Volume to Capacity Ratio

Traffic Stream Parameters

1. Speed

distance traveled in unit time

Time Mean Speed (Spot Speed)
average speed at one point/location over a period of time
arithmetic mean of the speeds observed at a point
Space Mean Speed
average speed of vehicles over a certain road length at any time
harmonic mean of speeds observed at a point

Space Mean Speed < Time Mean Speed

2. Traffic Volume/Flow

3. Density

described by a single value of each, which applies to the traffic stream as a whole

4. Headway

microscopic measure applicable to individual pairs of vehicles within a traffic stream

Traffic Studies
Traffic Studies or surveys are carried out to analyze the traffic characteristics.

Various Traffic Studies:

Traffic Volume Studies

Traffic Volume is the number of vehicles crossing a section of road per unit time.

Measured as no. of vehicles per day or per hour

Objects and Uses of Volume Study:

To determine relative importance of roads

Planning, traffic operation, control existing facilities
Analyze traffic patterns and trends
Planning one-way streets
Turning movements in intersection design
Pedestrian volume to plan sidewalks, crosswalks, subway

Counting of Traffic Volume:

Manual
One or more persons recording vehicles using a counter
Usually for intersection turning movements
Also for vehicle classification
Disadvantages:
Labor intensive
could be expensive
Subject to limitations of human factors
Cannot be used for long periods of time
Mechanical Counters
permanent or portable
photo-electric
magnetic detector
radar detector

Presentation of Traffic Volume Data

AADT or ADT: Annual Average Daily Traffic

Trend charts over a period of years – future developments
Various charts showing hourly, daily, and seasonal variations
 Flow diagrams at intersections (turn movements)

Speed Studies

Speed of Vehicles depends on:

Geometric Features
Traffic Conditions
Time, Place, Environment
Driver

Travel Time

the reciprocal of speed and is a simple measure of how well a road network is operating

Spot Speed

the instantaneous speed at a location

Average Speed

average of spot speeds of all vehicles passing a given point

Defined in two ways:
Space-Mean Speed
the average speed of vehicles in a certain road length at any time
this is observed travel time of over a long stretch of the road
Time-Mean Speed
speed distribution of vehicles at a point on the roadway and it is average of
instantaneous speeds observed at a spot
Running Speed
the average speed maintained by a vehicle over a particular stretch of road, while
vehicle is in motion
Overall Speed or Travel Speed
the effective speed with which a vehicle traverses a particular route between two
terminals
basically dividing the distance covered by time including delays and stops

Two Types of Speed Studies:

Spot Speed Study

Conducted when traffic is flowing freely

Not conducted when volumes are in excess of 750 -1000 v/h/lane
 Uses:
Study the effectiveness of speed limits or enforcements
Suggest speed limits
In geometric design, redesign of existing highways (design speed)
Accident studies
Traffic capacit

Speed and Delay Study

Gives the running speeds, overall speeds, fluctuations in speeds, and delay
between two terminals
Delays could be fixed (signals, level crossings) or operational (interference of traffic
movement, parking, pedestrians etc)
Methods of carrying out speed and delay studies:
Floating-car approach
License-plate approach
Interview method
Elevated observation method
GPS based approach

Travel Time (Travel Delay) Studies

Determines the amount of time required to travel from one point to another on a given
route.
Often, information may also be collected on the locations, durations, and causes of
delays

indicate the level of service

identify problem locations

Applications of travel time and delay data:

efficiency check
collection of rating data
model calibration
collect data for economic analysis (user costs)
evaluation of performance before and after improvement
problem location identification

Field Study Techniques

Floating-Car Technique
 The test car “floats” with the traffic.
Attempts to pass as many vehicles as those that pass the test vehicle.
(More or less average travel time. Meant for 2-lane 2-way highways. Difficult on
multilane highways)
Average-Speed Technique
Drive the test car at a speed that, in the opinion of the driver, is the average speed
of the traffic stream.
(Get average travel time and less stressful)
Maximum-Speed Technique
Drive as fast as is safely practical in the traffic stream without ever exceeding the
design speed of the facility.
(About 85th percentile speed, meaning 15th percentile travel time)

Methods not requiring a test vehicle:

License-Plate Observation
Each observer located at strategic points record last 3 or 4 digits of license plates.
Need to synchronize the observer’s watch.
Interviews
Ask the drivers.

