Chapter 06

Complex Variable
Complex Analysis
Complex analysis (traditionally known as the theory of functions of a complex variable) is the study of
complex numbers together with their derivatives, manipulation, and other properties and investigates
function of complex numbers. Complex analysis is an extremely powerful tool with an unexpectedly large
number of practical applications to the solution of physical problems. Contour integration, for example,
provides a method of computing difficult integrals by investigating the singularities of the function in
regions of the complex plane near and between the limits of integration.
Why complex number system is introduced?
Mathematics has its own language in which Alphabets are numbers, so number system is so important in
mathematics. The prince of mathematics Gauss said that every polynomial has at least one root and that
Polynomial has maximum roots exactly equal to its order or degree. Above statement is called the
fundamental theorem of Algebra. When we consider the polynomial equation like as x 2 + 1 = 0 that implies
x 2 = −1but which is not possible in the real field because square of any real number is non-negative so real
field fails to give the solution of this polynomial equation. But fundamental theorem of Algebra tells it has
maximum two roots. To permit the solution of the equation x 2 + 1 = 0 and similar types, the set of complex
numbers is introduced. Therefore complex number system includes real number system as a subset, so
complex number system is the extended form of real number system that solved the above considered
problem. By considering i 2 = −1 the problem x 2 + 1 = 0 provides two complex roots that covered the
fundamental theorem of Algebra stated by great mathematician Gauss .It is notable that the mathematician
Euler first use the symbol i for imaginary unit and its geometrical meaning in the complex plane is the point
(0 ,1) . Solution of the above arises problem is as follows:
x2 +1 = 0  x 2 = −1

 x 2 = i 2 [ i 2 = −1]

 x =  i2  x = i

Finally we conclude that the roots of the aroused problem are x = i and x = −i .

Complex variable:
Complex variable z is the special type of linear combination of two real variables x and y with the special
sign i that is z = x + i y where x  R, y  R and i = − 1 .
In complex variable z, x is the real part of z denoted by the symbol Re (z) =x and y is the imaginary part of
z denoted by the symbol Im (z) =y and also i is called imaginary unit. Geometrically complex variable
represents general point in the complex plane/Argand Plane/Argand diagram/Gaussian Plane. Also
Geometrically, Re(z) is the projection of z = (x, y) onto the x axis, and Im(z) is the projection of z onto the
y axis. It makes sense, then, that the x axis is also called the real axis, and the y axis is called the imaginary
axis.

Various form of Complex variable:

Cartesian form/Rectangular form:
The form of the complex variable z = x + i y where x  R, y  R and i = − 1 is called Cartesian form.

Polar Form:
We have Cartesian form as like as z = x + i y
From the relation of Cartesian and polar system we have x = r cos  and x = r cos  .
Now,
z = x+i y
z = r cos + i r sin 
z = r ( cos + i sin  ) , this is the polar
form of z.

Exponential Form:
We have Cartesian form as like as z = x + i y
From the relation of Cartesian and polar system we have x = r cos  and x = r cos  .
Now,
z = x+i y
z = r cos + i r sin 
z = r ( cos + i sin  )
We have Euler formula
ei = cos  + i sin 
Here z = r ( cos + i sin  )
z = rei , this is the exponential form of z.
Complex Number:
The complex variable z = x + i y is said to be complex number if x and y take finite real values.
For example: If we assign x = 1 and y = 2 then we get z = 1+ 2i which is a complex number that represents
a unique point (1,2) in the complex plane. Y

z = x + i y = ( x, y)

X’
O

Y’

Case 01: Consider x axis as real axis and y-axis as imaginary axis.
Case 02: The ordered pair form of complex number is ( x , y ) .
Case 03: The value of x = 0 implies i y = (0 , y) that is a purely imaginary number.
Case 04: The value of y = 0 implies z = x = (x,0) that is a purely real number.
Case 05: Every real number can be expressed as complex number.
Case06: Geometrically complex number represents a fixed point in the complex plane/Argand
Plane/Argand diagram/Gaussian Plane. The number z = x + i y = ( x, y) by a position vector
in the xy plane whose tail is at the origin and whose head is at the point ( x, y) .
Case 07: Conjugate of a complex number z = x + i y is obtained by changing the sign of y and is
denoted by the symbol z i.e. z = x − iy .Geometrically conjugate of a complex number
represents the reflection or image of the complex number z about the real axis x.
Y
P( x , y)

