HRPYC81/103/0/2024

Tutorial Letter 103/0/2024

Research Report
HRPYC81-2024-Y
Year Module(s)

Psychology

IMPORTANT INFORMATION
Please register on myUnisa, activate your myLife e-mail account and make sure
that you have regular access to the myUnisa module website, MODULE
HRPYC81-2024-Y, as well as your group website.

Note: This is a fully online module. It is, therefore, only available on myUnisa.

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CONTENTS

READ ME FIRST 3

CRITERIA FOR GOOD RESEARCH 4

THE MAIN SECTIONS OF A RESEARCH REPORT 6

TITLE 7

ABSTRACT 7

INTRODUCTION 8

METHOD

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH METHOD 11

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHOD 13

RESULTS

QUANTITATIVE RESULTS 17
QUALITATIVE FINDINGS 18
DISCUSSION 9
QUANTITATIVE DISCUSSION 19
QUALITATIVE DISCUSSION 20
REFERENCES 21

THE FORMAT OF THE RESEARCH REPORT 31

REFERENCES AND RECOMMENDED SOURCES 38

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READ ME FIRST

Selection of research Please select first your research project from the various research projects offered
project before you engage with Tutorial Letter 103. For more information about the
research projects within Module HRPYC81, please consult Tutorial Letter 102.
A very important note This tutorial letter (TL 103) provides generic information about the standards and
format of the research report. Please pay close attention to the instructions provided
in Tutorial Letter 102. Some of the research projects contain additional and specific
instructions regarding the standards and format of the research report. In cases
where the instructions for your research project (in Tutorial Letter 102) are different
from the guidelines in this tutorial letter, you should follow the instructions for your
research project.
Before you write the By the time you write the research report, you would have completed three
research report assignments within your selected research project and you are familiar with the
research topic (including relevant literature).
The research report is You are required to conduct the research study within the research project you
an assignment selected, and to write a report about the study. You have to submit the research
report as an assignment. The research report is the last assignment of the project
you have been working on during the year. Make sure you indicate the project
number as well as the assignment number on the first page of your report (see in
this tutorial letter the paragraph called “Order of Pages” in the section called “The
Format of the Research Report”).
The research report is The research report is an examination portfolio. Therefore, if you do not submit the
the examination research report, or if you do not submit it on time, your study record will show that
portfolio you were absent from the examination. Should this happen, you fail the module.
Because the research report is an examination portfolio, you may not receive
feedback on this report. Also, note that you cannot resubmit the research report to
improve your mark. As no extension will be provided to submit the research report,
it is advisable to plan ahead of time and ensure that you submit it before the due
date.
Make sure your After you have submitted the research report electronically, please access your
assignment was assignment record on myUnisa to make sure your report shows on the assignment
received and that it system. If the assignment number for your research report is not displayed on the
shows on the system
system, there is no record that we received your assignment and, therefore, no proof
that you submitted the assignment.
Indicate the project Each research project has a research report. The research reports have different
number and the assignment numbers in the different projects. Make sure your research report is
assignment number on submitted using the correct assignment number for your project. Indicate the name
the first page of your
research report
of the project (e.g., Social Mindfulness) on the first page of your research report.
Also, indicate the assignment number of your research report. See “Order of Pages”
under “The Format of the Research Report” in this tutorial letter.
Submission due date Make sure you submit the research report before or on the due date. Due dates for
the assignments and the portfolio (i.e., research report) will be made available
to you on the landing page of myUnisa for this module. Failing to submit the
research report on time will result in an absence from the examination, and you
will receive a 0 (zero) mark.

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CRITERIA FOR GOOD RESEARCH

Research process When we conduct research in psychology, we apply the scientific research process.
The scientific research process consists of different, logical, and consecutive steps
that inform each other. Any research starts with a research problem. The research
problem is contexualised into existing scientific knowledge, which determines the
research goals, that is, the research question(s)/hypotheses. The research goal(s)
informs the research method(s), which is (are) considered most appropriate to
address the research question(s)/hypotheses. The research method determines the
research design (e.g., cross-sectional survey), research instruments (e.g.,
measurements, questionnaire), research sample, research procedure, and approach
for data analysis (e.g., statistical tests, thematic analysis). The research method(s)
inform the research results, which are summarised and discussed in relation to their
contribution(s) to the existing knowledge, their limitation(s), and possible
implications for future research and/or application.
Criteria for good When we conduct psychological research, we must consider the following scientific
research standards:

Research is cumulative: Psychological knowledge is cumulative. As more

psychological research is conducted and more is learned, we progressively come to
a more complete and better understanding of human behaviour. Therefore, each
research project starts with a literature review.

Research is logical: Psychological research is guided by the rules of logical

reasoning. Reasoning means drawing inferences or conclusions. Two basic forms of
logical reasoning are distinguished: inductive and deductive. Inductive reasoning
aims at discovering or constructing generalised principles (e.g., psychological
theory) based on particular cases or special examples and at identifying underlying
elements and relations. Thus, inductive research starts with observations, identifies
patterns, resemblances and regularities in experience and aims at reaching
conclusions (or generating theory). In contrast, deductive reasoning aims at drawing
conclusion(s) from already established generalised principles (e.g., psychological
theory) by applying them to specific cases (e.g., sample). Thus, deductive research is
concerned with developing hypotheses based on existing theory and empirical
studies, empirically tests the hypotheses in a particular context (e.g., sample) and
aims at confirming and/or falsifying the hypotheses (i.e., psychological theory).

Research is empirical: Psychological research assesses basically one or more

aspects of human behaviour (i.e., experiences, emotions, intentions) and thus deals
with concrete data that provides a basis for internal and external validity of research
results.

Research is valid/trustworthy: The concept of validity is mainly applied in

quantitative research and generally refers to how well the research project assesses
what it intends to assess. Two main forms of validity are distinguished: internal and
external validity. Internal validity refers to the research method(s), that is, the extent
to which the observed results represent the truth in the population and, thus, are not
the result of methodological errors. External validity relates to how universal the
results are, that is, the extent to which your results can be generalised beyond your
sample, to other populations, and/or to other contexts. In qualitative research, validity

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is rather described as trustworthiness consisting of the concept of credibility (like

internal validity) and the concept of transferability (like external validity). Credibility
relates to how plausible and believable the results are from the perspective of the
participants in the research project, that is, the extent to which the participants judge
the results as reflecting their true experience. Transferability refers to the extent to
which the results of a qualitative study can be generalised or transferred to other
contexts or settings.

Research is reliable/consistent: The concept of reliability is mainly applied in

quantitative research and generally refers to the extent to which a research method
produces stable and consistent results. For instance, a measuring instrument (e.g., a
scale) is considered reliable when it produces similar results from one use to another
(i.e., external reliability) and/or responses to a set of items on a particular measuring
instrument (e.g., scale) are considered reliable when they are consistent (i.e., internal
reliability). In qualitative research, reliability refers to consistency within the
employed analytical procedure.

Research integrity: Integrity in research refers to honesty and probity in conducting

research. It refers to whether your research is ethical, that is, guided by ethical
standards such as anonymity, confidentiality, informed consent and data ethics.
Psychologists adhere to the Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct
(APA: https://www.apa.org/ethics/code), and the Ethical Rules (HPCSA:
https://www.hpcsa.co.za/Uploads/PSB_2019/Ethical_Rules_ANNEXURE_12.pdf).

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THE MAIN SECTIONS OF A RESEARCH REPORT

What is a A research report is a description of a research study. It indicates:

Research o why a study was conducted,
Report? o how the study was executed, and
o what the results of the study were.
Research reports can take different forms. It is usually presented in the form of a written
document. In the academic world, journal articles, master’s dissertations and doctoral
theses are examples of research reports. Although these reports differ in scope and depth,
they all have certain elements in common.
A Research All research reports have:
Report has seven o a section that provides the title of the research project (i.e., Title)
main elements o a section that provides an overview of the research (i.e., Abstract)
o a section that states what the research project is about (i.e., Introduction)
o a section that states how the research project was conducted (i.e., Method(s))
o a section that reports the results of the research project (i.e., Results/Findings)
o a section that interprets and discusses the results, and possibly provides conclusions
and recommendations (i.e., Discussion)
o a section that reports the sources used in your research report (i.e., References)

In the following part, these sections are introduced in detail and standards are provided
according to the 7th Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (see:
https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition). The Publication
Manual of the American Psychological Association guides national and international
journals in Psychology. Assuming that most of you plan to continue your studies (i.e.,
master’s degree, doctoral degree), it is advisable to familiarise yourself with these
standards as you will be required to apply them.

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THE FOLLOWING INFORMATION IS IN ACCORDANCE WITH

THE 7TH PUBLICATION MANUAL OF THE APA

TITLE
The title of the research report indicates what the research project is about. The title
should be clear and concise, and identify:
o the main variables and theoretical issues under investigation and the
relationships between them, and
o the population(s)/sample(s) studied.
Example The influence of university reputation on South African students’ self-esteem.

