TOPIC 1.

4: Limits of Polynomial, Rational, and

Radical Functions
In the previous lesson, we presented and illustrated the limit theorems. We start by recalling
these limit theorems.

Theorem 1. Let c, k, L and M be real numbers, and let f (x) and g(x) be functions defined
on some open interval containing c, except possibly at c.

1. If lim f (x) exists, then it is unique. That is, if lim f (x) = L and lim f (x) = M , then
x→c x→c x→c
L = M.

2. lim c = c.
x→c

3. lim x = c
x→c

4. Suppose lim f (x) = L and lim g(x) = M .

x→c x→c

(a) (Constant Multiple) lim [k · g(x)] = k · M .

x→c
(b) (Addition) lim [f (x) ± g(x)] = L ± M .
x→c
(c) (Multiplication) lim [f (x)g(x)] = LM .
x→c
f (x) L
(d) (Division) lim = , provided M 6= 0.
x→c g(x) M
(e) (Power) lim [f (x)]p = Lp for p, a positive integer.
x→c
p √
n
(f ) (Root/Radical) lim n f (x) = L for positive integers n, and provided that L > 0
x→c
when n is even.

In this lesson, we will show how these limit theorems are used in evaluating algebraic functions.
Particularly, we will illustrate how to use them to evaluate the limits of polynomial, rational
and radical functions.

LIMITS OF ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS

We start with evaluating the limits of polynomial functions.

30
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 EXAMPLE 1: Determine lim (2x + 1).
x→1

Solution. From the theorems above,

lim (2x + 1) = lim 2x + lim 1 (Addition)

x→1 x→1 x→1
 
= 2 lim x + 1 (Constant Multiple)
x→1
 
= 2(1) + 1 lim x = c
x→c

=2+1
= 3.

EXAMPLE 2: Determine lim (2x3 − 4x2 + 1).

x→−1

Solution. From the theorems above,

lim (2x3 − 4x2 + 1) = lim 2x3 − lim 4x2 + lim 1 (Addition)

x→−1 x→−1 x→−1 x→−1
= 2 lim x3 − 4 lim x2 + 1 (Constant Multiple)
x→−1 x→−1
= 2(−1)3− 4(−1)2 + 1 (Power)
= −2 − 4 + 1
= −5.
.

EXAMPLE 3: Evaluate lim (3x4 − 2x − 1).

x→0

Solution. From the theorems above,

lim (3x4 − 2x − 1) = lim 3x4 − lim 2x − lim 1 (Addition)

x→0 x→0 x→0 x→0
= 3 lim x4 − 2 lim x2 − 1 (Constant Multiple)
x→0 x→0
= 3(0)4 −
2(0) − 1 (Power)
=0−0−1
= −1.
.

We will now apply the limit theorems in evaluating rational functions. In evaluating the limits
of such functions, recall from Theorem 1 the Division Rule, and all the rules stated in Theorem
1 which have been useful in evaluating limits of polynomial functions, such as the Addition and
Product Rules.

31
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 1
EXAMPLE 4: Evaluate lim .
x→1 x

Solution. First, note that lim x = 1. Since the limit of the denominator is nonzero, we can
x→1
apply the Division Rule. Thus,

1 lim 1
x→1
lim = (Division)
x→1 x lim x
x→1
1
=
1
= 1.

x
EXAMPLE 5: Evaluate lim .
x→2 x+1

Solution. We start by checking the limit of the polynomial function in the denominator.

lim (x + 1) = lim x + lim 1 = 2 + 1 = 3.

x→2 x→2 x→2

Since the limit of the denominator is not zero, it follows that

x lim x 2
x→2
lim = = (Division)
x→2 x + 1 lim (x + 1) 3
x→2
.

(x − 3)(x2 − 2)
EXAMPLE 6: Evaluate lim .
x→1 x2 + 1

Solution. First, note that

lim (x2 + 1) = lim x2 + lim 1 = 1 + 1 = 2 6= 0.

x→1 x→1 x→1
Thus, using the theorem,

(x − 3)(x2 − 2) lim (x − 3)(x2 − 2)

x→1
lim = (Division)
x→1 x2 + 1 lim (x2 + 1)
x→1
lim (x − 3) · lim (x2 − 2)
x→1 x→1
= (Multipication)
 2  
lim x − lim 3 lim x2 − lim 2
x→1 x→1 x→1 x→1
= (Addition)
2
(1 − 3)(12 − 2)
=
2
= 1.