X’ O
X

P’( x, -y)

Y’
Effect of the symbol i:

Multiplying a complex number by 𝑖 induces a 90° rotation about the origin. Each time we multiply by 𝑖
results in another counterclockwise rotation of 90° about the origin; for example, multiplying by 𝑖 twice
results in a 180° rotation about the origin, and multiplying by 𝑖 four times results in a full rotation about the
origin.

Modulus/Amplitude/Absolute value:
The modulus of a complex of the complex number z = x + i y is a
nonnegative real number denoted by z = r  0 and is defined by the

equation z = x2 + y 2 .

The number |z| is the distance between the origin and the point (x, y)in
Argand Plane or Gaussian plane. The only complex number with modulus
zero is the number 0. The numbers | Re(z) | , | lm(z) |, and | z | are the lengths
of the sides of the right triangle OPQ, which is shown in the following
figure

Argument:
The Argument/Amplitude of the complex number z = x + i y is the angle  such that x = r cos  , y = r sin 
y
or tan  = . A given complex number z = x + i y has infinitely many possible arguments. But in the range
x
−     every complex number has unique argument called principal argument of that number and is
denoted by Argz. Generally argument is denoted by arg(z )or amp(z).

Formulae for determining argument quadrant-wise:

𝑥 − 𝑖𝑦 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦
𝑦
𝜃1 = tan−1 ( )
𝑥
𝜃2 𝑦
𝜃2 = 𝜋 − tan−1 ( )
𝜃1 𝑥
𝑋 𝑦
𝜃3 𝜃3 = 𝜋 + tan−1 ( )
𝑥
𝑦
𝜃4 𝜃4 = 2𝜋 − tan−1 ( )
𝑥

−𝑥 − 𝑖𝑦 𝑥 − 𝑖𝑦
Worked Out Problems
i
−
󠇫󠇫󠇫󠇫 Convert the complex number z = 4e 6
in its Rectangular Form.

Solution:
Given complex number is,
i
−
z = 4e 6

     
= 4 cos  −  + i sin  −   [Using Euler’s Formula]
  6  6 

     
= 4 cos   − i sin   
 6  6 

 3 1
= 4 − i. 
 2 2

= 2 3 − 2i = x + iy where x = 2 3 and y = −2 . (As desired)

󠇗󠇗󠇗󠇗 Express 1 + i 3 in the form of r (cos + i sin  ) .

Solution:
Given that,

1 + i 3 = r (cos  + i sin  )

Comparing the like terms from both-sides we can write

r cos  = 1 & r sin  = 3

( 3)
2
Now, r 2 cos2  + r 2 sin 2  = 12 +

r 2 ( cos2  + sin 2  ) = 1 + 3 = 4

r2 = 4  r = 2

And

r sin  3 sin   
=  = 3  tan  = 3 = tan   =
r cos  1 cos  3 6

  
Therefore 1 + i 3 = 2  cos + i sin  (As desired)
 6 6

Ex-1. Express each of the following complex numbers in polar form.

(a) 𝟐 + 𝟐√𝟑 𝒊 (b) −𝟓 + 𝟓𝒊 (c) −√𝟔 − √𝟐𝒊 (d) −𝟑𝒊

Solution: (a): Modulus or absolute value, 𝑟 = |2 + 2√3 𝑖| = √4 + 12 = 4

Amplitude or Argument, 𝜃 = tan−1( 2√3/√3) = 𝜋/3

𝜋𝑖
𝜋 𝜋
Then, 2 + 2√3 𝑖 = 𝑟 (cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃) = 4 (cos 3 + 𝑖 sin 3 ) = 4𝑒 3