ABSTRACT

An abstract is a brief, comprehensive summary of the contents of the research report. A

well-prepared abstract can be the most important paragraph in your research report.
Many people (e.g., examiners) have their first contact with your research report by
reading the title and abstract. The title and abstract create the first impression of your
work.

A good abstract is
Accurate Ensure that the abstract correctly reflects the purpose and content of the research report.
Avoid including information that does not appear in the research report.

Non-evaluative Report rather than evaluate. Avoid adding or commenting on what is in the research
report.

Coherent and Write in clear and deliberate language. Use verbs rather than their noun equivalents and
readable the active rather than the passive voice (e.g., “investigated” instead of “an investigation
of”; “we present results” instead of “results are presented”). Use the present tense to
describe conclusions drawn or results with continuing applicability; use the past tense
to describe specific variables manipulated or outcomes measured.

Comprehensive Be brief, and make each sentence maximally informative, especially the lead sentence.
and concise Begin the abstract with the most important points. Do not waste space by, for instance,
repeating the title. Report on the most important concepts your research is based on,
provide a summary of the main results/findings and refer to the most important
implications. Include only the four or five most important concepts, findings, or
implications.

Brief (Word The abstract must not be longer than 300 words.
Count)

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INTRODUCTION
Any research project starts with an Introduction. The Introduction covers the issues being
reported (i.e., framing of the research problem), the psychological concepts, theoretical
assumptions about the psychological concepts and their relationship(s), existing research,
and empirical findings (i.e., literature review), and the resulting research questions/
research hypotheses (i.e., research goals).
Frame the When you carefully read any psychological papers/articles, you will discover that the first
importance of paragraph of the Introduction usually frames the research problem. Each research starts
the research with a research problem. One cannot conduct a study without a clear description of the
problem
research problem. Without the problem, the study would be without purpose/goal. In
other words, the research problem is a necessary condition for a research study. As you
are doing psychological research, the research problem will address one (or many)
psychological issue(s); that is, your research addresses human behaviour (whether on
cognitive, affective, intentional, or behavioural level).

Thus, in the first part of your Introduction, your main task is to frame the importance
of the research problem you aim at addressing. When framing the research problem,
consider the various concerns on which your research problem touches and its effects on
other outcomes (e.g., the effects of self-esteem on academic performance). This framing
may be in terms of fundamental psychological theory, potential application including
therapeutic uses, input for public policy, and so forth. Proper framing helps set the
readers’ expectations for what the research report will and will not include.

Research problems may result from practical experience, theoretical knowledge, previous
research, or a combination of those sources. However, as most research problems in
psychology refer to existing psychological constructs (e.g., self-esteem, identity,
depression, intelligence, etc.). Take it for granted that you will not be the first who is
researching these constructs and their relationships. Because research is cumulative, any
research report provides a literature review; that is, it outlines and synthesises existing
knowledge (i.e., conceptualisations of psychological constructs, psychological theories,
and existing studies). Sometimes, this part of the Introduction is given the sub-heading
Literature Review.
Literature Review the literature succinctly to convey the scope of the problem, its context, and its
review theoretical or practical implications. For instance, you might propose as a research
problem, the high failure rate of psychology students, and you might have identified
Research is
through your literature review that self-esteem strongly influences the academic
cumulative performance of students. The scope of your research problem refers to the psychological
concept of self-esteem. You might further reason that in order to provide appropriate
interventions, it is necessary to identify possible factors that either increase or decrease
self-esteem in this particular population (i.e., psychology students).

You need to clarify which elements of your research problem have been subject to prior
investigation and how your work differs from earlier research. Be assured that you are
not the first researcher who studies, for instance, self-esteem. You, therefore, need to
identify previous research that studied self-esteem. In this process, describe the key
concepts (e.g., self-esteem), debates (e.g., global versus specific self-esteem), and related
psychological theories (e.g., you might find that self-esteem has been conceptualisation
as either outcome, as a motive, and as a buffer – yet there is no overall theory of self-
esteem).
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Moreover, when writing your literature review, you need to clarify existing knowledge
gaps and/or practical needs. These descriptions will demonstrate how your work is
building on what has already been accomplished in the field of interest. The questions
that should guide your literature review are:
• What is already known about the proposed research problem?
• How has previous research conceptualised the psychological phenomenon/
phenomena related to the research problem? Do competing conceptualisations
exist?
• What research has been identified that conceptualised the psychological
phenomenon (e.g., self-esteem) as an outcome and what factors have been already
identified to influence the psychological phenomenon?
• Are the findings of previous research consistent or inconsistent?
• What are the possible research gaps (e.g., which possible factors have not been
studied yet)?

The literature review informs the aims, objectives, and/or goals of your study.

Articulate The research aims, objectives and/or goals need to be clearly stated as a result of your
research goals literature review. Depending on the kind of research approach you propose to address
your research goals, you might articulate:

Quantitative Research Goals include answering research questions and testing

hypotheses. You need to specify how the research questions or hypotheses derive from
ideas discussed in your literature review.

Qualitative Research Goals include developing theory, hypotheses, and deep

understandings, examining the development of a social construct, addressing societal
injustices, and illuminating social discursive practices—that is, the way interpersonal and
public communications are enacted.

Irrespective of whether you articulate your research goals quantitively or qualitatively,

you need to make explicit the rationale for the fit of your research method(s) in relation
to your research goals. Describe the goals in a way that clarifies the appropriateness of
the research method(s) you propose to apply to achieve your research goal.

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Structure of the The Introduction section is structured as follows:

introduction

Quantitative Research Report

Problem Statement
State the importance of the problem, including theoretical or practical implications.

Review of Relevant Scholarship

Provide a succinct review of relevant scholarship, including
– relation to previous work
– differences between the current report and earlier reports if some aspects of this
study have been reported on previously.

Hypothesis, Aims, and Objectives

State specific hypotheses, aims, and objectives, including
– theories or other means used to derive hypotheses
– primary and secondary hypotheses
– other planned analyses.
State how hypotheses and research design relate to one another.

Qualitative Research Report

Description of Research Problem or Question
Frame the problem or question and its context.
Review, critique, and synthesise the applicable literature to identify key issues/
debates/theoretical frameworks in the relevant literature to clarify barriers, knowledge
gaps, or practical needs.
Note: The introduction may include case examples, personal narratives, vignettes, or
other illustrative material.

Study Objectives/Aims/Research Goals

State the purpose(s)/goal(s)/aim(s) of the study.
State the target audience, if specific.
Provide the rationale for the fit of design used to investigate this purpose/goal (e.g.,
theory building, explanatory, developing understanding, social action, description,
highlighting social practices).
Describe the approach to inquiry if it illuminates the objectives and research rationale
(e.g., descriptive, interpretive, feminist, psychoanalytic, post-positivist, critical,
postmodern, constructivist, or pragmatic approaches).

The Introduction is followed by the Method section of the research report.

As the standards of quantitative and qualitative research methods differ, the following
paragraphs will outline the Method section for quantitative and qualitative research
separately.

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RESEARCH METHOD: QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

The Method section provides most of the information that readers need to fully
comprehend what was done in the execution of an empirical study. This section provides
information that allows readers to understand the research being reported and that is
essential for the replication of the study. However, the concept of replication may depend
on the nature of the study. The basic information that is needed to understand the results
should appear in the research report, whereas other methodological information (e.g.,
detailed descriptions of procedures) may appear in supplemental materials (e.g.,
Annexures). The readability of the resulting research report must be part of the decision
about where the material is ultimately located.
The Method section in quantitative research consists usually of the following sub-
sections:
Research design Indicate what research method(s) was (were) applied to address your research question(s)
overview or to test your hypotheses. For instance, you might report that you applied a cross-
sectional survey design or a one-factorial between-subject design. Be as specific as
possible.
Sample size and Report the sample size and the details about the major demographic characteristics of the
participant sample such as age, sex, ethnic and/or racial group, level of education, socioeconomic,
characteristics generational, or immigrant status, disability status, sexual orientation, gender identity,
and language preference, as well as important topic-specific characteristics (e.g.,
academic performance). As a rule, describe the groups as specifically as possible by
emphasising characteristics that may have bearing on the interpretation of results.
Participant characteristics can be important for understanding the nature of the sample
and the degree to which results can be generalised (i.e., external validity).
Example The sample included 40 cisgender women between the ages of 20 and 30 years (M = 24.2,
SD = 2.1, Mdn = 25.1), all of whom were South Africans, registered with the University
of South Africa, had at least 4 years of higher education and lived in Gauteng, South
Africa.
Sampling Describe the procedures for selecting participants, including (a) the sampling method, if
procedure a systematic plan was implemented, (b) the percentage of the sample approached that
participated, and (c) whether self-selection into the study occurred (either by individuals
or by units such as schools or clinics) and the number of participants who selected
themselves into the sample. Report inclusion and exclusion criteria, and report any
restriction based on demographic characteristics.
Measures and Include definitions of all measures (including covariates), including measures collected
covariates but not included in the current report. Provide information on instruments (e.g., scales)
used, including their psychometric properties and evidence of cultural validity.
Procedures Describe how, where, and when the data was collected. More specifically, describe the
settings and locations in which the data was collected and provide the dates of data
collection as a general range of dates, including dates for repeated measurements and
follow-ups. Describe each step in the data collection process in sufficient detail to allow
exact replication of the study. For example, were participants placed into conditions that
were manipulated (i.e., experimental design), or were they observed in their natural
setting (i.e., survey design)? If multiple conditions were created, how were participants
assigned to conditions—through random assignment or some other selection mechanism?
Was the study conducted as a between-subjects or a within-subjects design? Describe any
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agreements with and payments made to participants. Note institutional ethical approvals,
data safety arrangements, and other indications of compliance with ethical standards.
Analytic Describe the quantitative analytic strategies (usually statistical) used in the analysis of
strategies the data, being careful to describe error-rate considerations (e.g., experiment-wise, false
discovery rate). The analytic strategies should be described for each hypothesis.

