Design and Development of a Solar-Powered IoT-

Based Fire Alarm System with Integrated GPS and

GSM for Enhanced Emergency Response
John Paul O. Daganato Rovil S. Berido
Department of Electronics Engineering Department of Electronics Engineering
Caraga State University Caraga State University
Butuan City, Philippines Butuan City, Philippines
[email protected] [email protected]

Jeffrey T. Dellosa Alexander M. Platino

Department of Electronics Engineering Department of Electronics Engineering
Caraga State University, Butuan City, Philippines Caraga State University
Mindanao Renewable Energy Center, Ateneo de Davao Butuan City, Philippines
University, Davao City, Philippines [email protected]
[email protected]

Abstract— The prevalence of fire incidents has increased alongside safety measures and infrastructures to adapt to the heightened
rising global temperatures, necessitating more sophisticated fire risks in a warming climate [1].
alarm systems. This intensity of fire emergency occurrence According to the NFPA, from 2011 to 2015 there were an
highlighted the deficiencies in current fire alarm and navigation estimated 37,910 fires in industrial and manufacturing
systems within buildings, often leading to delayed response times,
properties causing an estimated $1.2 billion in property damage
elevated risks, and impeded rescue operations. The limitations of
Traditional fire alarm systems, which rely on grid power, render per year. The leading causes of these industrial fires were
them susceptible to outages, and their absence of critical electrical distribution and lighting equipment (24%), eating
technologies restricts their effectiveness in prompt emergency equipment (16%) and intentional fires (9%). According to the
communication and response. This study aims to overcome these NFPA, fires caused by electrical distribution and lighting
challenges by designing and developing a solar-powered, IoT- equipment accounted for 55% of direct property damage and 9%
based fire alarm system integrated with GPS and GSM modules, of injuries in structure fires. The study’s objective is to bridge
assuring continued operation during power failures and the safety gaps of traditional fire alarm system and more
bolstering emergency response capabilities. The integration of advance system by designing and developing a Solar-Powered
solar power ensures sustainable operation, and the Internet of
IoT Fire Alarm Systems for Industrial and Residential Settings
Things (IoT) enables real-time data transmission, optimizing the
early detection and response to fire incidents. The incorporation with Integrated GPS and GSM for Fire Department Alerts. It
of the Global Positioning System and Global System for Mobile aims to speed up emergency response times while boosting fire
Communications offers real-time monitoring, precise location detection accuracy and reliability. Thus, by using solar power
tracking, and swift communication, fostering timely alerts that it can reduce reliance on conventional energy sources,
improve evacuation processes and support emergency responders. particularly in areas prone to power outages or where power
This advancement in fire safety has the potential to significantly sources are not readily available, this ensures continuous
reduce response time, minimize property damage, address operation of the alarm system even during adverse conditions,
negative impacts on global warming caused by fires, as well as save leading to long-term cost savings and environmental benefits
lives.
[3]. To collect empirical data, confirm functioning, and
pinpoint areas for development, prototyping will be used. The
Keywords— Solar Power, Internet of Things (IoT), Global
study aims to increase occupant and building safety by
Positioning System (GPS), Global System for Mobile
Communications (GSM), Fire Alarm System. developing of a scalable and flexible fire alarm system that can
be used in practical settings. It can help to the fire fighter to go
I. INTRODUCTION early and avoid spreading of fire [4]. The main controller of this
Fires are unfavourable occurrences with real costs to both study is Node MCU Board or ESP32.
property and human lives. Global warming is one of the reasons The objective of this study is to bridge the safety gaps of
as it exacerbates the risk of industrial and residential fires by traditional fire alarm system by Designing and Developing a
increasing the demand for energy and straining electrical Solar-Powered IoT-based Fire Alarm Systems with Integrated
infrastructure, leading to potential overloads and fires. Extreme GPS and GSM for Fire Department Alerts.
weather events, intensified by climate changes, may damage Specifically, this study aimed to:
power lines and industrial equipment, heightening the risk of 1. Develop a Solar-Powered Fire Alarm System that
ignition. As a result, there is a growing need for enhanced fire operates independently of electrical power,
 thereby ensuring uninterrupted functionality, III. HARDWARE ASPECTS
particularly during power outages.
2. Investigate how the inclusion of GPS and GSM A. Main Controller Unit: ESP32(Node MCU Board)
module in the Fire Alarm System can enhance the The system uses an ESP32(Node MCU board), which allows
accuracy of fire detection and communication, it to operate the fire alarm system. By running all of the
thereby providing early warning alerts to improve functionalities at once, the system uses less energy than
evacuation procedures and aid first responders. competing home automation systems. The ESP32 demonstrates
3. Evaluate the efficiency and effectiveness of the robust performance in industrial settings, maintaining reliable
proposed Solar-Based IoT Fire Alarm System operation across a wide temperature range from -40°C to
with GPS and GSM Alert Features by comparing +125°C. Equipped with sophisticated calibration circuitry, the
it to the existing fire alarm system. ESP32 can effectively mitigate external circuit irregularities
and adjust to fluctuations in environmental conditions [5].
II. OVERALL SYSTEM FUNCTION OVERVIEW
The design and development process for the Solar-Powered
IoT-based fire alarm system with GSM and GPS integration is
described in this section. The method used to accomplish the
system's goals, such as precise fire and smoke detection, real-
time navigation guidance, and identification of individual for
targeted rescue operations. The major elements,
communication protocols, and data flow between distinct
modules are highlighted in the system architecture.
Additionally, covered in this part are design factors for
scalability, interoperability, and user interface design. System
overview is shown in figure 1, Block diagram of the system
design shown in figure 2. Fig. 3. ESP32 DEVKIT V1 Main Controller

