GNS 101 NOTES

BY

ORJI, P.C

DEPARTMENT OF GENERAL STUDIES, PETROLEUM TRAINING

INSTITUTE EFFURUN

STUDY SKILLS
Study skills refer to techniques and strategies that students use to effectively acquire, process,
retain, and apply knowledge. These skills are essential for academic success and lifelong
learning. They help students organize their study routines, manage time efficiently, and enhance
their understanding and retention of information. Key aspects of study skills include:
1. Time Management
- Planning and prioritizing tasks to meet deadlines.
- Allocating specific time blocks for studying, breaks, and other activities.
2. Note-Taking
- Recording key points during lectures or while reading to retain important information.
- Using techniques like the Cornell Method, mind maps, or bullet points for clarity.
3. Reading Skills
- Skimming and scanning for essential information.
- Reading actively by summarizing, questioning, and analyzing content.
4. Listening and Comprehension
- Paying attention during lectures and discussions.
- Asking questions to clarify doubts and enhance understanding.
5. Research Skills
- Finding and evaluating reliable sources for academic work.
- Using proper referencing and citation methods.
6. Exam Preparation
- Creating a study schedule and practicing past papers.
- Reviewing notes and focusing on weak areas.
7. Critical Thinking
- Analyzing and evaluating information to form independent conclusions.

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 - Applying logical reasoning to solve problems.
8. Stress Management
- Practicing relaxation techniques to stay focused and motivated.
- Maintaining a healthy balance between studies and personal life.
Mastering these study skills can improve academic performance, boost confidence, and make
learning more enjoyable and effective.
NOTE TAKING
Note taking refers to the act of writing down important information or key points from lectures
or speeches. In involves actively listening and summarizing the main ideas in a concise and
organized manner. Note taking helps in retaining information, reinforcing understanding, and
serving as a reference for future review. It is an effective study technique that enhances learning
and comprehension (understanding).
NOTE MAKING
Note making is an activity done during study time. It involves summarizing and condensing
information from lectures, textbooks, or other sources into concise (short) and organized notes.
Note making helps students to better understand and retain the information, as well as to review
and revise it later. It is a valuable study skill that enhances comprehension and aids in exam
preparation.
NOTE TAKING TECHNIQUES
 Listen carefully to the lecture/speech- paying attention is very important in note taking.
Listen attentively before you start taking notes.
 Understanding- understand what the speaker is saying before attempting to take notes;
take notes when you understand the point.
 Put down the summary of the main points of the lecture- do not write irrelevant points
down.
 Use abbreviations where necessary and possible- this saves time, especially when the
speaker is fast.
 Use symbols where necessary or important- be familiar with the symbols in your field
and use them where necessary.
 Leave plenty of space between different headings and sub-headings when taking
note- these spaces are to be used for writing additional information or facts that you may
discover after the lectures or during your own private study. Also leave wide margins for
later comments and related references.
 Emphasize key words, phrases and idea- use capitalization, underlining, colouring,
asterisks to do so.
 Use structured outlines- create a structured outline by organizing information
hierarchically (according to their order of importance). Use headings, sub-headings and
bullet points to categorize main ideas and supporting details.

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 USING THE DICTIONARY
WHAT IS A DICTIONARY?
A dictionary is a book or electronic resource that lists the words of a language (typically in
alphabetic order) and gives their meanings or the equivalent words in a different language, often
also providing information about pronunciation, origin and usage.
Dictionaries help in improving vocabularies when reading or writing. You can also use a
dictionary to check the spelling of words. Dictionaries also give other information about words,
such as word type and word origin. Note that dictionaries are not to be read like books but to be
consulted and used as reference books. Users of the English language should consult dictionaries
when they come across new words or when they need to confirm the status and usages of words.
This enables them understand words in context (as they are used).
The major functions that the dictionary performs include:
 A dictionary gives the proper spelling of words. Some dictionaries also give the variant
(different) spelling of words, such as the American and/or British variants. For instance;
Fulfil (British) and Fulfill (American) depict the variation in spelling.
 A dictionary also gives the appropriate syllable break down of words.
 A dictionary helps with the pronunciation of words through the representation of words
as sounds (transcription).
 The dictionary indicates the word class (parts of speech) of words.
 The dictionary supplies the origin (etymology) of words.
 The dictionary provides the synonyms and antonyms of words.
 The dictionary provides the idiomatic sense in which words can be used, and aalso gives
its possible connotative meanings.
Note that dictionaries are essential communication and study tools for everyone who wishes
to use language effectively.
THE USE OF THE LIBRARY
What is a Library?
A library is an organized collection of resources made accessible to a defined community for
referencing or borrowing. It provides physical or digital access to materials and may be a
physical building or a virtual space, or both.
A library‘s collection can include books, periodicals, newspapers, manuscripts, films, maps,
atlases, prints, documents, CDs, cassettes, videotapes, DVDs, E-books, audiobooks,
databases and other formats. Libraries range in size from a few shelves of books to several
million items.
Types of libraries include; Academic libraries, Research libraries/special libraries, School
libraries, public libraries, National libraries etc.

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 Information sources in the library
There are basically three sources of information, namely: primary, secondary and tertiary
sources of information.
Primary sources- these are firsthand accounts of research or an event including original
scholarly research results, raw data, testimony, speeches, historic objects or other evidence
that provide unique and original information about a person or an event. Examples include:
original journal research articles, conference proceedings, projects, theses and
dissertations, technical reports, lab notebooks, autobiographies, manuscripts, speeches,
Government documents, photographs, films etc.
Secondary sources- secondary sources analyze, synthesize, evaluate and interpret primary
sources (or other secondary sources). Secondary sources are created after an event has
occurred and are written by someone who did not experience or observe the event first hand.
Examples include: bibliographies, essays or reviews, literary criticisms or
commentaries, magazines and newspaper articles, biographies, media documentaries
etc.
Tertiary sources- these provide broad overviews or condensed narratives of topics. They
analyze and summarize the information in primary and secondary sources in order to provide
background on a data, event or topic. Examples include: Textbooks, dictionaries,
encyclopedias, handbooks, abstracts, atlases, directories, reference books gazettes,
compilations, almanacs etc.
READING HABITS
To develop good reading habits, practice the following:
1. Improve your reading skills- to enjoy reading to the fullest, practice good reading skills
such as:
 Read for content- always look out for the main idea of each paragraph along
with the supporting reasons. This you can achieve by using pencil to underline
key idea of every paragraph.
 Look up unfamiliar words- when reading; make a list of unfamiliar words and at
a good stopping point look up these words in a dictionary. Then go back and
reread the sentences they appear in to contextualize the words and their usage in
case of multiple meanings.
 Learn to appreciate contextual meanings- when you encounter unfamiliar
words or ideas, check out the literary, historical or social context for clues as to
what the character or writer is talking about.
 Become familiar with literary devices-familiarize yourself with common
literary tactics like metaphor, simile, hyperbole, personification etc. this can
significantly enrich your reading experience.
 Don‟t rush- keep nurturing your skills and develop at your own pace.
2. Keep reading materials handy.
3. Deciding what to read
4. Create a reading list.
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 Reading skills
Reading skills are specific abilities which enable a reader to:
 Read the written forms as meaningful language.
 Read anything written with independence, comprehension and fluency.
 Mentally interact with the message.
In order to enhance reading skills, the SQ3R formula is needed. The SQ3R reading formula is a
structured method designed to improve reading comprehension, retention, and critical
engagement with texts. It stands for Survey, Question, Read, Recite, and Review and helps
readers actively process and retain information. This formula yields effective results in
enhancing reading skills. The formula is interpreted as follows:
S- SURVEY-
-What to do: Skim through the material to get an overview.
- How to do it:
- Read titles, headings, and subheadings.
- Examine captions, charts, graphs, and illustrations.
- Review summaries or introductory paragraphs.
-Purpose: Understand the structure and main ideas of the text before diving deeper.
Surveying every book you want to read helps a great deal. To survey a book simply means
taking a preliminary (preparatory) step whenever you want to read any book. Surveying implies
that the reader should first and foremost look at the title of the book, the heading and sub-
headings of the topics. Mastering all these steps will give you the key to the main ideas of the
text. Surveying motivates you to go ahead gives you clues as to what you can find in the book.
Q- QUESTION- this represents the Q in the formula.
- What to do: Turn headings or key points into questions.
- How to do it:
- Ask yourself, "What is this section about?" or "What do I want to learn?"
- Create questions based on the text's structure (e.g., "Who? What? When? Where? Why?
How?").
- Purpose: Establish a purpose for reading and engage actively with the content.
Question is very important in reading because it gives you clues and directions. Formulate
questions as you read as these determine your proper understanding of the text. When you do
this, it would make you think actively. Active thinking makes you concentrate and enjoy what
you are reading. When framing questions, the following interrogative pronouns will guide you.
They are: who, what, where, when, why and how. Place each of them before the heading and it
will give a proper question which will help to your reading a success.