The Method section for quantitative research is structured as follows:

Structure of the Indicate the Research Design(s)
method section
for quantitative Name the research question(s) or hypotheses and outline what research method was used
research to address or test them, respectively.
Inclusion and Exclusion
Report inclusion and exclusion criteria, including any restrictions based on demographic
characteristics.
Sample Size and Participant Characteristics
Report major demographic characteristics (e.g., age, sex, ethnicity, socioeconomic status)
and important topic-specific characteristics (e.g., academic achievement).
Sampling Procedures
Describe procedures for selecting participants, including
o sampling method if a systematic sampling plan was implemented
o percentage of the sample approached that actually participated
o whether self-selection into the study occurred (either by individuals or by units,
such as schools or clinics)
Describe settings and locations where data were collected as well as dates of data
collection.
Describe agreements and incentives offered to participants.
Describe institutional review board agreements, ethical standards met, and safety
monitoring.
Measures and Covariates
Define all primary and secondary measures and covariates, including measures collected
but not included in the report.
Data Collection
Describe methods used to collect data.
Quality of Measurements
Describe methods used to enhance the quality of measurements, including
o training and reliability of data collectors
o use of multiple observations
Psychometrics
Estimate and report reliability coefficients for the scores analysed (i.e., the researcher’s
sample), if possible. Provide estimates of convergent and discriminant validity where
relevant.
Report estimates related to the reliability of measures, including
o interrater reliability for subjectively scored measures and ratings

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o test-retest coefficients in longitudinal studies in which the retest interval

corresponds to the measurement schedule used in the study
o internal consistency coefficients for composite scales in which these indices are
appropriate for understanding the nature of the instruments being used in the
study.

RESEARCH METHOD: QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

The Method section of a qualitative research report includes the following types of
information:
Research design The Method section of a qualitative research report starts with a paragraph that
overview summarises the research design. It might mention the data-collection strategies, data-
analytic strategies, and approaches to inquiry and provide a brief rationale for the design
selected if this information was not provided in the objectives section of the introduction.
Researcher To situate the research within the expectations, identities, and positions of the researcher
description (e.g., interviewers, analysts, and research team), the researcher’s background in
approaching the study should be described by emphasising his/her prior understanding of
the phenomena under investigation. Descriptions of the researcher relevant to the analysis
might include (but are not limited to) his/her demographic, cultural, and/or identity
characteristics; credentials; experience with the phenomena under study; training; values;
or decisions in selecting archives or material to analyse. Describe how prior
understandings of the phenomena under investigation were managed and/or how they
influenced the research (e.g., by enhancing, limiting, or structuring data collection and
analysis).
Participants or When describing participants or data sources (e.g., diaries), the following information
other data should be reported: number of participants, documents, or events that were analysed,
sources demographic or cultural information relevant to the research topic, and perspectives of
participants and characteristics of data sources relevant to the research topic. if
applicable, data sources should be specified (e.g., newspapers, internet, archive).
Information about data repositories used for openly shared data should be reported if
used. The processes entailed in performing archival searches or locating data for analysis
should be described as well.
Researcher– To increase transparency, describe the relationships and interactions between researcher
participant and participants that are relevant to and/or might have any impact on the research process
relationships (e.g., any relationships prior to the study, any ethical considerations relevant to prior
relationships). Existing relationships may be helpful (e.g., by increasing trust and
facilitating disclosure) or harmful (e.g., by decreasing trust and inhibiting disclosure).
Thus, the specific dynamics of the relationships need to be considered and should be
reported.
Participant There is no minimum number of participants for a qualitative study. Researchers should
recruitment provide a rationale for the number of participants chosen, often in light of the method or
approach to inquiry that is used. The recruitment of participants for the study and the
selection of participants from the available pool of participants should be outlined.
o Recruitment Process: Report the method of recruitment (e.g., face-to-face,
telephone, mail, and/or email) and any recruitment protocols, as well as describe

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how you conveyed the study purpose/goal to participants, especially if it was

different from the purpose stated in the study objective.
o Participant Selection: Describe how participants were selected from within an
identified group, explain any inclusion and/or exclusion criteria as well as the
participant and/or data source selection process that was used. The selection
process can consist of purposive sampling methods, such as maximum variation,
convenience sampling methods such as snowball selection, theoretical sampling,
or diversity sampling. Provide the general context for your study (e.g., when data
was collected, sites of data collection).
Data collection Describe the form of data collected (e.g., interviews, questionnaires, media, and/or
observation), convey any alterations to the data-collection strategy (e.g., in response to
evolving findings or the study rationale). It may not be useful to reproduce all of the
questions asked in an interview, especially in the case of unstructured or semi-structured
interviews in which questions are adapted to the content of each interview. The content
of central or guiding questions should, however, be communicated and the format of the
questions can be described (e.g., open questions, nonleading paraphrases, written
prompts). Describe the process of data selection or data collection (e.g., whether others
were present when data were collected, number of times data were collected, duration of
collection, context). Convey the extensiveness of the researcher’s engagement (e.g.,
depth of engagement, time intensiveness of data collection). Describe the management
or the use of reflexivity in the data-collection process. Identify how data were recorded
for analysis and explain whether and how data were transformed (e.g., transcription).
This might include a statement regarding audio or visual recording methods, field notes,
or transcription.
Analysis Describe the methods and procedures of data analysis and the goal for which they were
used. Explain in detail the process of analysis. Describe the process of arriving at an
analytic approach (e.g., whether a set of categories of coding was developed before or
during the analysis, whether findings emerged from an inductively driven process of
analysis). Also include a discussion of analytic procedures (e.g., coding, thematic
analysis) and a description of coders or analysts and their training if not already described
in the researcher description section. In this description, identify units of analysis (e.g.,
entire transcript, units, text) and how units were formed, if applicable. Indicate whether
any categories or codes emerged from the analyses or were developed a priori, and outline
the process used in each case. Provide illustrations and descriptions of their development,
if relevant. Indicate software, if used.
This section should also refer to the procedures that support methodological integrity by
highlighting the key features of methodological integrity such as:
o Adequacy: Assess the adequacy of the data in terms of their ability to capture
forms of diversity most relevant to the research questions, research goals, and
inquiry approach.
o Researcher’s perspectives: Describe how the researchers’ perspectives were
managed in both the data collection and the analysis (e.g., to limit their effect on
the data collection, to structure the analysis).
o Groundedness: Demonstrate that findings are grounded in the evidence (e.g.,
using quotes, excerpts, or descriptions of researchers’ engagement in data
collection).
o Meaningfulness: Demonstrate that the contributions are insightful and
meaningful (e.g., in relation to the current literature and the study goals).