Label: 1-Detect, 2-Transmit, 3-Process and Sending Alerts, 4- B. Power Supply: Solar Panel
Intervention Solar energy is gaining popularity as a renewable energy
source since it produces electricity without emitting any
emissions and doesn't deplete the limited supply of fossil fuels.
They offer clean and sustainable energy solutions and fit
smoothly into a variety of applications, from home rooftops to
large-scale solar farms and off-grid systems [6].

Fig. 1. System Overview

Fig. 4. ST-20W-Solar Panel

C. Solar Controller
A solar charge controller serves as a critical component in
solar power systems, regulating the flow of electricity from
solar panels to batteries. As solar panels generate electricity
from sunlight, the charge controller ensures that the batteries
are charged safely and efficiently by managing the voltage and
current levels. This prevents overcharging, which can damage
the batteries, while also protecting against deep discharge,
Fig. 2. Block Diagram of System Design which can reduce battery lifespan [7].
 Fig. 5. Solar Controller Fig. 8. NEO-6M GPS Module Pinout

D. Battery
Lead-acid batteries are commonly used in many things, like G. Sim800L V2 GSM Module
cars, battery storage in various applications, and solar power The SIM800L V2 GSM module stands out as a compact and
systems. They work by having lead plates in acid, which creates economical communication solution, providing strong GSM
electricity. These batteries are known for being reliable and and GPRS features. Designed to facilitate seamless cellular
tough, and they're often used for backup power or in places connectivity, it empowers devices to transmit and receive SMS
without electricity. Even though there are newer types of messages, handle phone calls, and access the internet via GPRS.
batteries, lead-acid ones are still popular because they're Boasting compatibility with quad-band GSM frequencies, this
dependable and affordable [8]. module ensures global network coverage [11].

Fig. 6. One Star-12V-Battery Fig. 9. Sim800L GSM Module 5V Pinout

E. Buck Converter H. Flame Sensor

Buck converters are vital components in modern electronics, The KY-026 Flame IR Sensor is a specialized module
playing a crucial role in power management systems by renowned for its ability to detect flames or fire using infrared
efficiently reducing voltage from higher levels to lower ones. radiation. By leveraging an IR receiver, this sensor can
Their versatility finds application in various fields such as accurately identify the unique infrared signature emitted by
battery charging, LED lighting, and DC-DC converters, where flames, distinguishing them from ambient light sources. Its
precise voltage regulation is essential [9]. digital output signal simplifies integration into various projects
and systems, making it a popular choice for fire detection
systems and safety monitoring applications [12].