(b): Modulus or absolute value, 𝑟 = |−5 + 5𝑖| = √25 + 25 = 5√2

5 𝜋 3𝜋
Amplitude or Argument, 𝜃 = tan−1 (−5) = 𝜋 − tan−1(1) = 𝜋 − 4 = 4

3𝜋𝑖
3𝜋 3𝜋
Then, −5 + 5𝑖 = 𝑟 (cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃) = 5√2 (cos + 𝑖 sin ) = 5√2 𝑒 4
4 4

(c): Modulus or absolute value, 𝑟 = |−√6 − √2𝑖| = √6 + 2 = 2√2

−√2 1 𝜋 7𝜋
Amplitude or Argument, 𝜃 = tan−1 (−√6) = 𝜋 + tan−1 ( ) = 𝜋 + 6 =
√3 6

7𝜋𝑖
7𝜋 7𝜋
Then, −√6 − √2𝑖 = 𝑟 (cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃) = 2√2 (cos + 𝑖 sin ) = 2√2 𝑒 6
6 6

(d): Modulus or absolute value, 𝑟 = |−3𝑖| = √0 + 9 = 3

−3 𝜋 3𝜋
Amplitude or Argument, 𝜃 = tan−1 ( 0 ) = 𝜋 + tan−1(∞) = 𝜋 + 2 = 2

3𝜋𝑖
3𝜋 3𝜋
Then, −3𝑖 = 𝑟 (cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃) = 3 (cos + 𝑖 sin )=3𝑒 2
2 2

Ex-2. Evaluate each of the following.

10
(2 𝑐𝑖𝑠 15𝑜 )7 1+√3 𝑖
(a) [3(cos 40𝑜 + 𝑖 sin 40𝑜 )][3(cos 80𝑜 + 𝑖 sin 80𝑜 )] (b) (4 𝑐𝑖𝑠 45𝑜 )3 (c) (1−√3 𝑖)

Solution: (a) [3(cos 40𝑜 + 𝑖 sin 40𝑜 )][3(cos 80𝑜 + 𝑖 sin 80𝑜 )]

= 3 ∙ 4[cos(40 + 80)𝑜 + 𝑖 sin(40 + 80)𝑜 ]

= 12(cos 120𝑜 + 𝑖 sin 120𝑜 )

1 √3
= 12 (− + 𝑖) = −6 + 6√3 𝑖
2 2
(2 𝑐𝑖𝑠 15𝑜 )7 128 𝑐𝑖𝑠 105𝑜
(b) (4 𝑐𝑖𝑠 45𝑜 )3 = = 2 𝑐𝑖𝑠 (105 − 135)𝑜 = 2 𝑐𝑖𝑠 (−30)𝑜
64 𝑐𝑖𝑠 135𝑜

= 2[cos(−30)𝑜 + 𝑖 sin(−30)𝑜 ]

= 2[cos(30)𝑜 − 𝑖 sin(30)𝑜 ]

√3 1
= 2 ( − 𝑖) = √3 − 𝑖
2 2
10
1+√3 𝑖
(c) ( ) =?
1−√3 𝑖
Since |1 + √3 𝑖| = 2 and |1 − √3 𝑖| = 2
𝜋 5𝜋
arg(1 + √3 𝑖) = and arg(1 − √3 𝑖) =
3 3

𝜋𝑖 10
10
1 + √3 𝑖 2𝑒 3 𝜋𝑖 5𝜋𝑖 10 4𝜋𝑖 10 40𝜋𝑖 2𝜋𝑖
∴( ) = ( 5𝜋𝑖 ) = (𝑒 3 − 3 ) = (𝑒 − 3 ) = 𝑒− 3 = 𝑒 − 14𝜋𝑖+ 3
1 − √3 𝑖 2𝑒 3
2𝜋𝑖 2𝜋 2𝜋
= 𝑒 − 14𝜋𝑖 . 𝑒 3 = [cos(−14𝜋) + 𝑖 sin(−14𝜋)] [cos ( ) + 𝑖 sin ( )]
3 3
1 √3 1 √3
= (1) [− + ] = − +
2 2 2 2