32
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 .

Theorem 2. Let f be a polynomial of the form

f (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + an−2 xn−2 + ... + a1 x + a0 .

If c is a real number, then

lim f (x) = f (c).
x→c

EXAMPLE 7: Evaluate lim (2x3 − 4x2 + 1).

x→−1

Solution. Note first that our function

f (x) = 2x3 − 4x2 + 1,

is a polynomial. Computing for the value of f at x = −1, we get

f (−1) = 2(−1)3 − 4(−1)2 + 1 = 2(−1) − 4(1) + 1 = −5.

Therefore, from Theorem 2,

lim (2x3 − 4x2 + 1) = f (−1) = −5.

x→−1

Note that we get the same answer when we use limit theorems.

f (x)
Theorem 3. Let h be a rational function of the form h(x) = where f and g are polynomial
g(x)
functions. If c is a real number and g(c) 6= 0, then

f (x) f (c)
lim h(x) = lim = .
x→c x→c g(x) g(c)

1 − 5x
EXAMPLE 8: Evaluate lim .
x→1 1 + 3x2 + 4x4

Solution. Since the denominator is not zero when evaluated at x = 1, we may apply Theorem
3:
1 − 5x 1 − 5(1) −4 1
lim 2 4
= 2 4
= =− .
x→1 1 + 3x + 4x 1 + 3(1) + 4(1) 8 2
.

33
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We will now evaluate limits of radical functions using limit theorems.

√
EXAMPLE 9: Evaluate lim x.
x→1

Solution. Note that lim x = 1 > 0. Therefore, by the Radical/Root Rule,

x→1

√ q √
lim x= lim x = 1 = 1.
x→1 x→1

√
EXAMPLE 10: Evaluate lim x + 4.
x→0

Solution. Note that lim (x + 4) = 4 > 0. Hence, by the Radical/Root Rule,

x→0

√ q √
lim x+4= lim (x + 4) = 4 = 2.
x→0 x→0

p
3
EXAMPLE 11: Evaluate lim x2 + 3x − 6.
x→−2

Solution. Since the index of the radical sign is odd, we do not have to worry that the limit of
the radicand is negative. Therefore, the Radical/Root Rule implies that
p
3
r √ √
lim x2 + 3x − 6 = 3 lim (x2 + 3x − 6) = 3
4−6−6= 3
−8 = −2.
x→−2 x→−2

√
2x + 5
EXAMPLE 12: Evaluate lim .
x→2 1 − 3x

Solution. First, note that lim (1 − 3x) = −5 6= 0. Moreover, lim (2x + 5) = 9 > 0. Thus, using
x→2 x→2
the Division and Radical Rules of Theorem 1, we obtain

√ √ q
√
lim 2x + 5 lim (2x + 5)
2x + 5 x→2 9 3
lim = x→2 = = =− .
x→2 1 − 3x lim 1 − 3x −5 −5 5
x→2

34
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 INTUITIVE NOTIONS OF INFINITE LIMITS
f (x)
We investigate the limit at a point c of a rational function of the form where f and g are
g(x)
polynomial functions with f (c) 6= 0 and g(c) = 0. Note that Theorem 3 does not cover this
because it assumes that the denominator is nonzero at c.

1 7
Now, consider the function f (x) = 2 .
x 6
Note that the function is not defined at 5
x = 0 but we can check the behavior of the 4
function as x approaches 0 intuitively. We 3
first consider approaching 0 from the left. 1
2 f (x) =
x2
1

−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 x

x f (x)
−0.9 1.2345679
−0.5 4
−0.1 100
−0.01 10, 000
−0.001 1, 000, 000
−0.0001 100, 000, 000

Observe that as x approaches 0 from the left, the value of the function increases without bound.
When this happens, we say that the limit of f (x) as x approaches 0 from the left is positive
infinity, that is,
lim f (x) = +∞.
x→0−

x f (x)
0.9 1.2345679
0.5 4
0.1 100
0.01 10, 000
0.001 1, 000, 000
0.0001 100, 000, 000

35
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Again, as x approaches 0 from the right, the value of the function increases without bound, so,
lim f (x) = +∞.
x→0+