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o Context: Provide relevant contextual information for findings (e.g., setting of the
study, information about participants; present the interview question asked before
an excerpt as needed).
o Coherence: Present findings in a coherent manner that makes sense of
contradictions or disconfirming evidence in the data (e.g., reconcile
discrepancies; describe why a conflict might exist in the findings).
o Consistency: As relevant, comment on consistency with regard to the analytic
processes, especially in the face of changing conditions or contexts (e.g., use
demonstrations of analyses to support consistency or to describe the development
of a stable perspective, such as through the use of interrater reliability or
consensus), or describe responses to inconsistencies (e.g., coders switching in the
middle of analysis, an interruption in the analytic process).
The Method section for qualitative research is structured as follows:
Structure of the
method section Research Design Overview
for qualitative Summarise the research design, including data-collection strategies, data-analytic
research strategies, and approaches to inquiry (e.g., descriptive, interpretive, feminist,
psychoanalytic, post-positivist, critical, postmodern, constructivist, or pragmatic
approaches). Provide the rationale for the design selected.
Researcher description
Describe the researchers’ backgrounds in approaching the study, emphasizing their
prior understandings of the phenomena under study (e.g., interviewers, analysts, or
research team).
Describe how prior understandings of the phenomena under study were managed and/or
influenced the research (e.g., enhancing, limiting, or structuring data collection and
analysis).
Participants or other data sources
Provide the numbers of participants/documents/events analysed.
Describe the demographics/cultural information, perspectives of participants, or
characteristics of data sources that might influence the data collected.
Describe existing data sources, if relevant (e.g., newspapers, internet, and archive).
Provide data repository information for openly shared data, if applicable.
Describe archival searches or the process of locating data for analyses, if applicable.
Researcher–participant relationship
Describe the relationships and interactions between researchers and participants
relevant to the research process and any impact on the research process (e.g., was there
a relationship prior to research, are there any ethical considerations relevant to prior
relationships).
Recruitment process
Describe the recruitment process (e.g., face-to-face, telephone, mail, email) and any
recruitment protocols. Describe any incentives or compensation, and provide assurance
of relevant ethical processes of data collection and consent process as relevant (may
include institutional review board approval, particular adaptations for vulnerable
populations, safety monitoring).

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Describe the process by which the number of participants was determined in relation to
the study design. Provide any changes in numbers through attrition and the final
number of participants/ sources (if relevant, refusal rates or reasons for dropout).
Describe the rationale for the decision to halt data collection (e.g., saturation).
Convey the study purpose as portrayed to participants, if different from the purpose
stated.
Participant selection
Describe the participant/data source selection process (e.g., purposive sampling
methods, such as maximum variation; convenience sampling methods, such as snowball
selection; theoretical sampling; diversity sampling) and inclusion/exclusion criteria.
Provide the general context for the study (when data were collected, sites of data
collection).
If your participant selection is from an archived data set, describe the recruitment and
selection process from that data set as well as any decisions in selecting sets of
participants from that data set.
Data Collection
State the form of data collected (e.g., interviews, questionnaires, media, observation).
Describe the origins or evolution of the data-collection protocol.
Describe any alterations of the data-collection strategy in response to the evolving
findings or the study rationale. Describe the data-selection or data-collection process
(e.g., were others present when data were collected, number of times data were
collected, duration of collection, context). Convey the extensiveness of engagement
(e.g., depth of engagement, time intensiveness of data collection).
For interview and written studies, indicate the mean and range of the time duration in
the data-collection process (e.g., interviews were held for 75 to 110 min, with an
average interview time of 90 min).
Describe the management or use of reflexivity in the data-collection process, as it
illuminates the study. Describe questions asked in data collection: the content of central
questions, and the form of questions (e.g., open vs. closed).
Recording and data transformation
Identify data audio/visual recording methods, field notes, or transcription processes
used.
Analysis
Describe the methods and procedures used and for what purpose/goal.
Explicate in detail the process of analysis, including some discussion of the procedures
(e.g., coding, thematic analysis) following a principle of transparency.
Describe coders or analysts and their training, if not already described in the researcher
description section (e.g., coder selection, collaboration groups).
Identify whether coding categories emerged from the analyses or were developed a
priori. Identify units of analysis (e.g., entire transcript, unit, text) and how units were
formed, if applicable.
Describe the process of arriving at an analytic scheme, if applicable (e.g., if one was
developed before or during the analysis or was emergent throughout).
Provide illustrations and descriptions of the analytic scheme development, if relevant.
Indicate software, if used.
Methodological integrity

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Demonstrate that the claims made from the analysis are warranted and have produced
findings with methodological integrity. The procedures that support methodological
integrity (i.e., fidelity and utility) typically are described across the relevant sections of
a paper, but they could be addressed in a separate section when elaboration or
emphasise would be helpful.

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RESULTS: QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH REPORT

In the Results section of a quantitative research report, summarise the collected data and
the results of any analyses performed on those data relevant to your research
questions/hypotheses. Report the data in sufficient detail to justify your conclusions.
Mention all relevant results, regardless of whether your hypotheses were supported,
including results that run counter to expectation; include small effect sizes (or statistically
non-significant findings) when theory predicts large (or statistically significant) ones. Do
not hide uncomfortable results by omission. Note, the implications of the results should
be discussed in the Discussion section. Also, note that the heading “Results” is used rather
than “Findings”.
Preliminary Describe how data were inspected after collection and, if relevant, any modifications of
analysis those data. These procedures may include outlier detection and processing, data
transformations based on empirical data distributions, and treatment of missing data or
imputation of missing values. Report for all variables the means, standard deviations and
if possible intercorrelations.
Main analysis Analyses of the data and reporting of the results of those analyses are fundamental aspects
or of the conduct of research. Accurate, unbiased, complete, and insightful reporting of the
Hypotheses analytic treatment of data must be a component of all research reports. Researchers in the
testing
field of psychology use numerous approaches to the analysis of data, and no one approach
is uniformly preferred as long as the method is appropriate to the research questions being
asked and the nature of the data collected. The methods used must support their analytic
burdens, including robustness to violations of the assumptions that underlie them, and
must provide clear, unequivocal insights into the data. In reporting your statistical and
data analyses, adhere to the organisational structure implied by your hypotheses.
Example Hypothesis 1, which stated that university reputation influences South African students’
self-esteem, was tested by comparing the self-esteem scores of students registered with
UCT (M = 4.15, SD = 0.34, n = 130) and students registered with Unisa (M = 3.25, SD =
1.64, n = 125), t(253) = 6.43, p < .001, 95% CI [.02, .44]. The result of the independent
samples t-test provides support for Hypothesis 1 as UCT students statistically
significantly scored higher on self-esteem than Unisa students.
The Results section for quantitative research is structured as follows:
How to structure Statistics and Data Analysis
the result section Provide information detailing the statistical and data-analytic methods used, including:
of quantitative Preliminary Analysis
data?
o missing data: report frequency or percentages of missing data
o descriptions of each outcome variable, including the total sample (n), means (M),
standard deviations (SD), and other measures that characterise the data used
Main Analysis
o results of all inferential tests conducted, including exact p values if null
hypothesis significance testing (NHST) methods were used, and reporting the
minimally sufficient set of statistics (e.g., dfs, mean square [MS] effect, MS error)
needed to construct the tests
o effect-size estimates and confidence intervals on estimates that correspond to each
inferential test conducted, when possible.

FINDINGS: QUALITATIVE RESEARCH REPORT

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In qualitative research reports, findings may or may not include quantified information,
depending on the study’s goals, approach to inquiry, and study characteristics. Note that
the heading “Findings” is used rather than “Results”.
Descriptions of Describe the research findings (e.g., themes, categories, narratives) as well as the
both the meaning and understandings that the researcher derived from the data analysis in relation
development of to the goal(s) of the study. Descriptions of findings often include quotes, evidence, or
findings and the
findings
excerpts that demonstrate the process of data analysis and of reaching findings (e.g.,
themselves thick, evocative descriptions, field notes, and text excerpts). Note that these quotes,
evidence, or excerpts should not replace the description of the findings of the analysis.
Instead, balance these illustrations with text descriptions that make clear the meanings
drawn from individual quotes or excerpts and how they answer the research question(s).
Compatibility Findings should be presented in a manner that is compatible with the study design. For
with study instance, findings of a grounded theory study might be described using categories
design organised in a hierarchical form and marked by discrete divisions, whereas findings of
an ethnographic study might be written in a chronological narrative format. Also, findings
should be written in a style that is coherent with the approach to inquiry used.
The FINDINGS section for qualitative research is structured as follows:
How to structure Findings Subsections
the findings Describe research findings (e.g., themes, categories, narratives) as well as the meaning
section of and understandings that the researcher has derived from the data analysis.
qualitative data?
Demonstrate the analytic process of reaching your findings (e.g., quotes, excerpts of
data).
Present research findings in a way that is compatible with the study design.
Present synthesizing illustrations (e.g., diagrams, tables, models), if useful in organising
and conveying findings. Photographs or links to videos can be used.

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DISCUSSION

The Discussion section in your research report serves to provide an evaluation and
interpretation of your results and to discuss their contribution in relation to previous
research. Moreover, the Discussion section includes information relating to the
limitations and strengths of your research and possible implications for future research
and practice. As the required information differs when discussing quantitative and
qualitative research, the relevant parts of the Discussion section will be presented for both
research approaches separately.