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R- READ- The first R in the formula stands for read.
-What to do: Read the text thoroughly to find answers to your questions.
- How to do it:
- Focus on understanding the main ideas and supporting details.
- Highlight or underline key points.
- Purpose: Actively seek information and maintain concentration.
The position of the first R(reading) as the third in the formula is deliberate. This shows you that
reading is not the first step. Students who make it the first and only method in reading make a
great mistake in their reading activities. Read could be used as the only method of reading a
novel or a magazine, not textbooks. Do not read just for the sake of reading. Read with great
concentration. Set your mind on getting the main ideas in the text.
R- RECITE- this is the second R in the 3Rs. It stands for recite.
- What to do: Summarize what you‘ve read in your own words.
- How to do it:
- Answer the questions you created earlier without looking at the text.
- Write brief notes or explain the material aloud.
- Purpose: Reinforce memory and ensure comprehension.
Recitation is the way of repeating what you have read in another way or in your own
understanding. It is one of the simplest techniques of learning some concepts in a text. It helps in
memorizing what has been read. Note that recitation does not mean cramming, it means the
recalling of the substance of the passage in your own words.
R- REVIEW- this is the very last stage of the formula SQ3R.
- What to do: Revisit the material periodically to strengthen your understanding.
- How to do it:
- Go over your notes and highlighted sections.
- Re-answer the questions you formulated earlier.
- Purpose: Consolidate learning and improve long-term retention.
Review, the third R in the SQ3R method means that the reader should go through the four steps
above but in a slightly different manner. This should be done immediately after reading a text.
This will enable you to discover some new points which might not have appealed to you when
you read it.

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 Reading Methods
1. Study reading-this method of reading needs getting actively involved with the text.
Here, reading is done at the slowest speed for a proper understanding of what you read.
It needs absolute concentration and understanding; your attention should be focused on
details in the texts being read. These details are to be remembered. It involves the
following:
 Underlining and highlighting- emphasize the most important parts of what you
are reading by underlining and highlighting them in your text.
 Note key words- take note of the main headings as you read. Use one or two
keywords for each point.
 Train your mind in active reading- make constant use of SQ3R in your active
reading.
2. Skimming- this is a kind of reading method that involves reading a text with accurate
speed to get the overall idea of what the text is saying. Skimming a passage involves
reading only a few sentences in each paragraph especially the sentence that has the main
idea. In skimming, you do not need high level of comprehension (understanding), this is
because skimming is used to get a general idea, impression, overview or gist of the
reading materials. Skimming is often used when you want to obtain ideas quickly.
3. Scanning- this entails screening the passage very rapidly to locate important
information within a large chunk of reading materials in such a reading activity, you
search through the passage for to locate the specific information you are searching for.
Scanning involves focusing all your attention not on other things in the text but on that
specific or particular thing you are looking for. For instance: when you are searching for a
particular number in your phone, you do not have to read every detail in your phone. You
need to scroll directly to the number you are looking for.
4. Normal reading- here, you read at normal or average reading speed. This is the speed
you should use for books or reading materials that are important and require intensive
reading and comprehension, but are easier than textbooks. A large number of novels are
read at average speed, depending on the enjoyment obtained from them.

GRAMMAR
What is Grammar?
Grammar is the structure that makes up a language. It is the foundation and platform upon which
a language is built, providing the structure that allows words to convey meaning. It includes all
of the rules and guidelines that specify how words, phrases and sentences are put together and
used to communicate ideas. Grammar supports the construction of logical and meaningful
communication. It is an effective tool for removing ambiguity (unclearness) and making sure
your message is understood as you want it to be.
Proper grammar helps you structure your sentences logically, making it easier for your readers or
listeners to follow your line of reasoning (thoughts).

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 PARTS OF SPEECH
Parts of speech, also known as word classes are part of the fundamentals of the English grammar
and the language as a whole. A part of speech is the category into which one places a word
depending on how it functions in a sentence. Every word in the English language falls under a
part of speech. When you master the usage of the parts of speech, communication becomes
easier. Note that words in the English language can b classified into different parts of speech
based on the meaning, form and function of the word. This means that every word in a sentence
has distinct function.
Classification of the parts of speech
There are nine categories into which words are classified according to their functions in
sentences. They include: nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, pronouns, prepositions,
conjunctions, interjections, and determiners.
These nine parts of speech are further classified into two that is, the major parts of speech and
the minor parts of speech. The major parts of speech include; nouns, verbs, adjectives, and
adverbs. The major parts of speech are also called open class items or groups. This is because
they are easily extendable, that is, new words can be created out of them. Words that fall in the
category of the major part of speech are also called content words as their impacts are easily felt
in sentences. The minor parts of speech on the other hand, include; pronouns, prepositions,
conjunctions, interjections, and determiners. They are also called the closed class items or
group. They are called the closed class items or group because they are a fixed set of words
which do not admit new words, that is, new words cannot be created out of them. These parts of
speech are also known as function words, grammatical words or structure-class words. This is
because they have little lexical meaning or relationship with other words within a sentence.
NOUNS
Nouns are naming words. A noun is a word that names a person, an animal, a place, a thing, an
idea, a quality, an activity, a substance, a feeling, a state, an event or an institution. Simply put, a
noun is a name. It can be a subject or an object of a verb. It can also be modified by an
adjective, and can take an article or a determiner.
Identification and characteristics of Nouns
To easily identify a noun, check if the word has any of these four characteristics:
 It occurs in the positions immediately before and immediately after the verb in a
sentence. Examples include;
The boy is good. (the noun boy occurs immediately before the verb is)
We saw Ade with you. (the noun Ade occurs immediately after the verb saw)
 It has a plural ending; -e, -es, -en. Examples include; boys, churches, children
 It also has a possessive form. Examples include; Favour’s book, the student’s bag.
 It is preceded by a ―noun-marker‖ such as; a, an, the. Examples include; a book, the
man, an orange.

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 Kinds of Nouns
 Proper Nouns
 Common Nouns
 Concrete Nouns
 Abstract Nouns
 Collective Nouns
 Countable Nouns
 Uncountable Nouns