Fig. 10. KY-026 Flame IR Sensor

Fig. 7. LM2596 Buck Converter
I. MQ2 Smoke Sensor
F. Data Transmitter: GSM and GPS Metal oxide semiconductor (MOS) sensor called the MQ2
GSM (Global System for Mobile Communication) is a Gas Sensor Module, which is used to detect smoke and
digital mobile network that is widely used by mobile phone combustible gases. The MQ2 Gas Sensor is a versatile, user-
users in Europe and other parts of the world. GSM uses a friendly, and reasonably priced sensor that can be used in
variation of time division multiple access (TDMA) and is the various applications. The sensor measures changes in resistance
most widely used of the three digital wireless telephony when its sensing element, tin dioxide, a semiconductor that
technologies: TDMA, GSM and code-division multiple access changes resistance when in contact with various gases, is
(CDMA). GSM digitizes and compresses data, then sends it exposed to different gases [13].
down a channel with two other streams of user data, each in its
own time slot [10].
 B. Energy Consumption of the Components
Table 10 presents a comprehensive breakdown of the energy
consumption of various components within the fire alarm
system over both specific time intervals and a full day. Each
component, such as the ESP32 NODE MCU, flame sensor,
DHT11 sensor, MQ2 sensor, buzzer, GSM module, and GPS
module, is listed alongside its respective power consumption in
Fig. 11. MQ2 Smoke Sensor
watts (W), operating voltage in volts (V), and current
J. Temperature Sensor consumption in milliamperes (mA). By multiplying the power
consumption of each component by a one-hour duration, the
The DHT11 temperature sensor is widely used for its
energy consumption per hour (measured in watt-hours, Wh) is
simplicity and affordability. It measures temperature and
derived. This calculation enables the determination of the total
humidity accurately using a capacitive humidity sensor and a
energy consumption per day for each component, providing
thermistor. Its wide operating voltage range and low power
insight into their energy requirements over a 24-hour period.
consumption make it suitable for various applications, from
Additionally, a cumulative total of the energy consumption per
weather stations to home automation. The sensor's digital
day for all components combined is included, representing the
output makes it easy to connect with microcontrollers, which is
overall energy needs of the fire alarm system. Furthermore,
why it's popular among hobbyists [14].
considering an average of 10 hours of sunlight per day, the solar
panel's daily energy output is calculated to be 200 watt-hours
(20W × 10 hours), which significantly exceeds the total daily
energy consumption of the system (48.884Wh). This analysis
confirms that the solar panel capacity is sufficient to meet the
energy demands of the fire alarm system.
TABLE I
Fig. 12. DHT11 Temperature Sensor ENERGY CONSUMPTION OF THE COMPONENTS

Compon Pow Volta Curr Curr Energy Energy

IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ent er ge ent ent Consump Consump
This section detailed the design and development of a solar (W) (V) (mA) (A) tion per tion per
powered IoT-based fire alarm system with integrated GPS and Hour Day (W)
(Wh)
GSM for fire department alerts, presenting calibration testing ESP32 0.50 5 100 0.10 0.50 12
results, along with an analysis of its performance in promoting IR 0.16 3.30 50 0.05 0.165 3.96
public safety and environmental sustainability. Also, the 5
challenges during the implementation and so with the solutions DHT11 0.06 3.30 20 0.02 0.066 1.584
6
were discussed comprehensively.
MQ2 0.09 3.30 30 0.03 0.099 2.376
9
A. Installation of the Solar-Powered IoT-based Fire Alarm Buzzer 0.25 5 50 0.05 0.25 0.004
System GSM 1 5 200 0.20 1 24
The installation of the Fire Alarm System as shown in Figure GPS 0.16 3.30 50 0.05 0.165 3.96
5
30 utilized a Solar Panel (20W), Solar Controller (10A), and
Total 48.884
Battery (12V). To optimize power consumption, a buck
converter was employed to regulate power flow to the ESP32,
C. Solar Panel Controller Charge and Overpressure Indication
our main microcontroller for the fire alarm system's
If the system is properly connected, when the sunlight shines
development.
on the PV panel, the charge LED light in green, indicating the
system is working in a good order. PWM mode is applied in
charging. During the charging, if over discharge has happened,
firstly the voltage for charging battery will be up to boost
voltage and keep 10 minutes, then returns to direct voltage and
keep 10 minutes to active battery, lastly to float voltage and
keep this state for the best state battery. These processes are
benefit to battery full charging and its life span.