DISCUSSION: QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

The Open the Discussion section with a clear statement of support or non-support for your
interpretation hypotheses. In the case of ambiguous outcomes, explain why the results are judged as
and discussion of such. Similarities and differences between your results and the work of others (where
the research
results
they exist) should be used to contextualise, confirm, and clarify your conclusions.
Do not simply reformulate and repeat points already made; each new statement should
contribute to your interpretation and readers’ understanding of the problem.
Limitations/ Your interpretation of the results should take into account (a) sources of potential bias
strength and other threats to internal validity, (b) the imprecision of measures, (c) the overall
number of tests and/or overlap among tests, (d) the adequacy of sample sizes and
sampling validity, and (e) other limitations or weaknesses of the study. Acknowledge the
limitations of your research, and address alternative explanations of the results. Discuss
the generalisability, or external validity, of the findings. This critical analysis should take
into account differences between the target population and the accessed sample.
Contribution(s) When discussing the contribution(s) your research results provide, use the following
questions in guiding your argumentations:
1. What is the theoretical, clinical, or practical significance of the outcomes, and
what is the basis for these interpretations?
2. If the results are valid and replicable, what real-life psychological phenomena
might be explained or modelled by the results?
3. Are applications warranted based on this research?
4. What problems remain unresolved or arise anew because of these results?
The responses to these questions are the core of the contribution of your study and justify
why readers should attend to the findings. Readers should receive clear, unambiguous,
and direct answers.
Implications of End the Discussion section with a reasoned and justifiable commentary on the importance
your research of your findings. This concluding section may be brief. In the conclusion, consider
returning to a discussion of why the problem is important (as stated in the introduction);
what larger issues, meaning those that transcend the particulars of the sub-field, might
hinge on the findings; and what propositions are confirmed or disconfirmed by the
extrapolation of these findings to such overarching issues.

Structure of the
discussion section Support of Original Hypotheses
Provide a statement of support or non-support for all hypotheses.

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Similarity of Results
Discuss similarities and differences between reported results and the work of others.
Interpretation
Provide an interpretation of the results, taking into account
o the sources of potential bias and threats to internal and statistical validity,
o the imprecision of measurement protocols,
o the overall number of tests or overlap among tests,
o the adequacy of sample sizes and sampling validity.

Generalizability
Discuss the generalisability (external validity) of the findings, taking into account
o the target population (sampling validity),
o and other contextual issues (setting, measurement, time; ecological validity).
Contribution(s)
Discuss the core contribution(s) your research made and justify why readers should attend
to the findings.
Implications
Discuss implications for future research, programs, or policy.

DISCUSSION: QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

The Instead of simply restating findings, a good Discussion section develops readers’
interpretation of understanding of the issues at hand. To do this, describe the central contributions of your
the meaning of research and their significance in advancing disciplinary understandings. Identifying
your findings
similarities and differences from prior theories and research findings will help in this
process. Describe the contributions the findings make (e.g., elaborating on, challenging,
or supporting prior research or theory) and how findings can be best utilised. Reflect on
any alternative explanations of the findings to clarify the strengths and weaknesses of the
explanation that you selected. More than one valid or useful set of findings may emerge
from a given data set. It is not considered a drawback for there to be more than one
possible interpretation because researchers may centralise different processes or
perspectives; however, findings should remain grounded in the empirical analysis of the
data.
Limitations/ Include a sub-section to identify the strengths and limitations of the study (e.g., consider
strength how the quality, source, or types of data or the analytic processes might support or
weaken the study’s methodological integrity, consistency, or trustworthiness). Within
this sub-section, describe the limits of the scope of transferability (e.g., issues readers
should consider when using findings across contexts).
Implications Convey to readers how your findings might be used and their implications. In this
of your process, you might outline emerging research questions, theoretical insights, new
research
understandings, or methodological designs that advantage the conceptualisation,
implementation, review, or reporting of future studies. In addition, policy implications,
clinical practice, and advocacy can be communicated to assist readers in implementing
your findings.

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Structure of the
discussion Discussion Sub-sections
section Describe the central contributions and their significance in advancing disciplinary
understanding.
Describe the different types of contributions made by findings (e.g., challenging or
supporting previous research or theory) and how these findings can be best utilised.
Identify similarities and differences between prior theories and research findings.
Reflect on any alternative explanations for your findings.
Identify the strength and limitations of your study (e.g., consider how the quality, source,
or types of the data or the analytical approach might have strengthened or weakened the
methodological integrity.
Describe the scope of transferability.
Revisit any ethical challenges or dilemmas that you have encountered.
Consider the implications for future research, policy, or practice.

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REFERENCES

Cite the work of individuals whose ideas, theories, or research have directly influenced
your work. The works you cite provide key background information, support or dispute
your research report, or offer critical definitions and data. Cite only works that you have
read and ideas that you have incorporated into your writing.
Both paraphrases and direct quotations require citations.

DO NOT Plagiarism is the act of presenting the words, ideas, or images of another as your own. It
plagiarise! denies authors or creators of content the credit they are due. Whether deliberate or
unintentional, plagiarism violates ethical standards in scholarship. Writers who try to
publish plagiarised work face rejection from publication and possible censure in their
place of employment. Students who plagiarise will fail the assignment or course, be
placed on academic probation, or be expelled from their institution (see Policy on
Academic Integrity).
To avoid plagiarism, provide appropriate credit (i.e., author-date citation) to the sources
whenever you do the following:
• paraphrase (i.e., state in your own words) the ideas of others
• directly quote the words of others
• refer to data or data sets
• reprint or adapt a table or figure, even images from the internet that are free or
licensed in the Creative Commons
• reprint a long text passage or commercially copyrighted test item
Unethical writing practices other than plagiarism are also prohibited. For example, it is
unethical to fabricate citations and/or reference list entries. This practice gives the
appearance of properly credited sources, but the sources are fictitious or untraceable; the
author may have made up the information as well as the sources, or the information may
come from real works that have not been credited. Likewise, contract cheating, in which
students hire another person to write the research report for them, is unethical. Even when
the resulting work is original (i.e., not plagiarised), these students still take credit for work
that they did not do themselves, which violates academic integrity policies, honour codes,
and ethics codes.

Author–date Use the author-date citation system to cite references in the text in APA Style. In this
citation system system, each work used in a research report has two parts: an in-text citation and a
corresponding reference list entry.
The in-text citation appears within the body of the research report (or in a table, figure,
footnote, or appendix) and briefly identifies the cited work by its author and date of
publication. This in-text citation enables readers to locate the corresponding entry in the
alphabetical reference list at the end of the research report.
Each reference list entry provides the author, date, title, and source of the work cited in
the research report and enables readers to identify and retrieve the work.

The in-text In-text citations have two formats: parenthetical and narrative.
citation
Parenthetical Citation. Both the author and the date, separated by a comma, appear in
parentheses for a parenthetical citation. A parenthetical citation can appear within or at
the end of a sentence. When a parenthetical citation is at the end of a sentence, put the
period or other end punctuation after the closing parenthesis.
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Example Falsely balanced news coverage can distort the public’s perception of expert consensus
on an issue (Suffla, 2016).

Narrative Citation: The author appears in running text and the date appears in
parentheses immediately after the author's name for a narrative citation.

Example In 2016, Suffla noted the dangers of falsely balanced news coverage.

Citing multiple When citing multiple works parenthetically, place the citations in alphabetic order
works separating them with semicolons (;).

Example (Adams et al., 2015; Shaw & Miller, 2011; Warker, 2021)

Basic In-Text Citation Styles

Author type Parenthetical citation Narrative citation
One author (Mathabela, 2021) Mathabela (2021)
Two authors (Cilo & Mathabela, 2019) Cilo and Mathabela (2019)
Three authors (Cilo et al., 2018) Cilo et al. (2018)
Group author with First citation: (National Institute of First citation: National Institute of Health
abbreviation Health [NIH], 2012) (NIH, 2012)
Subsequent citation: (NIH, 2012) Subsequent citation: NIH (2012)
Group author (Stanford University, 2012) Stanford University (2012)
without
abbreviation
In parenthetical citations, use an In narrative citations, spell out the word
ampersand (&) between names for a “and”.
work of two authors or before the last
author.

Multiple but same In case there are more sources with the name Cilo published in the same year, write as
authors many names as needed to distinguish the references:
For example,
(Cilo, Mathabela, Miller, & Warker, 2018)
(Cilo, Warker, Miller, & Mathabela, 2018)
would be in-text cited as
(Cilo, Mathabela, et al., 2018)
(Cilo, Warker, et al., 2018)

Same author and When multiple references have an identical author (authors) and publication year,
the same year include a lowercase letter after the year to distinguish the references.
For example:
(Cilo & Mathabela, 2019a)
(Cilo & Mathabela, 2019b)

Authors with the If the first authors of multiple references share the same surname but different initials,
same surname include the first author’s initials in all in-text citations, even if the year of publication
differs.
For example: Cilo & Mathabela, 2019; S. Cilo, 2020)
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Paraphrasing and Quotations

Principles of A paraphrase restates another author’s (or your own previously published) work in
paraphrasing YOUR OWN WORDS. Paraphrasing is an effective writing strategy because it allows
authors to summarise and synthesise information from one or more sources, focus on
significant information, and compare and contrast relevant details. Published authors
paraphrase their sources most of the time, rather than directly quoting the sources.
Student authors should emulate this practice by paraphrasing more than directly quoting.
Cite the work you paraphrase in the text using either the parenthetical or narrative format.