Proper Noun
This is a name given to a particular person, a particular place or a particular thing. The
name usually differentiates the person, place or thing from others of its kind. Proper nouns must
start with capital letters no matter the positions at which they appear in sentences. For example,
the names of the days of the week, months, persons, places, historical documents, institutions
religions and their holy books or texts as well as their adherents (followers), names of cars, and
titles of books are proper nouns.
Persons: James, Emeka, Tega, Peter, Joyce, Mohammed, Tolu, Bola, Ovie, e.t.c.
Places: Warri, Effurun, Lagos, Kano, Enugu, Ibadan, London, Sydney e.t.c.
Cars: Mercedes Benz, Honda, Toyota, Ford, Volkswagen, e.t.c.
Days of the week: Tuesday, Monday, Wednesday, Sunday, Thursday, Saturday, and Friday.
Months of the year: August, June, July, January, February, December, e.t.c.
Book titles: Grammar of English, Understanding Mathematics, Modern Biology, Things Fall
Apart, e.t.c.
Religions, their holy books and their adherents: Christianity, Christians, Bible, Islam,
Muslims, Koran, Buddhism, Judaism, et.c.
Institutions: Petroleum Training Institute, University of Ibadan, Zenith Bank, Ministry of
Education, St Patrick‘s Cathedral, e.t.c.
Common Nouns
A common noun is a general name given to persons, places or things. It is the name that is
common to creatures or things of the same kind, class or group. Note that common nouns
begin with capital letter only when they begin sentences. Common nouns usually attract the
articles (both definite; the, and indefinite; a and an) before them. Examples include: A car, A
man, An animal, The man, The city, e.t.c.
Concrete Nouns
This kind of noun names anything that can be perceived through the physical sense of
touch, sight and taste, that is, anything that can be touched, seen, or tasted. Concrete nouns
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are tangible. Examples include the things seen around us, such as, chair, cup, table, paper,
candle, bottle, stone, chalk, pencil, e.t.c.
Abstract Nouns
Abstract nouns refer to intangible things which we cannot see, feel, touch, or taste with our
physical senses. They exist only in our minds and imaginations. Abstract nouns refer to ideas,
qualities, concepts, states and emotions. Examples include: time, fear, humility, beauty,
justice, anger, corruption, Holy Spirit, hunger, love, faith, death, patience, e.t.c.
Collective Nouns
This refers to a singular name representing a group or a collection of similar individuals,
animals or things. Note that you could count the individual embers of the group, but usually
think of the group as a whole or as one unit. Examples include: crowd, army, team, audience,
choir, congregation, class, family, city, e.t.c.
Countable Nouns
Countable nouns are nouns that can be counted. A countable noun can be preceded by the
indefinite articles a or an and can be pluralized. They can also be preceded by numerical words
like one, two, three, e.t.c. Examples include: a book, a cow, an apple, men, children, an
orange, twenty tables, two hands, e.t.c.
Uncountable Nouns
Uncountable nouns are the direct opposites of countable nouns. They are those nouns that cannot
be preceded by the indefinite articles a or an and cannot be pluralized. Examples include:
money, news, grass, information, advice, rice, oil, water, noise, furniture, fruit, equipment,
e.t.c.
VERBS
A verb is a word used to make a statement about a person, place, animal or thing. It expresses an
action, a state of being or occurrence. It is regarded as a doing word or an action word because
it tells what someone or something does. A thought cannot be expressed without a verb. It is
the only compulsory element for any sentence or statement to complete in sense or in meaning.
Without the verb, a sentence won‘t make complete sense.
Examples
The man danced well at the party.
The man well at the party.
In the examples above, the verb danced helps give meaning to the first statement, while the
second one, doesn‘t make complete sense since it lacks a verb.
Examples of the English verbs include: take, can, be, speak watch, may, do, dance, listen,
write, happen, have, buy, preach, admit, close e.t.c

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Classification of verbs
There are two main categories of verb, namely the finite and non-finite verbs.
The finite verb is further classified into Main Verb (lexical verb) and Auxiliary verb (helping
verb). The main verb is further classified into transitive and intransitive verbs, while the
Auxiliary verb is further classified into primary and modal auxiliary verbs. On the other hand,
non-finite verbs are classified into Gerunds, Participles and To infinitives.
Finite Verbs
A finite verb is a verb that is a verb that has a subject and shows tense.
Examples
John cooks carrot every day.
The finite verb is cooks. The subject is John, the tense of the verb is the present tense.
A finite verb is always one word from which you can determine the tense.
John was cooking carrots.
The finite verb is was. By looking at was, you can tell the tense of the verb, which is the past
tense. Every sentence needs a finite verb. The main verb in every sentence will be a finite verb.
Examples
 Rachael is happy.
In this example, is, is a finite verb. The subject is Rachael. The tense of the verb is the present
tense.
 He painted the fence.
In this example, painted is a finite verb. The subject is He. The tense of the verb is past tense.
Finite verbs are divided into lexical (main) and auxiliary (helping) verbs.
Lexical verbs (Main Verbs)
This is the verb that carries the meaning in the sentence.
 Ada went home late.
 The lecturer gave us notes on nouns.
 I saw her from a distance.
Lexical verbs are the main verbs of English sentences. They constitute the largest group of verbs
in English. They are called main verbs because they carry the main meaning in the sentence.
Lexical verbs are further classified into transitive and intransitive.

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Transitive verbs
A transitive verb is a verb that requires both a direct subject and one or more objects. The
meaning of a transitive verb is not complete without a direct object. A transitive verb therefore is
a verb that expresses an action or activity and must have a direct object; that is, something or
someone who receives the action of the verb.
Examples
 Slyvia kicked Mary under the table.
 He drank wine.
 I like the English language.
Intransitive verbs
An intransitive verb does not attract a direct object to itself even though it is an action verb. The
action is not transferred to persons or objects.
Examples
 We sleep every day.
 The child cried.
 They ate in the morning.
 Joy smiled shyly.
Auxiliary verbs
Auxiliary verbs are helping verbs. They help the main/lexical verbs in performing their duties.
The main function of auxiliary verbs is to help the main verb form tenses. (present, past, future
tenses). The auxiliary verbs are further divided into two. They are; primary and modal
auxiliaries.
Primary Auxiliary Verbs
The primary auxiliary verbs are the verbs that can function both as main verbs and as auxiliary
verbs. In English, the primary auxiliaries are three: be, have, do.
Forms of Primary Auxiliary Verbs
Base Present Tense Past Tense Past Participle Present
Participle
Be am, is, are Was, were been Being
Do does, do Did done Doing
Have has, have Had had Having

Note: the most frequently used state of being verb is be. The verb be has eight forms, they are
am, is, are, was, were, be, been and being.
Examples of primary auxiliary verbs functioning as main verbs;
 I am a boy.

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  We did the lecture on parts of speech.
 The Tunjis have a garden in their compound.
Examples of primary auxiliaries as auxiliary verbs;
 We have got a house in the city.
 He was sleeping when you came in.
 I did help you and you should not deny it.
In the sentences above we have the auxiliary verbs have, was, did helping the main verbs got,
sleeping, help.
Modal Auxiliary Verbs
Unlike the primary auxiliaries, the modal auxiliary cannot be used alone. They must be used with
the main verbs. The modal auxiliaries include: shall, will, should, would, can, could, may,
might, dare, dared.
Non-finite verbs
These are verbs that are not affected by person, number and tense. They are verbals, that is,
verb-like forms that do the work of other parts of speech like nouns, adjectives or adverbs. Non-
finite verbs are categorized into gerunds, participles and to- infinitives.
To- infinitives
An infinitive is the basic form of a verb used to indicate need, intention, e.t.c. Examples of
infinitives are to run, to know, to write, to leave, to argue, to study, e.t.c. Therefore,
TO+VERB=INFINITIVE
Examples
 To stand can be enjoyable.
 My people like to travel.
 Militants have the desire to kill.
 The President was ready to resign.
Participles
Participles are verb-like structure words that function as adjectives. We have the present and past
participles.
Present Participles
This participle ends with the suffix -ing associated with verbs in their present continuous form.
Examples
 Newman ate the decaying apple.
 Adebanjo is our visiting lecturer.
 The girls waiting at the door are my cousins.

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In the above sentences, the words decaying, visiting and waiting are present participles of
qualifying the nouns apple, lecturer and girls respectfully.
Past Participle
The past participle of regular verbs are formed by the addition of the past tense marker ‗ed‘ while
that of irregular verbs can take various forms like change of spelling of addition of „en‟.
Examples
 Children should beware of broken bottles.
 Our defeated team returned home yesterday.
 The good days are gone.
In the sentences above, the words broken, defeated and gone are past participles qualifying the
nouns bottles, team and days respectfully.
Gerunds
Gerunds are verb forms ending in ing but functioning as nouns. In other words, they are verbal
nouns.
Examples
 Reading is my hobby.
 My family enjoys swimming on weekends.
 Seeing is believing.
 Their jobs consist of typing and filing all documents.
Note that gerunds perform all the functions of nouns.
ADJECTIVES
An adjective is a word that describes, qualifies or modifies a noun or a pronoun. Examples of
adjectives include; good, fair, intelligent, stupid, handsome, expensive, beautiful, big, noble,
kind, gracious e.t.c.
Kinds of Adjectives
Descriptive Adjectives- these are used to describe nouns.
Examples
 Mary has a beautiful doll.
 Tega owns a big shop.
Possessive Adjectives
These adjectives show possession.
Examples
 That is our house

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  I am his friend.
Demonstrative Adjectives
These adjectives show the person or thing that is being spoken about.
Examples
 These are my people.
 That bird flies high.
 These students are here.
Interrogative Adjectives
These are adjectives which are used in asking questions.
Examples
 Which dress are you going to put on?
 What attitude is she trying to put up?
 On whose side are you going to be?
Emphatic Adjectives
These adjectives are used for emphasis.
Examples
 Here comes her own daughter.
 He wants that very car.
Adjectives of quality
These adjectives express character, quality or state of the person or thing being addressed.
Examples
 Chidi is a strong boy.
 They live in a dirty environment.
 My car is white.
Adjectives of quantity
This shows how much of a thing is meant.
Examples
 Several graduates have relocated.
 They had enough time to study.
 Much water has been wasted.
 We have got some materials for the assignment.