D. Battery State
When the battery voltage is in normal condition, the state
LED lights in green; state LED flashes slowly in green when
Fig. 13. Solar Powered IoT-Based Fire Alarm System
battery finishes its charge; when the voltage of the battery is
lower, it will get in red color, and turns off the output at the
same time, until the battery voltage recovers to over discharge 4 0 460 41.18
return voltage, the system will work again automatically. 6 0 467 40.70
8 0 440 39.16
E. Testing of the Fire Alarm System with all of its Sensors and 10 0 419 40.18
12 0 420 40.18
Modules
14 0 468 41.18
Figure 14 shows the comprehensive testing of the 16 0 448 40.58
developed fire alarm system, where all sensors and modules are 18 0 457 40.91
integrated into a single unit. This test is conducted over a
20 0 451 41.15
duration of 1 hour, utilizing data logging, and employing a
controlled fire scenario. 22 0 487 41.72
24 0 454 41.31
26 0 462 41.31
28 0 477 42.23
30 0 498 42.30
32 0 1061 60.42
34 1 1661 65.67
36 1 1738 72.42
38 1 1937 73.60
40 1 2587 92.15
42 1 3312 108.90
44 1 3335 115.90

Fig. 14. Testing of the Fire Alarm System with all of its Sensors and Modules 46 1 3392 117.80
48 1 1732 85.17
Table II below presents a minute-by-minute account of the
50 1 1211 67.60
recorded data throughout the hour-long evaluation period.
During the initial 30 minutes, the system reports low readings 52 0 789 50.60
from the IR Flame sensor, MQ2 Smoke sensor, and DHT11 54 0 625 48.60
Temperature sensor, indicating the absence of fire and smoke 56 0 537 46.90
within the monitored area. However, nearing the 45-minute
58 0 408 44.80
mark, a controlled fire is initiated and sustained for
approximately 15 minutes. During this period, fire is gradually 60 0 445 40.30
intensifying, expanding from a scale of 10 inches to 50 inches.
As the fire intensifies, the sensor readings reflect the changing F. IoT Outcome for a 1-Hour Data Logging of IR, MQ2, and
conditions: the smoke level rises sharply to 3,392 ppm, while DHT11
the heat index reaches a peak of 108.9 degrees Celsius. The conducted one-hour tests with 2-minute intervals and a
Concurrently, an automated SMS notification system is controlled fire for about 4-6 inch, demonstrates its functionality
activated, sending real-time alerts to designated recipients, in fire detection and environmental monitoring. Table II
potentially including the Fire Department. These messages illustrates that throughout the initial 20 minutes, the Flame
include crucial information such as the detection of flames, the Sensor consistently recorded a value of 0, signaling the absence
current heat index, smoke levels, and the precise GPS of fire. This value shifted to 1 between 20-40 minutes upon fire
coordinates, facilitating swift response and intervention. The detection and reverted back to 0 from 40-60 minutes, indicating
GPS coordinates enable accurate pinpointing of the fire that the fire had been effectively neutralized. The MQ2 smoke
location via platforms like Google Maps. Approaching the 1- sensor initially registered smoke concentrations of 420-487
hour mark, as the fire is brought under control, the sensor ppm during the first 20 minutes. This value rose markedly to
values gradually decrease. The smoke and heat index readings 499-2001 ppm from 20-40 minutes due to a controlled fire,
diminish, while the IR sensor registers a return to its baseline followed by a substantial drop from 2001 ppm to 420 ppm,
level, signaling the cessation of the fire event. This gradual which attests to the sensor's capacity for real-time smoke
decline in sensor values indicates successful fire mitigation and detection. The DHT11 temperature sensor recorded a Heat
restoration of safe conditions within the monitored area. Index between 34.08 and 36.49 degrees Celsius initially, which
TABLE III escalated to 39.94-100.65 degrees Celsius in response to the
OUTCOME OF 1-HOUR TESTING WITH INTEGRATED SENSORS AND MODULES fire during the 20-40 minutes period, and then settled back to a
Time Flame Sensor Smoke Heat Index range of 79.54-35.34 degrees Celsius in the final 20 minutes,
(Minutes) showcasing precise temperature monitoring and swift
2 0 480 40.57 adaptation to thermal fluctuations.
TABLE III. OUTCOME FOR A 1-HOUR DATA LOGGING IN THE
G. Integration of GSM and GPS Module to the Fire Alarm
INTERNET OF THINGS
System
Time (Minutes) Flame Heat Smoke Delay Integrating GSM and GPS modules to the fire alarm system
Sensor Index (minutes) greatly enhances its effectiveness and adds several important
2 0 34.08 459 2
benefits. It enables real-time communication and tracking
4 0 34.08 420 2
6 0 34.08 453 2 capabilities. This mean that when a fire is detected, the alarm
8 0 33.86 467 2 system can immediately send notifications to designated
10 0 34.31 445 2 recipients such as fire departments, building owners, or security
12 0 34.31 475 2 personnel, through the GSM module.
14 0 34.08 455 2
16 0 34.08 439 2
18 0 34.09 458 2
20 0 36.49 487 2
22 1 39.94 868 2
24 1 47.26 499 2
26 1 58.25 591 2
28 1 65.84 675 2
30 1 84.58 1497 2
32 1 76.92 1475 2
34 1 102.28 1014 2
36 1 106.19 1207 2
38 1 95.96 1951 2
40 1 100.65 2001 2
42 0 79.94 495 2
44 0 42.97 485 2
46 0 36.91 441 2
48 0 36.99 420 2
50 0 35.54 449 2
52
54
0
0
35.24
35.55
480
489
2
2 A B C
C
56 0 35.08 470 2
58 0 35.34 433 2 Fig. 16. Sample SMS for GPS (a), (b) Google Location Map (c) GPS with
60 0 35.34 498 2 GSM