Since lim f (x) = +∞ and lim f (x) = +∞, we may conclude that lim f (x) = +∞.
x→0− x→0+ x→0

−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
x
−1
1
1 −2 f (x) = −
Now, consider the function f (x) = − 2 . x2
x −3
Note that the function is not defined at x = −4
0 but we can still check the behavior of the −5
function as x approaches 0 intuitively. We −6
first consider approaching 0 from the left. −7
−8

x f (x)
−0.9 −1.2345679
−0.5 −4
−0.1 −100
−0.01 −10, 000
−0.001 −1, 000, 000
−0.0001 −100, 000, 000

This time, as x approaches 0 from the left, the value of the function decreases without bound.
So, we say that the limit of f (x) as x approaches 0 from the left is negative infinity, that is,

lim f (x) = −∞.

x→0−

x f (x)
0.9 −1.2345679
0.5 −4
0.1 −100
0.01 −10, 000
0.001 −1, 000, 000
0.0001 −100, 000, 000

As x approaches 0 from the right, the value of the function also decreases without bound, that
is, lim f (x) = −∞.
x→0+

36
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 Since lim f (x) = −∞ and lim f (x) = −∞, we are able to conclude that lim f (x) = −∞.
x→0− x→0+ x→0

We now state the intuitive definition of infinite limits of functions:

The limit of f (x) as x approaches c is positive infinity, denoted by,

lim f (x) = +∞
x→c

if the value of f (x) increases without bound whenever the values of x get closer and closer to
c. The limit of f (x) as x approaches c is negative infinity, denoted by,

lim f (x) = −∞
x→c

if the value of f (x) decreases without bound whenever the values of x get closer and closer to
c.

1 y
Let us consider f (x) = . The graph on
x 5
the right suggests that
4
1
3f (x) =
lim f (x) = −∞ x
x→0− 2
1
while
lim f (x) = +∞. −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 x
x→0+ −1

Because the one-sided limits are not the −2

−3
same, we say that
−4
−5
lim f (x) DNE.
x→0

Remark 1: Remember that ∞ is NOT a number. It holds no specific value. So, lim f (x) = +∞
x→c
or lim f (x) = −∞ describes the behavior of the function near x = c, but it does not exist as a
x→c
real number.

Remark 2: Whenever lim f (x) = ±∞ or lim f (x) = ±∞, we normally see the dashed
x→c+ x→c−
vertical line x = c. This is to indicate that the graph of y = f (x) is asymptotic to x = c,
meaning, the graphs of y = f (x) and x = c are very close to each other as x-values approach c.
In this case, we call x = c a vertical asymptote of the graph of y = f (x).

37
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Solved Examples
Evaluate the following limits.

EXAMPLE 1: lim (3x − 5)

x→2

Solution. lim (3x − 5) = lim (3x) − lim 5 = lim (3x) − 5 = 3( lim x) − 5 = 3(2) − 5 = 1. .
x→2 x→2 x→2 x→2 x→2

EXAMPLE 2: lim (2x4 − 4x3 + x − 2)

x→−1

Solution. lim (2x4 − 4x3 + x − 2) = 2(−1)4 − 4(−1)3 + (−1) − 2 = 3. .

x→−1

2
EXAMPLE 3: lim
x→2 x

Solution. Note that lim x = 2 6= 0. Therefore,

x→2

2 lim 2 2
lim = x→2 = = 1.
x→2 x lim x 2
x→2

x−1
EXAMPLE 4: lim
x→ 12 2x

1
Solution. Note that lim 2x = 2( ) = 1 6= 0. Thus, we have
1
x→ 2 2

lim (x − 1) 1
x−1 x→ 12
2 −1 1
lim = = =− .
x→ 2 2x
1 lim 2x 1 2
x→ 12

(2x + 1)(x2 + 3)
EXAMPLE 5: lim
x→−3 x+4

38
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 Solution. We note that lim (x + 4) = −3 + 4 = 1 6= 0. Hence, we obtain
x→−3

lim (2x + 1)(x2 + 3)

(2x + 1)(x2 + 3) x→−3
lim =
x→−3 x+4 lim x + 4
x→−3

lim (2x + 1) · lim (x2 + 3)

x→−3 x→−3
=
lim (x + 4)
x→−3

(2(−3) + 1) · ((−3)2 + 3)
=
1
= (−7)(12) = −84.