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Numerical Adjectives
These include both cardinal and ordinal numbers that indicate how many or in what order a thing
is.
Examples
 I took the first position.
 We need six men for the job.
 Twenty lecturers are in my department.
 One cup of rice is enough.
 About five houses were burgled last night.
Distributive adjectives
These denote (show) a person or thing separately.
Examples
 Each student has received a prize.
 Every game has rules.
 Either James or Jane won the competition.
 Neither the student nor the lecturer has arrived.
ADVERBS
Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives and other adverbs. We can go further to say that an adverb is a
part of speech that describes or modifies a verb, an adjective, another adverb, clause or sentence.
Adverbs answer the questions: How? When? Where? Why? In what way? How much? How
often? Under what condition? To what degree?
Most adverbs end in -ly and they are formed by adding the -ly to adjectives. However, many
words and phrases not ending in -ly serve an adverbial function (act as adverbs) and an -ly
ending is not a guarantee that a word is an adverb. For instance, the words lonely, friendly,
lovely, fatherly and neighbourly which end in -ly are not adverbs but are adjectives as in;
The lovely woman lives in a friendly neighbourhood.
Kinds of Adverbs
Adverbs of manner
Adverbs of manner tell us the way in which something happens. They answer the question How?
and mainly modify verbs.
Examples
 The teacher acted violently in the staff room.
 He speaks slowly.
 Amara speaks English fluently.
 Ovie drives his car fast.

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Adverbs of place
Adverbs of place tell us the place where something happens. They answer the question Where?,
that is. They say something about the location or direction of an action. Examples include: here,
there, home, upstairs, indoors, everywhere, above, below, anywhere, outdoors e.t.c.
 Please, stay there.
 She went indoors.
 The students are here.
 The priest goes everywhere.
Adverbs of Time
Adverbs of time indicate the time of an action, adding to our knowledge of when the action takes
place. They ask the question When? Examples are today, yesterday, since, now, late, early,
ago, tomorrow, soon, presently, e.t.c.
 They arrived yesterday.
 She will be there presently.
 The principal wants to see us now.
 We were friends then.
Adverbs of frequency
These are adverbs of time that tell us how often something happens. They answer the question
How frequently? or How often? We have definite and indefinite frequency.
Definite frequency: daily, weekly, yearly, monthly, annually, biannually e.t.c, as shown in the
following:
 We go to the library daily.
 The women meet annually.
 The production of the magazine is biannually.
Indefinite frequency: often, sometimes, regularly, seldom, always, usually, rarely,
occasionally, repeatedly, e.t.c.
 Ada seldom goes to the studies.
 Joy usually goes to the canteen.
 I rarely put on eye-glasses.
 Our teacher has repeatedly told us to desist from bad manners.
Adverbs of Degree
These adverbs tell us the extent or degree to which something happens. They answer the
questions How much? or To what extent/degree? They include: quite, very, nearly, almost,
too, much, partly, entirely, poorly, rather, e.t.c.
Examples

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  Uche is partly right.
 The apple is almost spoilt.
 I am rather busy.
 Adamu talks too much.
 The staff and students are very grateful.
 Peter entirely agrees with her.
PRONOUNS
A pronoun is a place holder for a noun. It is a word used in place of a noun. It replaces the noun
in sentences. It is used to avoid unnecessary repetition of names in the sentence. A pronoun
always has an antecedent. An antecedent is a noun or a noun equivalent which the pronoun
stands for.
Kinds of Pronouns
 Personal pronoun
 Possessive pronoun
 Demonstrative pronoun
 Numerical pronoun
 Emphatic/ Intensive pronoun
 Reflective pronoun
 Reciprocal pronoun
 Relative pronoun
 Interrogative pronoun
 Indefinite pronoun
Personal pronouns
These are pronouns that refer to persons. We have three grammatical persons in English. They
are:
a. First person- the person speaking. The pronouns in the first person are:
Singular--------------I
Plural-----------------we
b. Second person- the person being spoke to. The pronouns in the second person are:
Singular-------------you
Plural----------------you
c. Third person- the person being spoken about. The third person pronouns are:
Singular---------he, she, it
Plural------------they
Possessive pronouns
These are pronouns that show ownership or possession. They are:
a. First person: Singular----mine
Plural-------ours

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 b. Second person: Singular----yours
Plural-------yours
c. Third person: Singular-----his, hers, its
Plural--------theirs
Demonstrative pronouns
These are pronouns that point out a person or thing specifically. They are:
Singular………………this, that
Plural ………………..these, those
Numerical Pronouns
These cite a number, either a cardinal number (one, two, three, four….) or an ordinal number
(first, second, third,). They are pronouns when they take the place of a noun, and are adjectives
when they qualify nouns. See the following examples:
 I need two. (pronoun)
 The first man will take it. (adjective)
 The first will take the prize. (pronoun)
 Six bottles are kept inside the bag. (adjective)
Emphatic/ Intensive pronouns
These are pronouns used for emphasis.
Examples
 We ourselves will not go.
 She herself did it.
 I myself will like to eat.
 You yourself should be serious.
Reflexive pronouns
These are pronouns used as objects referring to subject. They show that both refer to the same
person or thing.
Examples
 He blamed himself.
 We gave ourselves assignments.
 I hurt myself.
 The horse directed itself to the stream.
Reciprocal pronouns
These pronouns represent two persons interchanging the action of the verb. Reciprocal pronouns
are: each other and one another.

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Examples
 Emeka and Amaka love each other.
 They fought one another yesterday.
Relative pronouns
These pronouns connect a dependent clause to a noun clause. They perform the function of
pronouns and conjunctions together. They include that, which, who, whose and whom. They are
always preceded by antecedents ( the nouns or pronouns that comes before them).
Examples
 The poor boy who is lazy likes playing.
 The woman whose car was lost is dead.
 Here is the girl whom I mention earlier.
 That is the house that John built.
 The food that she cooked was delicious.
Interrogative pronouns
These are pronouns used to ask questions. The interrogative pronouns are: who, what, which,
whose. Who functions as subjects while whom functions as objects. Both who and whom can
be used in the singular or plural form.
Examples
 What did you buy for me?
 For whom did you buy the dictionary?
 Who took my pencil from the box?
 Whose is this house?
 Which of the three dogs bit him?
Indefinite pronouns
These pronouns refer to persons, places, things or ideas in a general way. They have no definite
reference. That is, they do not specify the person or thing they refer to. Thet include: all, some,
every, somebody, any, others, everyone, someone, anyone, nobody, everybody, something,
anybody, nothing, everything, several, anything, none, few, many, e.t.c. Note: all indefinite
pronouns must agree with their corresponding antecedents.
Examples
 All of my siblings have travelled.
 Everyone is here to see the manager.
 Some of the students passed, others failed.
 Many are called but few are chosen.
 Most of the oranges are bad.
 Everything is alright.
 Nobody can help himself in such a situation.
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  They ate everything in the pot.
 Anyone can answer the question.
PREPOSITION
A preposition is a word that shows relationship of a noun or a pronoun to another word in a
sentence. It governs a noun or a pronoun in the objective case. A preposition is a word that is
placed before a noun or pronoun with any other word in the sentence. Consider the following
examples:
 The boy is under the staircase.
 The book is on the table.
 The coin fell into the river.
 The pupils are beside the tree.
 I shall stand behind you.
In the above sentences, the prepositions under, on, into, beside and behind are placed before
the nouns staircase and the dog, river, tree and the pronoun you, to show the relationship
between the staircase and the dog, the desk and the book, the river and the coin, the tree and
the pupils, you and I.
The commonest prepositions we have in English include: at, on, in, by, into, to, under, above,
below, inside, along, of, between, before, from, for, with, within, outside, behind, beneath,
until, after, about, around, as, aside, till, without, near, off, onto, against, out, through,
throughout, over, towards, despite, beyond, since, underneath, during.
Note: the prepositions listed above and single-word or simple prepositions. However, there are
other prepositions that consist of more than a word. They are referred to as compound
prepositions. They include out of, next to, as far as, in spite of, in order that , instead of,
according to, in front of, away from, on account of, in accordance with, in comparison with,
as well as, together with, for the sake of, by way of, by means of, in respect to, with a view
to, with reference to.
Kinds of preposition
Time prepositions- the preposition used in expressing time in English include: at, by, in, on,
after, before, during, from, till, until, within, throughout.
Examples
 The coach came here at night.
 We visited them after 5 o‘clock.
 The players did not train during the rainy season.
 He goes to the gym on Sundays.
 Olu was born in 2004.
 The building was constructed within four months.