2500 Figure 16 shows the Google Maps visualization of the

location where a fire has been detected, corroborated by the
2000
transmission of an SMS notification. Figure 16(A) delineates the
1500 distance from the central area of Butuan City to Lemon, Butuan
City, the primary location where the fire was initially detected
1000
and where the Fire Alarm System, coupled with GSM and GPS
500 functionality, is installed. The map indicates a travel distance of
9.1 kilometers, with an estimated transit time of 15 minutes by
0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 56 58
motorized land transport. Figure 16(B) displays the location of
Time (Minutes)
the secondary receiver linked to the Fire Alarm System and
Flame Sensor Heat Index Smoke maps the route from Ampayon, Butuan City to Lemon, Butuan
City, showing a shorter distance of 2.3 kilometers with an
Fig. 15. Results of a 1-Hour Fire Detection and Monitoring Test of the estimated travel time of 8 minutes by vehicle. Figure 16(C)
Sensors exhibits a sample SMS message intended for the Fire
Department, which includes the precise geographic coordinates,
Additionally, the line graph shown in Figure 15 displays the longitude and latitude of the detected fire's location. The
results of a one-hour fire detection and environmental integration of GSM and GPS technologies in the fire alarm setup
monitoring test using a 4 to 6-inch controlled fire. It illustrates not only facilitates timely emergency response but also enables
the temporal response of the Flame Sensor, MQ2 smoke sensor, remote system monitoring and command. With these modules,
and DHT11 temperature sensor. The Flame Sensor detected no authorized individuals have the capability to remotely access
fire initially, then identified a fire, and subsequently noted its and supervise the fire alarm system, acquire instantaneous
extinguishment. The MQ2 and DHT11 sensors both registered information regarding potential fire incidents, and, if necessary,
baseline values at the start of the experiment. The MQ2 then remotely engage or disengage the alarm system.
detected a marked increase in smoke concentration during the H. Comparison of Traditional & Solar-Powered IoT-Based
fire, peaking between 20-40 minutes, and decreasing once the Fire Alarm
fire was extinguished. Likewise, the DHT11 displayed a rise in A conventional system employs one or more initiating
the Heat Index corresponding to the controlled fire, and a return circuits, connected to sensors (initiating devices) wired in
to near-baseline temperatures as the test concluded.
parallel. These sensors are devised to decrease the circuits The comparison in Table IV shows that Traditional fire alarm
resistance when the environmental influence on any sensor systems typically have higher installation costs because they
exceeds a predetermined threshold. In a conventional system require extensive wiring, while solar-powered IoT-based
(Table III) the information density is limited to the number of systems offer lower installation costs due to wireless
such circuits used. At times, a floor plan of the building is often technology and reliance on solar power. Both systems require
placed near the main entrance with the defined zones drawn up, low maintenance and can be installed quickly, ensuring
and LEDs indicating whether a particular circuit/zone has been efficient operation with minimal downtime. Traditional
activated. Another common method is to have the different systems often need manual intervention to trigger alarms,
zones listed in a column, with an LED to the left of each zone unlike solar-powered IoT systems, which offer automated
name.
alarms for faster response times and enhanced safety.
The main drawback with conventional panels is that one Additionally, traditional systems may suffer from single points
cannot tell which device has been activated within a circuit. The of failure due to centralized components, whereas the
fire may be in one small room, but as far as emergency distributed nature of IoT systems reduces such risks, ensuring