Examples Avid readers of science fiction and fantasy books are more likely than readers of other
genres to believe in futuristic scenarios—for example, that it will someday be possible to
travel to other galaxies or power a car on solar energy (Black et al., 2018).
OR
Black et al. (2018) showed in their study that avid readers of science fiction and fantasy
books are more likely than readers of other genres to believe in futuristic scenarios such
as someday it will be possible to travel to other galaxies or power a car on solar energy.

Principles of A direct quotation reproduces words verbatim from another work or your own previously
direct quotation published work. It is best to paraphrase sources rather than directly quoting them
because paraphrasing allows you to fit the material into the context of your paper and to
develop your writing style. Use direct quotations rather than paraphrasing when
reproducing an exact definition, when an author has said something memorably or
succinctly, or when you want to respond to exact wording (e.g., something someone said).
Quotations should be scarcely used in the research report.

When quoting directly, always provide the author, year, and page number of the quotation
in the in-text citation in either parenthetical or narrative format. To indicate a single page,
use the abbreviation “p.” (e.g., p. 25, p. S41, p. e221); for multiple pages, use the
abbreviation “pp.” and separate the page range with an en dash (e.g., pp. 34–36).

The format of a direct quotation depends on its length (fewer than 40 words vs. 40 words
or more).

Quotations If a quotation consists of fewer than 40 words, treat it as a short quotation: Incorporate it
shorter than 40 into the text and enclose it within double quotation marks. For a direct quotation, always
words include a full citation (parenthetical or narrative) in the same sentence as the quotation.

Example Effective teams can be difficult to describe because “high performance along one domain
does not translate to high performance along with another” (Ervin et al., 2018, p. 470).

Quotations If a quotation contains 40 words or more, treat it as a block quotation. Do not use
longer than 40 quotation marks to enclose a block quotation. Start a block quotation on a new line and
Words indent the whole block 0.5 in. from the left margin. If there are additional paragraphs
within the quotation, indent the first line of each subsequent paragraph an additional 0.5
in. Double-space the entire block quotation; do not add extra space before or after it.
Either (a) cite the source in parentheses after the quotation’s final punctuation or (b) cite
the author and year in the narrative before the quotation and place only the page number
in parentheses after the quotation’s final punctuation. Do not add a period after the
closing parenthesis in either case.

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Example Researchers have studied how people talk to themselves:

Inner speech is a paradoxical phenomenon. It is an experience that is central to many

people’s everyday lives, and yet it presents considerable challenges to any effort to
study it scientifically. Nevertheless, a wide range of methodologies and approaches
have combined to shed light on the subjective experience of inner speech and its
cognitive and neural underpinnings. (Alderson-Day & Fernyhough, 2015, p. 957)

Quotations from Quotations from participants whom you interviewed as part of your research are treated
research differently than quotations from published works. When quoting research participants,
participants use the same formatting as for other quotations: Present a quotation of fewer than 40
words in quotation marks within the text, and present a quotation of 40 words or more in
a block quotation. Because quotations from research participants are part of your original
research, do not include them in the reference list or treat them as personal
communications. Rather state in the text that the quotations are from participants.

When quoting research participants, abide by the ethical agreements regarding

confidentiality and/or anonymity between you and your participants. Take extra care to
obtain and respect participants’ consent to have their information included in your report.
You may need to assign participants a pseudonym, obscure identifying information, or
present information in the aggregate.

Example Participant “Thanda,” a 32-year-old woman from Johannesburg, described her

experiences as a new mother as “simultaneously the best and hardest time of my life.”
Several other participants agreed, describing the beginning of parenthood as “joyful,”
“lonely,” and “intense.” Thanda and the other participants completed interviews in their
homes.

Reference list entry

A reference listed in the References (as the last part of your research project) consists
always of FOUR elements: author, date, title, and source.
Author(s): Who is responsible for this work?
Date: When was this work published?
Title: What is the work called?
Source: Where can I retrieve this work?

Where to find
reference
information for a
Journal Article?

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Source: 7th APA Manual, Figure 9.1

Reference Invert all individual authors’ names, providing the surname first, followed by a comma
elements and the initials: Author, A. A.

Author(s)
Use a comma to separate an author’s initials from additional author names, even when
there are only two authors; use an ampersand (&) before the final author’s name: Author,
A. A., & Author, B. B. Also use a serial comma before the ampersand (&) with three or
more authors. However, do not use a comma to separate two group authors: American
Psychological Association & National Institutes of Health.

Date Enclose the date of publication in parentheses, followed by a period: (2020).

For works from a reference category that includes the month, day, and/or season along
with the year, put the year first, followed by a comma, and then the month and date or
season: (2020, August 26).

Title For works that are part of a greater whole (e.g., journal articles, edited book chapters),
do not italicize the title or use quotation marks, and capitalize it using sentence case.

Source The source for a work that is part of a greater whole (e.g., journal article, edited book
chapter).

Structure and Source

examples of Author(s) Date Title Periodical
periodical/journal Information DOI or URL
Author, A.A., (2021). Title of Title of http://doi.org/xxxx
& Author, B.B. (2021, January). article. Periodical https://xxxx
(2021, February (e.g., Journal),
Name of Group 14). 34(2), 5-15

Example Seedat, M., Van Niekerk, A., Jewkes, R., Suffla, S., & Ratele, K. (2009). Violence and
injuries in South Africa: prioritising an agenda for prevention. The Lancet, 374(9694),
1011-1022. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(09)60948-X

Parenthetical citation: (Seedat et al., 2018)

Narrative citation: Seedat et al. (2018)

Structure and Source

example of Author(s) Date Title Publisher
books
Information DOI or URL
Author, A.A., & (2021). Title of book. Publisher http://doi.org/xxxx
Author, B.B. Name. https://xxxx
Title of book
Name of Group (2nd ed., Vol. First Publisher
4) Name; Second
Editor, E.E. Publisher
(Ed.) Name

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Editor, E.E., & Title of book

Editor, F.F. (E.E. Editor,
(Eds.) Ed.)

Example Durrheim, K., Mtose, X., & Brown, L. (2011). Race trouble: Race, identity and inequality
in post-apartheid South Africa. Lexington Books.

Parenthetical citation: (Durrheim et al., 2019)

Narrative citation: Durrheim et al. (2019)

Structure and Source

examples of Author(s) Date Title Publisher
edited book Information DOI or URL
chapters
Author, A.A., & (2021). Title of In E.E. Editor http://doi.org/xxxx
Author, B.B. Chapter. (Ed.), Title of https://xxxx
the book (pp.
Name of Group 3-15).
Publisher
Name.

In E.E. Editor
& F.F. Editor
(Eds.), Title of
the book (3bd
ed., Vol. 2, pp.
3-15).
Publisher
Name.

Example Balsam, K. F., Martell, C. R., Jones, K. P., & Safren, S. A. (2019). Affirmative cognitive
behaviour therapy with sexual and gender minority people. In G.Y. Iwamasa & P.A.
Hays (Eds.), Culturally responsive cognitive behaviour therapy: Practice and
supervision (2nd ed., pp. 287–314). American Psychological Association.
https://doi.org/10.1037/0000119-012

Parenthetical citation: (Balsam et al., 2019)

Narrative citation: Balsam et al. (2019)

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Structure and Source

examples of Author(s) Date Title Publisher
reports and grey Information DOI or URL
literature
Author, A.A., & (2021). Title of Publisher http://doi.org/xxxx
Author, B.B. Report. Name. https://xxxx
(2021, May 2).
Name of Group Title of
Report
(Report No.
123).

Title of grey
literature
[Description].

Example Dlamini, M. (2018). Don’t expect too much: The limited usefulness of common SES
measures and a prescription for change [Policy brief]. National Education Policy Center.
https://nepc.colorado.edu/publication/SES

Parenthetical citation: (Dlamini, 2018)

Narrative citation: Dlamini (2018)

Structure and Source

examples of Author(s) Date Title Publisher
conference Information DOI or URL
sessions and
presentations Presenter, A.A., (2021, Title of Conference http://doi.org/xxxx
& Presenter, September 18- contribution Name, https://xxxx
B.B. 20). [Type of Location.
Contribution].

Example Mathabela, S., Hurling, J., & Khumalo, A. (2018, August 30–September 2). If mama ain’t
happy, nobody’s happy: The effect of parental depression on mood dysregulation in
children [Paper presentation]. Psychological Association of South Africa 42nd Annual
Meeting, Johannesburg, South Africa.