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Place/Locator prepositions
Some place prepositions are: at, on, of, in, about, across, against, among, before, behind,
below, between, by, down, inside, near, under, upon, with, within.
Examples
 The key is at the window.
 Go and remove the broom that is lying across the part.
 The children are inside the room.
 The dog stays within the compound.
 Nobody sleeps under the mango tree.
 I hid the stick behind the door.
Direction preposition
These go with verbs of motion. They indicate the direction of movement. These include: at,
across, over, into, away, down, to, towards, up, from, off, of, out of, round, along, onto, past,
through.
Examples
 Victor climbed up the hill.
 The district head is walking down the street.
 That bird flew over his head.
 The hunters an across the field.
Agency preposition
Different prepositions are used by different devices, agents, instruments or machines. Some of
such prepositions are : by, with, through, at, from.
Examples
 The thief was killed with a gun.
 The chief was buried by the villagers.
 She comes by bus daily.
 I got the message through a friend.
 He learned the anthem by heart.
Manner prepositions
These prepositions are used to express manner. They include: by, with, from, in.
Examples
 I accept your invitation with pleasure.
 He speaks in a low voice.
 The terrorist was killed by force.

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Purpose/Reason preposition
They are: for, to, from.
Examples
 The Americans are fighting for peace.
 He died for the sake of love.
 You must read to learn.
 The man died from fatigue.
CONJUNCTIONS
A Conjunction is a word used to join or connect one word, phrase or clause to another.
Kinds of Conjunctions
Co-ordinating conjunctions also called coordinators are conjunctions that join two or more
words, phrases or clauses that are of equal rank. The common coordinators we have in English
common coordinators we have in English are: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, and so.
Examples
 Beans and plantain are my is my favourite food. (two words beans and plantain are
joined by and)
 The man and his wife came here. (and joins two phrases)
 They gamble and they smoke. (and join two main clauses)
 They go to church, yet they do not pray. (yet joins two main clauses)
 The man who burnt his house and the thief who stole the car have been arrested. (and
joins two dependent clauses)
 The tailor is poor but he is honest. (but joins two main clauses)
 The tenant did not have a job, so he could not pay his rent. (so, joins two main clauses)
Subordinating conjunctions- these conjunctions connect subordinate or dependent clause to
main clauses. In fact they introduce dependent clauses. They include: after, although, as,
because, before, how, if, once, since, that, then, though, till, until, when, where, whether,
while, unless, so that, in order that, as far as.
Examples
 I saw the mad man when I got to the stadium.
 You must be punished because you are disobedient.
 They found the man where he was sleeping.
 While the children watched, the birds flew away.
 Although it rained heavily, we went to the market.
 All will be lost, unless we act now.

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Correlative conjunctions- these are conjunctions that go in pairs. They include: both….and,
whether…or, either…or, not…but, neither…nor, as….as, not only…but also, just as…so.
Examples
 Both Indians and Americans are friends.
 Either Theresa or David will be going to the farm.
 Whether you like me or you hate me, I shall marry your sister.
 The principal not only suspended the disobedient prefect but also expelled them.
 The king is not stupid but wicked.
 I shall neither sell my car nor buy a new one.
INTERJECTIONS
An Interjection as the name implies is exclamatory in nature. It can be a word or phrase and can
either stand on its own or appear in a sentence. Interjections are used to express surprise, pain,
shock, happiness, excitement, and they are usually followed by exclamatory marks. (!)
Examples
 Oh my God! It is about to rain.
 That slap hurts!
 Oops! You look great in that dress.
 Ouch! I have hit my toe on a stone.
DETERMINERS
Determiners belong to the closed class items/groups. They are used to introduce nouns in
English. Determiners precede nouns. They can also occur with modifiers for instance, adjectives,
to form noun phrases.
There are five main determiners in English language.
Articles- these can be definite (the) or indefinite (a, an). The specifies something particular,
while a, an do not indicate particularity.
Examples
 The dog barked at us when we got to the gate of the house. (here, there is a particular or
definite dog, gate, and house)
 A dog is parking in an uncompleted building. (here, no definite reference to any dog or
uncompleted building)
Possessive Determiners- these are used to suggest ownership of noun. There are seven forms:
my, yours, his, her, its, our, and their.
Examples
 This is my book.
 These are our suitcases for the trip.
 I have not really understood their motives.

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Demonstrative determiners- demonstrative determiners express a contrast, establishing either a
close or a more distant relationship. They point out the nouns they modify.
Examples
 This week is going slowly.
 The show assistant said that she wanted these things kept aside for her.
Quantifiers Determiners: these types of determiners convey a range of meaning. They indicate
the quantity of nouns following them. The most common ones are: all, some, any and no, every,
each, either, one and another, both, several and enough, many, more, most, few, little, fewer,
less, fewest and least.
Examples
 Some grasp would be nice.
 Several children.
 Every adult must take some responsible.
 Does anyone care for more food?
Numerals Determiners- if numbers precede nouns, they function as determiners. Both cardinals
(one, two, three etc) and ordinals (first, second, third, etc) can be used determiners.
Examples
 The first visitor will receive a present.
 Six sheep have escaped from the farm.
 Seven state governors attended the function.

PUNCTUATION
Punctuation is defined as a set of symbols used to separate and clarify the meaning of sentences
and written elements. In other words, punctuation tells readers of your writing where to pause,
what words are quotations and which are clarifications, where words have been omitted, and
more. Punctuation is also the act or system of using specific marks or symbols in writing to
separate different elements from each other and to make writings clearer. Punctuation marks
structure and organize writings. Consider the following:
1. Lets cook uncle
2. Let‘s cook, Uncle.
3. Slow men at work
4. Slow, men at work.
Examples 1 and 3 above, without any punctuation marks, do not give clear illustrations like 2
and 4 which are punctuated. Punctuation enables the writer to let their audience where the
sentence ends, where there is a short or long pause, and where to show if the writer is
questioning, explaining, or providing some extra information. Punctuation marks are used in
other to make your writing look sensible and easy to understand.

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Lists of Punctuation marks in English
Punctuation marks include the following:
1. Full stop/ Period
2. Comma
3. Colon
4. Semicolon
5. Apostrophe
6. Quotation marks
7. Hyphen
8. Dash
9. Parentheses
10. Ellipsis
11. Exclamation mark/point
12. Question mark
13. Brackets
14. Braces
Full stop/period (.)
This is the easiest and most used punctuation mark. A full stop, also known as a period is used at
the end of declarative and imperative sentences. It marks a longer pause than a comma and a
semicolon. Furthermore, it marks the end of a thought and the beginning of another.
Note that a full stop is used for the following:
 To mark the end of a sentence.
 To mark the end of commands, instructions, orders and requests.
 It is used after short forms and abbreviations.
 To mark initials.
 At the end of a sentence containing an indirect question.
 In website URLs (addresses) and email addresses.
Examples:
1. She likes listening to music. (using a full stop at the end of a declarative sentence)
2. Please send the materials as soon as possible. (using a full stop at the end of an
imperative sentence)
3. Prof. Adebanjo is our H.O.D (using full stops after abbreviations or short forms)
4. My mother asked me what time it was. (using a full stop at the end of an indirect
question)
5. www.pti.edu.ng, [email protected]. ( using full stops in websites and email
addresses) Note that multiple full stops are used in website and email addresses.
Comma (,)

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A comma is a commonly used punctuation mark that is used to separate two words, phrases or
clauses in sentences. It can also be used in a list to mention different items or articles, or to show
where there is a slight break in a sentence.