EXAMPLE 6: lim (5x3 − 3x2 + 1)

x→0

Solution. We remark that x = 0 is in the domain of the polynomial function

f (x) = 5x3 − 3x2 + 1. Therefore,

lim (5x3 − 3x2 + 1) = f (0) = 5(0)3 − 3(0)2 + 1 = 1.

x→0

x2 + x − 2
EXAMPLE 7: lim
x→−2 x+1

x2 + x − 2
Solution. Note that x = −2 is in the domain of g(x) = . Thus,
x+1

x2 + x − 2 (−2)2 + (−2) − 2 0
lim = g(−2) = = = 0.
x→−2 x+1 −2 + 1 −1
.

3
2 − 3x2

EXAMPLE 8: lim
x→1 x3 − 3x + 1

Solution. Note that x = 1 is in the domain of the polynomial function

2 − 3x2
h(x) =
x3 − 3x + 1
and
2 − 3(1)2 −1
h(1) = 3
= = 1.
(1) − 3(1) + 1 −1

39
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Thus, we have
2 2
2 − 3x2 2 − 3x2
  
lim = lim = (h(1))2 = 1.
x→1 x3 − 3x + 1 x→1 x3 − 3x + 1

√
EXAMPLE 9: lim x+1
x→−1

Solution. Note that lim (x + 1) = 0. Hence, we get

x→−1

√ q √
lim x+1= lim (x + 1) = 0 = 0.
x→−1 x→−1

p
EXAMPLE 10: lim x2 + 2x + 1
x→3

Solution. Note that lim (x2 + 2x + 1) = (3)2 + 2(3) + 1 = 16 > 0. Thus,

x→3

p r √
lim x + 2x + 1 = lim x2 + 2x + 1 = 16 = 4.
2
x→3 x→3

1
EXAMPLE 11: lim
x→0 x4

Solution. Approaching 0 from the left,

x f (x)
−0.9 1.524157903
−0.5 16
−0.1 10, 000
−0.01 100, 000, 000
−0.001 1, 000, 000, 000, 000
−0.0001 10, 000, 000, 000, 000, 000

Approaching 0 from the right,

40
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 x f (x)
0.9 1.524157903
0.5 16
0.1 10, 000
0.01 100, 000, 000
0.001 1, 000, 000, 000, 000
0.0001 10, 000, 000, 000, 000, 000

1
Hence, lim = +∞. .
x→0 x4

1
EXAMPLE 12: lim
x→0 x3

Solution. Approaching 0 from the left,

x f (x)
−0.9 −1.371742112
−0.5 −8
−0.1 −1000
−0.01 −1, 000, 000
−0.001 −1, 000, 000, 000
−0.0001 −1, 000, 000, 000, 000

Approaching 0 from the right,

x f (x)
0.9 1.371742112
0.5 8
0.1 1, 000
0.01 1, 000, 000
0.001 1, 000, 000, 000
0.0001 1, 000, 000, 000, 000

1
Hence, lim DNE.
x→0 x3

41
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Supplementary Problems

1. Evaluate the following limits using the limit theorems.

x
(a) lim (x + 1) (i) lim
x→1 x→0x+1
(b) lim (x − 2) x−1
x→2
(j) lim
(c) lim (2x + 3) x→3 2x − 4
x→−1
(d) lim (1 − 3x) x2 − 1
x→0 (k) lim −
x→−3 x+1
(e) lim (x2 + 3x − 5)
x→−2 1 + x2
2 (l) lim
(f) lim (2x − 1 − 5x ) x→2 x + 3
x→−1 √
(g) lim (x3 + x2 − 1) (m) lim x − 1
x→5
x→2 √
(h) lim (x4 − x2 − x + 1) (n) lim ( x2 − 1)
x→1 x→1

2. Determine the following limits using tables of values.

1 1
(a) lim (d) lim
x+2
x→−2 x+1
x→−1
1 1
(b) lim 2 (e) lim 2
x→1 x − 1 x→0 x − x
1 1
(c) lim (f) lim 3
x→1 x − 1 x→0 x − x

42
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electronic or mechanical including photocopying – without written permission from the DepEd Central Office. First Edition, 2017.