responders can tell, a fire could exist anywhere within a zone. greater reliability. While traditional systems cannot pinpoint
The same applies to coded panels, which nowadays are no the exact location of a fire, IoT systems utilize advanced
longer made, but can be found in old systems. sensors and IoT connectivity to precisely locate fires,
TABLE IV. COMPARISON OF TRADITIONAL & SOLAR-POWERED enhancing situational awareness and response effectiveness.
IOT-BASED FIRE ALARM SYSTEM Moreover, traditional systems rely on grid power and are
dependent on external infrastructure, whereas IoT systems
Parameter Traditional Solar-Powered Basis operate independently using solar energy, providing greater
System IoT System resilience and reducing environmental impact.
Low ✘ ✓ Cost Comparison &
Installation Installation Method
IoT systems offer advanced notification capabilities through
Cost IoT connectivity, delivering real-time alerts to smartphones or
Low ✓ ✓ Historical Data & other devices, unlike traditional systems that provide basic
Maintenance Technology Used alarms. Additionally, IoT systems leverage modern technology
Quick ✓ ✓ Historical Data & such as GPS integration and GSM connectivity for precise
Installation Installation Method
Manual ✓ ✘ Operation Principle location tracking and remote communication, offering
Intervention & Technology Used enhanced features and functionality compared to traditional
Required systems. Both traditional and IoT systems are scalable to cover
Automated ✘ ✓ Operation Principle larger areas or additional zones, ensuring adaptability to
Alarm & Technology Used
Single Point System Architecture
evolving needs and requirements. However, IoT systems stand
✓ ✘
of Failure & Technology Used out with their ability to automatically alert local fire
Pinpoint Exact ✘ ✓ Technology Used departments, ensuring prompt response and mitigating
Fire Location potential damages. Furthermore, the use of renewable solar
Dependent on ✓ ✘ Power Source & energy in IoT systems reduces environmental impact, making
Grid Power System Architecture
Independent ✘ ✓ Power Source & them a more sustainable choice compared to traditional systems.
Operation System Architecture
Advanced ✘ ✓ Technology Used V. CONCLUSION
Notification The design and development of the solar-powered IoT-based
Leverages ✘ ✓ Technology Used
fire alarm system, as outlined in this study, represent a
Advanced
Technology significant advancement in fire safety technology. The
GPS ✘ ✓ Technology Used incorporation of solar panels underscores the system's autonomy
Integration and environmental friendliness, eliminating reliance on
GSM ✘ ✓ Technology Used conventional power sources and enhancing the system's
Connectivity operational readiness, especially in remote or off-grid locations.
Utilizes IoT ✘ ✓ Technology Used With a solar controller ensuring optimal battery charging and
Framework
Scalable System Architecture
health, the system demonstrates higher resilience and extended
✓ ✓
& Historical Data operational lifetime. Through meticulous calibration and
Automatically ✘ ✓ System Functionality testing, the system's efficacy in detecting fires, monitoring
Alerts Fire & Technology Used environmental conditions, and facilitating rapid emergency
Departments response has been demonstrated. Integration of various sensors,
Built-in ✘ ✓ Power Source & including the Flame Sensor, Smoke Sensor, and Temperature
Renewable Technology Used
Energy
Sensor, within the IoT framework enables real-time data
Proven ✓ ✓ Historical Data & transmission and comprehensive hazard detection. The addition
Reliability System Reliability of GSM and GPS modules further bolsters the system's
Reduced ✘ ✓ Technology Used capabilities, allowing precise location tracking and immediate
Environmental notification of emergency responders. Comprehensive testing
Impact showcased the system's responsiveness to controlled fire
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