Functions of the comma

 The basic function of a comma is to separate nouns (subjects/objects) in sentences.
 A comma can be used to separate a phrase or even a phrase and a clause.
 It can be used to separate main clauses from subordinate clauses in sentences.
 A comma can be used before a coordinating conjunction and after a conjunctive adverb in
compound sentences.
Examples of sentences showing the use of the comma
1. Using comma to separate Nouns (subjects/objects)
 Peter, James, Mary, and Ann will be going to Paris.
 When they went to the zoo, they saw a white tiger, a huge bear, an African
elephant, a troop of monkeys, and a lake full of crocodiles.
2. Using comma to separate two phrases/ a phrase/ a clause
 Reading books, listening to songs, and planning interior decors are my favourite
leisure activities.
 Every evening, Rachael and Monica take a stroll in the park.
3. Using comma to separate a main clause from a subordinate clause
 We went out for lunch, so we did not have anything at home.
 Lucy, the girl who sings at the club, is my friend.
Colon (:)
A colon is a punctuation mark that has two dots of equal size placed vertically. It is used in
sentences to introduce examples, lists, quotations etc. Note, a colon is used in sentences for the
following reasons:
 To introduce or state a point.
 To present a list of items, a tabular column and text.
 In citations and biblical references.
 In dialogue writing, to quote the speaker‘s words.
 To draw attention to nouns/noun phrases, examples and quotations.
 To mention the time of the day and for ratios.
Note: when using a colon to list items, make sure to use a capital letter after the colon if the word
that follows the colon is a proper noun. When used in a sentence, leave a space after the colon.
When used between numbers in time and listing of biblical references, you do not need to leave a
space before or after the colon. When used in a dialogue writing, use the colon immediately after
the name of the speaker, and after the space, always use a capital letter to start the dialogue.

27
Do not use a colon in between a verb and its object or complement. A colon should not be used
between a preposition and the object of the preposition. Never use a colon after ‗like‘, ‗includes‘,
‗such as‘, ‗especially‘, ‗namely‘.
Examples of the use of the colon in sentences
1. Lists and series
 A sentence has two parts and they are: subject and predicate.
 The ingredients for the dish are: potatoes, onions, mushrooms, pepper powder,
turmeric powder and salt.
2. Dialogue writing
 Teacher: Good morning, students.
Students: Good morning, ma‘am.
Teacher: Are you ready for your test this morning?
Students: Yes ma‘am.
3. Time
 The meeting will start at 11:30 a.m prompt.
 The train is at 6:45 p.m
 The time now is 5:28 p.m
4. Biblical references, titles and citations
 Matthew 20:28 says ―For the son of man came not to be served but to serve…‖
 ‗The Tipping Point: How Little Things can Make a Big Difference‘ by Malcom
Gladwell is a best seller.
 Ashbourn, J. (2014) Biometrics in the new world: the cloud mobile technology and
pervasive identity. 2nd edn. London. Springer.
5. Mathematical Expressions
 The ratio of milk to water is 1:3.
 The ratio of boys to girls this year is 4:6‘
6. Before Nouns/Noun Phrases, Examples, Quotations
 I have what every human being needs: caring friends and a loving family.
 For example: Warri, Enugu, Calabar, Maiduguri.
 This is just like what Shakespeare once said: ―There is nothing either good or bad, but
thinking makes it so‖.
Semicolon (;)
A semicolon is a punctuation mark that can be used to separate independent clauses, as in
compound sentence. It can also be used to separate different lists in a sentence. The semicolon is
a pause that is longer than a comma but shorter than a full stop.
Examples of the use of the semicolon in sentences
1. To separate various lists in sentences
 My mom had to buy potatoes, onions and capsicums; liquid detergent, body wash,
hand wash and fabric softener; bread, butter and jam on her way home.
2. To link clauses in sentences
 My brother had his friend review today; he seems to have done it well.

28
  There was an accident in our area; the police have reported the case and taken the
damaged vehicle to the station.
3. Use of a semicolon before conjunctive adverbs (conjunctive adverbs are adverbs that
behave like conjunctions) in compound sentences.
 We planned to take a trip to Lagos; however, we could not go through with it.
 The dress we picked was available in different colours; therefore, we decided to pick
one for each of us.
Apostrophe (‟)
An apostrophe is a punctuation mark that is mainly used to show possession or ownership of
something or someone. It can also be used to form contractions and to indicate missing letters
and members.
Examples of the use of apostrophe in words and sentences
1. The use of Apostrophe to show possession
 Susan‘s father got a job in Abuja.
 Are you the teacher‘s pet?
2. The use of Apostrophe to form contractions
 I‘m willing to help you out with the chores.
 Shouldn‘t they be here by now?
 They weren‘t at the hotel yesterday.

3. The use of Apostrophe to indicate missing letters and numbers

 The kids of the ‘90s are different from those of every other generation.
 From ‘89-‘93, she was studying in London.
Quotation marks (“” or „‟)
Quotation marks, also called speech marks, are one of the punctuation marks in English which
can be used to quote the exact words of the speaker in a sentence and also to indicate names,
titles and so on. In the English language, there are two types of quotation marks namely; Single
quotation marks and Double quotation marks.
Single quotation marks, also called ‗inverted commas‘ are mainly used to quote names, book
titles, movie titles, characters and specific terms that are given more importance than usual.
Examples of the use of single quotation marks in sentences
 We finally found ‗the coat‘.
In the above example, ‗the coat‘ is placed within single quotation marks as it specifically
refers to a particular coat that they have been looking for, for a long time.
 Our teacher asked us to read ‗Things Fall Apart‘ before our next class.
 My brother and his friend went to watch ‗Equalizer‘ at the cinema.

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Double quotation marks are chiefly used to quote something someone said in their exact words,
as in direct speech. They can also be used to cite something that is written or said by another
person or author.
Examples of the use of double quotation marks in sentences
 “I had a dream‖, said Martin Luther King. Likewise, I do too.
 Nick said, ―I enjoy watching musicals‖.
Note that when using quotation marks, you have to close the quotation marks. You should never
leave quotation marks open as they are always used in pairs. Also, since quotation marks are
meant to quote specific terms, words, sentences and paragraphs, you have to mark the end of
whatever is quoted.
Hyphen (-)
A hyphen is a punctuation mark is mainly used to combine two words to form compound words.
Examples of the use of Hyphen is sentences
1. Using Hyphens to form compound words
 I did not notice that the green-coloured floral dress that I bought the other day was
damaged.
 Mary was a bright-eyed girl.
2. Using Hyphens to refer to physical quantities
 I had to carry a sixty-pound bag full of clothes up to the third floor yesterday.
 Tega couldn‘t lift even a five-kilogram sack of rice since he sprained his wrist last
week.
3. Using Hyphens to represent time frames, estimates of distances and other attributes
 They informed us that the meeting would be held from 3:30-5:30 p.m
 We are expecting 500-750 people at the conference tomorrow.
 Hannah told us that we would have to travel for 3-4kms to reach the beach.
4. Using Hyphens to refer to the age of people/things
 We were surprised to see the ninety-year-old couple dance beautifully at the party.
 Our four-year-old daughter is here.
 The ten-year anniversary of our school is tomorrow.
5. Using Hyphens to refer to fractions and compound numbers
 Peter ate three-fourth of the food all by himself.
 Twenty-five students were selected to go for the science competition.
6. Using hyphens with prefixes and suffixes
As long as prefixes are concerned, you have to hyphenate.
 The ex-president is visiting Paris today.
 In mid-January, we will be leaving town.

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Dash (---)
A dash is a punctuation mark that resembles a hyphen, but is longer. A dash is used to separate a
part of a sentence and to indicate a break. It indicates a break. It indicates a longer pause than a
comma and a semicolon. It can also be used instead of a colon or in pairs instead of brackets. A
dash is used after an independent clause most often, to conclude a thought/sentence. When used
instead of brackets, it is to distinguish extra or unnecessary or unessential information from the
rest of the sentence.
Examples of the use of the dash in sentences
 My work timings are from 8—5.
 We know one thing for sure---something unexpected is coming our way.
 Many children---living in orphanages---do not know what love feels like.
 People---both young and old---are advised to exercise regularly.

What makes a Dash different from a Hyphen?

Dash Hyphen
A dash is used to indicate a break. A hyphen is used to combine words to form
compound words and at the end of sentences
to show continuation.
A dash can be used instead of a comma, a A hyphen does not indicate a pause and so
colon or a semicolon. cannot be used instead of a comma, colon or
semicolon.
Example: Example:
A lot of things--more than you can imagine— The white-headed pigeon is dead.
have changed in the last two years.