Parenthetical citation: (Mathabela et al., 2016)

Narrative citation: Mathabela et al. (2016)

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Structure and Source

examples of Author(s) Date Title Database or
dissertation and archive name URL
thesis
Author, A.A. (2021). Title of Database https://xxxx
dissertation Name.
[Unpublished
doctoral Archive Name
dissertation].

Title of thesis
[Unpublished
master’s
thesis].

Author, A.A. (2021). Title of Name of the Institution

dissertation Awarding the Degree.
[Unpublished
doctoral
dissertation].

Title of thesis
[Unpublished
master’s
thesis].

Example Vorster, A. (2021). I feel for you. Therefore, I respond on your behalf. Social
psychological processes leading to and consequences of vicarious humiliation
[Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. University of South Africa.

Parenthetical citation: (Vorster, 2021)

Narrative citation: Vorster (2021)

Structure and Source

examples of tests, Author(s) Date Title
scales, and Database DOI or URL
inventories
Author, A.A., & (2021). Title of the Test Database http://doi.org/x
Author, B.B. Test. Name. xxx
https://xxxx

Example Tellegen, A., & Ben-Porath, Y. S. (2011). Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory–2
Restructured Form (MMPI-2-RF): Technical manual. Pearson.

Parenthetical citation: (Tellegen & Ben-Porath, 2011)

Narrative citation: Tellegen and Ben-Porath (2011)

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Structure and Source

examples of Author(s) Date Title Social media
online media site name URL
Twitter and (n.d.). Content of the Site Name. https://xxxx
Instagram: (2021, August post up to 20
Author, A.A. 29). words. Retrieved
[@username] August 29,
Content of the 2021, from
Name of Group post up to 20 https://xxxx
[@username] words
[Description
Facebook and of
others: audiovisuals].

Author, A.A. [Description

of
Name of Group. audiovisuals].

Name of Group
[Username].

Username(s).

Example Smithsonian’s National Zoo and Conservation Biology Institute. (n.d.). Home [Facebook
page]. Facebook. Retrieved July 22, 2019, from https://www.facebook.com/nationalzoo

Parenthetical citation: (Smithsonian’s National Zoo and Conservation Biology

Institute, n.d.)
Narrative citation: Smithsonian’s National Zoo and Conservation Biology Institute
(n.d.)

Structure and Source

examples of web Author(s) Date Title Website name URL
pages and
Author, A.A., & (2021). Title of work. Site Name. https://xxxx
websites
Author, B.B.
(2021, August). Retrieved
Name of Group August 29,
(2021, August 2021, from
29). https://xxxx

(n.d.).

Example World Health Organization. (2018, March). Questions and answers on immunization and
vaccine safety. https://www.who.int/features/qa/84/en/

Parenthetical citations: (World Health Organization, 2018)

Narrative citations: World Health Organization (2018)

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THE FORMAT OF THE RESEARCH REPORT

Order of Pages Arrange the pages of your research report in the following order:
Module Information Page (page 1): Present the following information on the first page
of the research report. Do not give any other information on the first page. Put the
information in the same order as indicated and leave two lines open between each point.
o Module code: HRPYC81
o Research report for PROJECT <<Indicate the project number>>*
o Assignment number <<Indicate the assignment number>>
o Title of study: <<Indicate the title of your research study>>
o Surname: <<Indicate your surname>> Initials: <<Your initials>>
o Student number: <<Indicate your student number>>
o Examination period: October/November 20…
* The project number is the number of the project you selected for your study, e.g. 4802 or 4803
or 4804, etcetera.

Content page (page 2): Present a table of contents on the second page of your research
report. Do not present any other information on this page. Write Content Table at the top
of the page and underneath list the headings of the main sections of your research report.
For each heading indicate the number of the page where the heading appears in the
research report.

Title and Abstract page (page 3): Present the title and the abstract of the study on the
third page of the research report. Do not present any other information on the third page.
Write the title of your study at the top of the page. Underneath the title, write the word
Abstract and present the abstract underneath this heading. The abstract should be less
than 300 words and should easily fit onto this page.

Text (page 4): Begin the research report (i.e., Introduction) on the fourth page. Continue
till the end of the report (about 30 pages). Remember to use headings to indicate the
various sections and subsections of your report (e.g., Results/Findings).

References: Begin the list of references on the page following the last page of the
research report (Text). Write References, and underneath this heading, list the sources
you referred to in your report alphabetically (name of author).

Tables: Report each table on a new page. Do not forget to add the Table number and
description (see under Tables on the following pages).

Figures: Report each figure on a new page. Do not forget to add the Figure number and
description (see under Figures on the following pages).

Appendices: Start each appendix on a new page. Number the appendices and provide a
description (see under Appendices on the following pages).
Format Font: Use Times New Roman size 12 throughout the research report. DO NOT
CHANGE the font.

Line Spacing: Double-space the entire research report.

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Margins: Use 2.54-cm margins on all sides (top, bottom, left, right) of the page. This is
commonly the default page margin in most word-processing programs.

Paragraph alignment: Align the text (main body) to the left and leave the right margin
uneven. Do not use a full adjustment, which is used to adjust the words to make the lines
the same length.

Paragraph Indentation: Indent the first line of each paragraph 0.5 cm in. Use the tab
function.

Page numbering: All pages should contain a page number. Use the automatic page-
numbering function of your word-processing program to insert page numbers in the top
right corner. DO NOT type page numbers manually. The Module Information Page is
page number 1.
Heading Levels APA headings have five levels: Level 1 heading is used for top-level or main sections
such as Title, Content Table, Abstract, Introduction, Method etc., Level 2 heading refers
to sub-sections of Level 1 and so on.
Level 1 Method
Level 2 Measures
Level 3 Self-Esteem
Level 4 Self-Esteem Scale.
Level 5 The Global Self-Esteem Scale.

Table(s) Tables should be integral to the text but designed so that they are concise and can be
understood in isolation.
Tables are numbered. Table numbers appear above the table in bold (e.g., Table 1).
Number all tables that are part of the main text (i.e., not part of an appendix or
supplemental materials) using Arabic numerals—for example, Table 1, Table 2, and
Table 3.
Tables have a Title. Each table has a title that appears one double line below the table
number. Write the table title in italic. The title of the table should be brief but clear and
explanatory; the basic content of the table should be easily inferred from the title. Avoid
overly general and overly detailed table titles.
Tables include headings. Headings establish the organisation of information in the table
and identify what is in each column. Column headings describe the entries below them.
Table headings should be brief; if possible, the heading should be not much wider than
the information in the column below it. Provide a heading for every column in a table,
including the stub column or stub, which is the leftmost column of the table. The stub
column usually lists the major independent or predictor variables. For the stub column,
the heading “Variable” is often used when no other heading is suitable.
Table body. The main part of the table, the table body, contains information organized
in cells. Information in a table body may be in the form of numbers, words, or a mixture
of both. The entries in all other cells of the table should be centered (however, aligning
them flush left is acceptable if doing so improves the readability of longer entries).

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Source: 7th APA Manual, Table 7.1 Basic Components of a Table

Table notes. Tables may have three kinds of notes, which are placed below the body of
the table: general notes, specific notes, and probability notes. A general note qualifies,
explains, or provides information relating to the table as a whole and explains any
abbreviations; symbols; special use of italics, bold, or parentheses; and the like. The
general note also includes any acknowledgements that a table is reprinted or adapted from
another source. A specific note refers to a particular column, row, or cell. Specific notes
are indicated by superscript lowercase letters (e.g., a,b,c). Do not add specific notes to a
table title; instead, use a general note. Within each table that has specific notes, order the
superscripts from left to right and from top to bottom, starting at the top left and beginning
with the letter “a”. A probability note describes how asterisks and other symbols are used
in a table to indicate p values and thus the significance of the results of statistical
hypothesis testing. To report the results of significance testing, it is best to provide the
exact probabilities to two or three decimal places. However, when p values are less than
.001, it is acceptable to write the value as “<.001.” Use the same number of asterisks to
indicate the same p values across tables (or figures) within your paper, such as *p < .05,
**
p < .01, and ***p < .001.
Standard Abbreviations in Table and Figures. Use standard abbreviations and
symbols for all statistics (e.g., M, SD, SE, F, df, n, p), Greek letters (e.g., α, β, χ2), and
units of measurement used in tables without defining them in a note. The abbreviation
“no.” (for “number”) and the symbol “%” (for “per cent”) may also be used without
providing a definition. Other abbreviations used in a table or figure should be defined in
the table or figure title, body, or note, even if the abbreviations are also defined in the
paper (e.g., BDI-II = Beck Depression Inventory-II).
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Table Borders and Shading. Limit the use of borders or lines in a table to those needed
for clarity. In general, use a border at the top and bottom of the table, beneath column
headings (including decked heads), and above column spanners. Do not use vertical
borders to separate data, and do not use borders around every cell in a table. Use spacing
between columns and rows and strict alignment to clarify relations among the elements
in a table. Avoid the use of shading in tables. If shading is necessary, explain its purpose
in the table’s general note.
Figure(s) All types of graphical displays other than tables are considered figures. Ensure that all
figures add substantively to readers’ understanding and do not duplicate other elements
of the research report. Also, consider whether a figure is the best way to communicate
the information.
Figures are numbered. Figure numbers appear above the figure in bold (e.g., Figure 1).
Number all figures that are part of the main text (i.e., not part of an appendix or
supplemental materials) using Arabic numerals—for example, Figure 1, Figure 2, and
Figure 3.
Figures have titles. Give every figure a brief but clear and explanatory title; the basic
content of the figure should be easily inferred from the title. Write the figure title in italic.
The figure title appears one double line below the figure number. Avoid overly general
and overly detailed figure titles.