Origin and Destination Studies

Carried out mainly to:

Plan the road network and other facilities

Plan schedule of different modes of transportation for trip demand of commuters
Applications of O-D studies:
To judge adequacy of existing facilities
To plan public transportation systems, mass transit
To locate expressways (PVNR Expressway)
To locate terminal facilities
To locate bridges
To locate intermediate stops

Methods:

Road-side interview method

License plate method
Return post card method
Tag-on-car method
 Home interview method

Traffic Flow Characteristics Studies

Basic Maneuvers are:

Diverging, merging, crossing

Lane changing
Time headway
Space headway
Used for traffic regulatory measures

Traffic Capacity Studies

Traffic Capacity
ability of a roadway to accommodate traffic volume
Basic Capacity
maximum number of passenger car that pass a given point on a lane under ideal
conditions
Possible Capacity
maximum number of cars that can pass a given point under prevailing roadway
and traffic conditions
Practical Capacity
maximum number of vehicles that can pass without unreasonable delays

Capacity of a single lane / hour:

 1000V
C =
S

where:
V= speed kmph
S = average center to center spacing of vehicles (meters)

Parking Studies

Major problem of highway transportation system

Various aspects to be investigated:
Parking Demand
cordon count (accumulation during peak hours, outgoing - incoming)
counting vehicles at different times of the day
Parking Characteristics
study present parking practices
Parking Space Inventory

Accidents Studies

Problem of accidents is acute in highway transportation system

Objectives:

To study causes of accidents and suggest corrective measures

To study existing design
To support proposed design
To carry out before and after studies
To compute financial loss
To give economic justification

Causes of Accidents:

Road users
Vehicles
Road and its conditions
Environmental factors - traffic, weather etc.

Collection of Data:
 General:
date
time
people
accident type
injury, fatal, etc.
Location
Details of vehicles
Nature of accident
Road condition
Primary causes
Accident costs

Accident Report:

Location Files
Spot Maps
Condition Diagram
Drawn to scale to show physical conditions
Important features: roadway limits, curves, kerbs, bridges, culverts, trees, property
lines, signs, signals etc.
Collision Diagram
Approximate path of vehicles, pedestrians involved

Measures for Prevention of Accidents

Engineering:
Road design
Preventive maintenance of vehicles
Road lighting
Enforcement:
Speed control
Traffic control devices
Training and supervision
Education:
Education of road users
Safety Drives

Collision Diagram
 Before and After Accident Analysis

TRAFFIC REGULATION AND MANAGEMENT

Traffic Operations
Traffic Regulations cover all aspects of control of vehicles, driver and all other road users

Traffic Control Devices:

Traffic Signs
Traffic Signals
Road Markings
Islands

Traffic Signs and Specifications

Installation 0.6 m for kerbed roads, 2-3m from the edge of non -kerbed roads. Sign post
painted alternatively 25 cm black and white

Different Types of Traffic Signs:

Regulatory Signs
Warning Signs
Informatory Signs
Signs are Communication Tools:

Color
Shape
Legend and Pattern

Regulatory Signs
Also called mandatory signs, meant to inform laws, regulations and prohibitions.
Drivers must obey otherwise legal action can be taken.
Generally black legend on white with red border.

Right of way series

Speed series
Movement series
Parking series
Pedestrian series

Warning Signs
Warning or cautionary signs are used to warn drivers of certain hazardous conditions.
Shape equilateral triangle with black symbols on white background and red border

Information Signs
 Used to guide drivers along the routes, inform them of destination and distance and
make travel easier, safe and pleasant.

Road Markings
Purpose of road markings is to guide and control traffic on a highway.
Serve as a psychological barrier and signify the delineation of traffic path

Different Types of Road Markings:

Longitudinal Markings
Transverse Markings
Object Markings
Word Messages

Longitudinal Markings
Center line
Traffic Lane lines
No passing zones
Warning lines
Edge lines
Transverse Markings
Stop line
Pedestrian crossings
Directional arrows

Object Markings
Objects within carriage way
Objects adjacent to carriage way
Others:

Word Messages
Parking

Traffic Signal
Any power operated traffic control device except a sign by which traffic is regulated,
warned, and directed specific action.

Type of Traffic Signals:

Traffic Control Signal

Fixed-time signal
Manually operated signal
Traffic actuated (automatic) signal
Pedestrian Signal
Special Traffic Signal

Advantages:
Provide orderly movement and increase the traffic handling of intersections
Reduce accidents
Pedestrians can cross safely
Allow safe movement of heavy traffic
Coordinated signal improve speed along major road
Allow minor road traffic to cross major road
Improves quality of traffic flow

Disadvantages
May increase rear -end collisions
Improper design leads to violation of control system
Failure of signal will lead to confusion and chaos

Type of Traffic Signal System

Simultaneous system (all of them show same indication)
Alternate system (alternate signal show opposite indication)
Simple progressive system (time schedule is made to permit continuous operation on
main road)
 Flexible progressive system ( computer will vary length of cycle, cycle division, and time
schedule)

Design of Isolated Fixed Traffic Signal

Trial cycle method
Approximate method
Webster’s method
IRC method