Parentheses () /Brackets []
Parentheses and brackets are punctuation marks used to set apart certain words and sentences.
Parentheses are used to add extra information in text, while brackets are used mainly in
quotations to add extra information that wasn‘t in the original quote. The additional information
enclosed in parentheses or brackets, can be removed from a sentence without the meaning of the
sentence been affected.
When to use Parentheses
Parentheses are used to set aside unnecessary information. They are typically used for
complementary explanations or personal commentary from the writer, as well as for defining
acronyms.
Examples
 It is better for you to follow the given instructions (unless you want to be expelled).
 Mom wants us home (before 3 p.m).
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Note that if the text in parentheses is a complete sentence and is separate from surrounding
sentences, the full stop goes inside the parentheses. If it is not a complete sentence, the full stop
goes outside the parentheses.
Examples
 Our daughter has brown eyes. (My wife has brown eyes, too.) ------the sentence in
parentheses is a complete sentence; therefore, the full stop goes inside the parentheses.
 Our daughter has brown eyes (just like my wife). ------the sentence in the parentheses is
not a complete sentence; therefore, the full stop is outside the parentheses, not before.
Also note that commas are used after the parentheses, not before.

Examples
 My dog seemed sick (his nose was dry), so I took it to the vet.
Brackets look similar to parentheses but have squared corners instead of curved lines. They are
also used to set aside complementary information, but they serve different functions too.
Brackets are generally used only for quotations. They show that new information, usually from
the writer, was added to the original quote.
Slash /
A slash in punctuation, is a slanting line that is generally used instead of the conjunction „or‟. It
is used to show the availability of options and choices. The slash is also used to separate the date,
month and year as in DD/MM/YY. It is also used in between the numerator and denominator to
indicate fractions as ¼. It is also used to alternate options meaning either this or that as in
coffee/tea. It is also used instead of the term „per‟ as in 45 km/hr.
Examples of the use of slash in sentences
 You can use a black pen/pencil to mark the parts of the diagram.
 Anyone who has his/her vehicle can leave now.
 I drove my car at 55 km/hr yesterday.
 My sister was looking for the newspaper dated 12/09/22.
Exclamation Mark !
An exclamation mark is a punctuation mark used to indicate strong emotions and feelings. It is
used in exclamatory sentences and with interjections.
Examples of the use of Exclamation mark in sentences
1. Using Exclamation marks in exclamatory sentences
 How careless can you be!
 What an amazing life!
2. Using Exlamation marks at the end of an interjection
 Wow! That is great news.
 Oh! I am very sorry.

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 3. Using Exclamation marks in direct speech
 Sam said, ―I love this movie!‖
 The team shouted together, ―wow! We finally did it.‖
4. Using Exclamation marks at the end of phrases/individual words
 Careful! Will you?
 What a day!
Question Mark ?
A question mark is a symbol used to punctuate interrogative sentences and at the end of question
tags.

Examples of the use of question marks in sentences

1. Using Question marks at the end of direct questions
 When will you come?
 Who is the man?
2. Using Question marks at the end of question tags
 You are a student, aren‘t you?
 They are not working on the same topic, are they?
3. Using Question marks in direct speech
 ―Joyce is dead?‖, asked Grace.
 ―When are you leaving for school?‖, asked Musa.
Ellipsis …
An ellipsis, or ellipses in the plural form, is a punctuation mark of dots … that shows an
omission of words, represents a pause, or suggests there is something left unsaid. What is left
out, is intentionally left out specifically, it shows that words have been cut from a direct quote, so
the reader knows that the original passage has been modified.
Examples of using the ellipsis omitted words
In writing, ellipses are used to show the reader that words have been removed from direct quotes.
More often than not, this is done to cut out parts of the quote that aren‘t relevant to the topic or to
make the quote precise (direct).
Original Quote:
It must be obvious, from the very start, that
there is a contradiction in wanting to be
perfectly secure in a secure in a universe
whose very nature is momentariness and
fluidity.

33
Quote with an ellipsis:
It must be obvious…that there is a
contradiction in wanting to be perfectly
secure in a universe whose nature is
momentariness and fluidity.
-------Alan Watts
Note that when using an ellipsis to omit a part of a quote, be sure to pick the right spot. It is best
to remove a part that leaves the remaining sentence grammatically correct, as if nothing has been
cut at all.

IDIOMS
An idiom is a group of words, or phrase that has a different meaning from the literal meaning of
the words in it.
Examples
IDIOMS MEANING
Under the weather Feeling ill
Cold feet Becoming nervous
Apple of my eye Used to refer to someone whom you are very
fond of or like

Set the record straight To reveal the truth/to clarify

Kill two birds with a stone Achieve two results by doing one thing
Walk on eggshells To be very careful with your actions and
words
To be at loggerheads with someone To quarrel or disagree
Beat around the bush Not saying directly

Cut corners To do something easily/reduce expenses

Better late than never To do something rather than not doing

A blessing in disguise Something that you think is bad but turns

out to be a blessing
Cup of tea Not something that a person wants to do

Speak of the devil A phrase used to refer to a person who

appears as soon as they are mentioned
Let sleeping dogs lie To stop discussing something that is already
over or sorted out

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Let the cat out of the bag Reveal a secret carelessly.

A piece of cake An easy task.

Cost an arm and a leg Used to refer to something that is extremely

expensive
Hit the nail on the head To do something the exact way in which it
should be done/ Also refers to giving a direct
answer
Once bitten, twice shy Being extremely cautious as you have been
hurt previously
Pull someone‟s leg To make fun of someone
See eye to eye Have the same opinion or have the same
point of view
No pain, no gain Suffering or making efforts is required to
achieve something
Adding fuel to fire Aggravating the problem
Cry over spilt milk Worrying or complaining about something
that cannot be fixed/rectified

FIGURES OF SPEECH
A figure of speech is a word or phrase used in a different way from its usual meaning in order to
create a particular mental picture or effect. It is also used to heighten the effect of what is being
said, often by comparing or identifying one thing with another that has a meaning or suggestive
meaning to the meaning to the reader or the listener. It is the ornamented use of words found in
everyday speech.
Figures of speech make our expression vivid, interesting clear and real to sense. It is an integral
part of the language, both spoken and written.
Figures of speech can be classified into the following:
1. Figures of similarity
Figures of similarity show the comparison (both direct and indirect) between two objects.
Examples include:
Simile- this is a figure of speech that compares two dissimilar things. It is indirect as the
resemblance is explicitly indicated by the words like, as, such, just as.
 Obioma is as notorious as a thief.
 Tunde is tall like his father.
 He is as strong as a lion.
 The man is like a chimpanzee.
Metaphor- a metaphor is more implicit than the simile. It is a direct comparison without using
words such as: like, as, such as, just as.

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  Ada is a goat. (as stubborn as a goat)
 The lion is the king of all the animals.
 He is a tiger.
 Life is a walking shadow.
Personification- this is a figure of speech that attributes human qualities, characteristics or
sensibilities to non-human or abstract objects, ideas and animals.
 The weather is pregnant.
 The tree bent and allowed the wind to pass.
 The rain wakes us up again.

2. Figures of indirectness
These figures of speech express indirect statement aimed at expressing scorn or ridicule.
Examples include:
Irony- an Irony is a figure of speech in which the ordinary or literal meaning of the word is more
or less the opposite of what the speaker intends. It is the use of words to express something other
than and especially, the opposite of the literal meaning (as when expressions of praise are used
where blame is meant).
 He is a very rich that he could not pay his house rent.
 Amara is very tall that her hands could not reach where she hung her bag.
 She speaks of her rude husband as the humblest man on earth.
Euphemism- this is a figure of speech in which wild direct and unpleasant statements are
concealed from its real nature.
 The man is mentally unstable. (man)
 Adam has gone to meet his ancestors. (dead)
 He was her majesty‘s guest (in prison) for sixteen years.
Litotes- this is the use of negative or weak statement to emphasize a positive meaning.
 He was not slow to accept the bribe.
 He contributed in no small measure to the success of our club.
 The woman is not lacking in beauty.
Innuendo-this is an indirect remark about somebody or something that usually suggests
something unpleasant or rude. Here an unpleasant truth is simply hinted at without being blunt.
 The boy claimed that the bag he found with his classmate was similar to his.
 Tinubu was simply told that his action in the matter was not a wise one.