Source: 7th APA Manual, Figure 7.1 Basic Components of a Figure

Figure legends. A legend (also called a key) explains any symbols, line styles, shading,
or pattern variants used in the image portion of the figure. The legend is an integral part

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of the figure; therefore, its lettering should be of the same kind and proportion as that
appearing in the rest of the figure.
Figure notes. Figure notes contain information needed to clarify the contents of the
figure for readers. As with tables, figures may have three kinds of notes: general, specific,
and probability. Refer to Table notes.
Appendix/ Sometimes authors wish to include material that supplements the research report’s
Appendices content, but that would be distracting or inappropriate in the text of the research report.
Such material can often be included in an Appendix. Begin each appendix on a separate
page after any references, footnotes, tables, and figures. Give each appendix a label and
a title. If a paper has one appendix, label it “Appendix”; if a paper has more than one
appendix, label each appendix with a capital letter (e.g., “Appendix A,” “Appendix B”)
in the order in which it is mentioned in the text. Each appendix should be mentioned
(called out) at least once in the text by its label (e.g., “see Appendix A”). The appendix
title should describe its contents. Place the appendix label and title in bold and centered
on separate lines at the top of the page on which the appendix begins.
Writing style Effective writing is characterised by continuity, the logical consistency of expression
and grammar throughout a written work, and by flow, the smooth cadence of words and sentences.
Inconsistencies, contradictions, omissions, and irrelevancies in your writing style and
presentation of ideas can make your arguments seem less credible. A work that lacks
continuity and flow may seem disorganised or confusing, and details may seem
incomplete or inconsistent.

To improve continuity and flow in your writing, check transitions between sentences,
paragraphs, and ideas to ensure that the text is smooth and clear rather than abrupt or
disjointed. Transitional words and phrases help maintain the flow of ideas, especially
when the material is complex or abstract. For example, using a pronoun that refers to a
noun in the preceding sentence not only serves as a transition but also avoids repetition.
Be sure the referent is obvious.
Other transitional words and phrases include the following: time links (e.g., “then,”
“next,” “after,” “while,” “since”); cause-effect links (e.g., “therefore,” “consequently,”
“as a result”); addition links (e.g., “in addition,” “moreover,” “furthermore,” “similarly”);
and contrast links (e.g., “but,” “conversely,” “nevertheless,” “however,” “although”).

Say only what needs to be said in your writing. Authors seeking publication and students
completing assignments increase their chances of success when they write concisely.
Likewise, writing that is clear and precise is more accurate and transparent. In
combination, conciseness and clarity in your writing ensure that readers understand your
meaning.

Bias-free Authors must strive to use language that is free of bias, meaning the implied or irrelevant
language evaluation of the group or groups they are writing about.
guidelines
Precision is essential in scholarly writing; when you refer to a person or persons, choose
words that are accurate, clear, and free from bias or prejudicial connotations. Bias, like
inaccurate or unclear language, can be a form of imprecision. For example, using “man”
to refer to all human beings is not as accurate or inclusive as using the terms
“individuals,” “people,” or “persons.”

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Respect the language people use to describe themselves. Use descriptions, people use
themselves. Accept that language changes with time and that individuals within groups
sometimes disagree about the designations they use. Make an effort to determine what is
appropriate for your research report, particularly when these designations are debated
within groups. You may need to ask your participants which designations they use and/or
consult self-advocacy groups that represent these communities to research the issue if
you are not working directly with participants.

Avoid stereotypical language when referring to age, disability, gender, racial/ethnic

identity, socioeconomic status, and participants in the research.
Age Appropriate terms for
o an individual of any age is a “person”, “individual”, and so on;
o an individual aged 12 years and younger are “infant” (for a very young child),
“child,” “girl,” “boy,” “transgender girl,” “transgender boy,” “gender-fluid
child,” and so on;
o an individual aged 13 to 17 years are “adolescent,” “young person,” “youth,”
“young woman,” “young man,” “female adolescent,” “male adolescent,”
“agender adolescent,” and so on; and
o an individual aged 18 years and older are “adult,” “woman,” “man,” “transgender
man,” “trans man,” “transgender woman,” “trans woman,” “genderqueer adult,”
“cisgender adult,” and so on.
Use terms such as “older persons,” “older people,” “older adults,” “older patients,” “older
individuals,” “persons 65 years and older,” and “the older population” rather than terms
such as “seniors,” “elderly,” “the aged,” “ageing dependents,” and similar “othering”
terms as they connote a stereotype and imply that members of the group are not part of
society but rather a group apart.
Disability Avoid language that uses pictorial metaphors or negativistic terms that imply restriction
(e.g., “wheelchair-bound” or “confined to a wheelchair”; use the term “wheelchair user”
instead) and that uses excessive and negative labels (e.g., “AIDS victim,” “brain-
damaged”; use the terms “person with AIDS” or “person with a traumatic brain injury”
instead). Avoid terms that can be regarded as slurs (e.g., “cripple,” “invalid,” “nuts,”
“alcoholic,” “meth addict”); use terms like “person with a physical disability,” “person
with a mental illness,” “person with alcohol use disorder,” or “person with substance use
disorder” instead, or be more specific (e.g., “person with schizophrenia”).
Gender Use the term gender instead of sex. Because gender is a social construct and a social
identity, use the term “gender” when referring to people as social groups. For example,
when reporting the genders of participants in the Method section, write something like
this: “Twenty-five participants identified as cisgender women, 26 as cisgender men, 5 as
transgender women, 3 as transgender men, and 1 as nonbinary.”
Use the term “sex” only when the biological distinction of sex assignment (e.g., sex
assigned at birth) is predominant for your research.
Race and Racial and ethnic groups are designated by proper nouns and are capitalized. Therefore,
ethnical identity use “Black” and “White” instead of “black” and “white”. Likewise, capitalise terms such
as “Khoisans,” “Xhosas,” and so on. Capitalize “Indigenous” and “Aboriginal” whenever
they are used. Capitalize “Indigenous People” or “Aboriginal People” when referring to
a specific group (e.g., the Indigenous Peoples of South Africa), but use lowercase for
“people” when describing persons who are Indigenous (e.g., “the authors were all

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Indigenous people but belonged to different nations”). Note that language which
essentialises or reifies race is strongly discouraged and is generally considered
inappropriate. For example, phrases such as “the Black race” and “the White race” are
essentialist in nature, portray human groups monolithically, and often perpetuate
stereotypes.
Socioeconomic When reporting socioeconomic status (SES), provide as much detailed information as
status possible about people’s income, education, and occupations or employment
circumstances. For example, when referring to “low-income participants” or “high-
income participants,” classify whether reported incomes take into account household size
or provide information about the relation between household incomes and federal poverty
guidelines. Additionally, SES can be described by providing information related to
specific contextual and environmental conditions such as participants’ housing
arrangement (e.g., renting a home, owning a home, residing in subsidised housing) and
neighbourhood characteristics such as median household income, percentage of
unemployed people, or proportion of students who qualify for free or reduced-price lunch
in local schools.
Participants in People participate in research in a variety of settings, including laboratories, homes,
your research schools, businesses, clinics, and hospitals. Specific terms are used in certain contexts.
project When writing about people who participate in research, descriptive terms such as “college
students,” “children,” or “respondents” as well as the more general terms “participants”
and “subjects” are acceptable. “Subjects” and “sample” are also customary when
discussing established statistical terms and experimental designs (e.g., “within-subjects
design,” “between-subjects design,” “sample-size-adjusted Bayesian information
criterion,” “between-samples estimate of the variance”).

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REFERENCES AND RECOMMENDED SOURCES

Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, Seventh Edition (2020).

https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition

Additional Sources

Unisa Library https://libguides.unisa.ac.za/psychology

Guides

https://libguides.unisa.ac.za/research-support

https://methods.sagepub.com/

Useful YouTube https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Sx67_okMkpA

video on research
methods in
psychology

Useful YouTube https://www.youtube.com/c/ProfAndyField/featured

video on statistics in
psychology

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