2. Figures of Association/connection
Figures of association or connection give a suggestive association between ideas. Examples
include:

36
Metonymy- this is a figurative expression that uses something closely associated with something
or somebody to refer to the thing or to the person. In metonymy, things are not called by their
real names but the names of attributes or things closely associated with them.
 The pen is mightier than the sword. (knowledge and war)
 Chioma likes reading Shakespeare. (Shakespeare‘s plays)
Synecdoche- this is a figurative term that uses a figurative term to represent a whole, or a
whole for a part. It substitutes a significant part of something for the thing itself.
 All hands must be on deck for us to achieve a meaningful development.
 Grey hair must be respected in this community.
 Three summers we have lived here. (three years)

4. Figures of contrast- these figures show a difference between two or more things that can be
seen clearly when they are compared or put close together. These include:
Oxymoron- an oxymoron is a figure of speech that is self-contradictory. This is because two
opposite words are placed side by side, thereby contradicting each other.
 Pregnant virgins are common these days.
 The spring has a bitter sweet taste.
 Football match is better observed from the dangerous safety of a building.
Antithesis- this is a figure of speech that sets one thing against another. It places together two
contrasting phrases or words of contrasting qualities, one against the other for the soe purpose of
lifting the contrast for emphasis.
 A bird in hand is worth two in the bush.
 United we stand, divided we fall.
 And having nothing, he had all.
 Speech is silver, but silence is golden.
Epigram or Aphorism- this is a short witty or ingenious thought or statement. It is the
expression of two opposing ideas in a brief and memorable way which draws our attention to
such expressions.
 He who must save his life must first of all lose it.
 Do not live to eat but eat to live.
 Halima never said a foolish thing and never did a wise one.
Paradox- A paradox is a statement which appears to be outwardly contradictory but conveys
inner significant truth. Paradox is truth stated in an apparently contradictory term in order to
attract attention and secure emphasis. The purpose of paradox is to arrest attention and provoke
fresh thoughts.
 Cowards die many times before their death.
 The child is the father of the man.

37
  Failures are the pillar of success.
 A good teacher must be cruel to be kind.

5. Figures of Imagination- these are figures of speech used to emphasize or to elaborate an

idea. These include:
Hyperbole – This is the use of deliberate exaggeration for emphasis or to achieve a
humorous effect, without any intention of deceit. It extravagantly exaggerates facts.
 An ocean of tears flowed out of her eyes.
 I really thank you a million times for helping me out.
 All the perfumes of Arabia will not sweeten this little hand. (Lady Macbeth)
Apostrophe- this is a rhetorical figure in which a speaker addresses some inanimate things or
some abstract ideas as if they were a living person.
 O Death! Why do you decide to be cruel?
 Frailty, thy name is woman!
 O, pardon me, thou bleeding piece of earth.

6. Figures of Sound
These are figure that use sounds to appeal to the reader‘s reasoning and emotion. Sometimes,
the sounds even help to make the writer‘s meaning clear. Examples include:
Onomatopoeia- this is the meaning of a thing or action by a vocal imitation of the sound
associated with it such as: hiss, boom, crunch, buzz. It is also the use of words whose sound
suggests the sense/meaning.
 The curfew tolls the knell of parting day.
 Grunt, grunt goes the hog.
 Our echoes roll from soul to soul.
Alliteration – this is the repetition of consonant sounds in two or more neighbouring words or
syllables.
 A load of learning lumbering in his head. /l/
 Wilful waste makes woeful want. /w/
 A strong man struggling with the storms of fate. /s/
Pun – this is a humorous use of a word in such a way as to suggest different meanings or
applications. It is an amusing use of words that have the same sound, spelling but different
meanings.
 The dead drunkard was laid to his bier. (pun for beer)
 Not on my sole but on thy soul harsh Jew.
 Is life worth living? That depends on the lever.

38
Repetition- this is a figure of speech in which a word or idea is expressed more than once in a
passage for emphasis.
 Alone, alone, all all alone in the wide sea.
 All woods decay, the woods decay and fall.
 O there‘s none, no, no no there‘s none.
Assonance- this is the repetition of similar vowel sounds in the same line of passage in quick
successive manner.
 The dog roams with a bone in his jaws.
 Our echoes role from soul to soul.
 Thou foster child or silence and slow time.

7. Figures of Reference
These are figures of speech used to refer to a person, people or place.
Allusion – this is an implied or indirect reference to a person, event, thing or a part of another
text.
 She is our Flora. (Greek god of flower)
 He sold him in shekels and silver, much more than thirty ( an allusion to the betrayal of
Jesus by Judas Iscariot)
AFFIXATION
A morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of the grammar of language. This means that it
cannot be broken down into any other meaningful unit. It is the minimal unit used in constructing
and building words in a language.
Affixation is a morphological process whereby a group of letters (the affix) is attached to a base
or root word to form a new word. An example of affixation is when you add the suffix „ing‟ to
the verb „walk‟ to create walking.
Types of affixations
The two main types of affixations are prefixes (affixes at the begging of a root word) and
suffixes (affixes at the end of a word).
Commonly used affixations include:
Prefixes such as um-, im-, in-, and auto-, and suffixes such as -full, -less, -ly and -able. The
purpose of affixation is to create new words. The new words can either have different meanings
and different word classes than the base word, or they can show grammatical functions. The form
to which an affix is attached is called a base.

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Examples
Prefixes
Word Prefix Base
Unhappy Un happy
Immobile Im mobile
Enable En able
Overestimate Over estimate
Illegal Il legal

Suffixes
Word base Suffix
Nicely Nice ly
Boys boy s
Girls girl s
Boyhood boy hood

LANGAUGE
The concept of language
Language is a system of conventional spoken or written symbols by means of which humans, as
members of a social group and participants in its culture, express themselves. Language is one of
the most useful and most brilliant human inventions. By means of language, people of the same
and related communities are able to interact and express their thoughts and feelings to one
another.
Characteristics of language
1. Language is verbal, vocal, and sound---Language is an organization of vocal symbols
that sends messages across. Speech is primary to writing because there are several
languages in the world which have no writing systems but have spoken languages.
2. Language is arbitrary--- Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no relation
between the words of a language and their meaning or the ides conveyed by them. For
instance, there is no reason why a female human being is called woman n English and
femine in French. The choice of a word selected to mean a particular thing or idea is
purely arbitrary (based on random choice or selection), but once a word is selected for a
particular referent (thing it refers to), it comes to stay as such.
3. Language is social--- Language is a set of communicative symbol used by humans for
communication in a community. Language in this sense is a possession of a social group,
comprising an indispensable set of rules which permits its members to relate to each
other, to interact with each other, to cooperate with each other, it is a social institution.
Language exists in society; it is a means of nourishing and developing culture and
establishing human relations.
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4. Language is symbolic---- Language consists of various sound symbols. The
intelligibility of a language depends on the interpretation of those symbols.
5. Language is systematic---- Although language is symbolic, yet its symbols and arranged
in a particular system. All languages have their system of arrangements. Every language
is a system of systems.
6. Language is non-instinctive and conventional--- No language was created in a day out
of a mutually agreed upon formula by a group of humans. Language is outcome of
evolution and convention. Each generation transmits this convention on to the next.
Every language then is a convention in a community. It is non-instinctive because it is
acquired by human beings. Nobody gets a language by heritage; he acquires it because he
has an innate (in born) ability.
7. Language is productive and creative -----Language has creativity and productivity. The
structure elements human languages can be combined to produce new utterances, which
neither the speaker nor his hearers have ever made or heard before, yet which both sides
understand without difficulty. Language changes according to the needs of the society.

Language skills
Language skills encompass a range of abilities that are essential for effective
communication in any language. Notable language skills include listening, speaking,
reading, and writing, each serves a unique purpose in the learning process.

Listening skills--- Listening skills involves understanding and spoken language. This
skill requires attentiveness, comprehension (understanding), and extracting meaning from
spoken words. Practical listening skills allow individuals to follow conversations,
understanding instructions, and engage in meaningful interactions.

Speaking skills---Speaking skills focus on the ability to express oneself verbally, and
communicating ideas clearly and effectively. This skill involves vocabulary, grammar,
pronunciation, fluency and intonation. Strong speaking skills enable individuals to
convey their thoughts, engage in conversations, give presentations, and participate
actively in social and professional settings.

Reading skills—Reading skills involve understanding and interpreting written language.

This skill encompasses comprehension, vocabulary recognition, and extracting
information from written texts. Proficient reading skills allow individuals to gather
knowledge engage with various forms of literature and access information from diverse
sources.

Writing skills--- Writing involves composing coherent and grammatically correct written
communication. This skill includes organizing thoughts, structuring sentences and
paragraphs, using appropriate vocabulary and grammar, and conveying ideas effectively.
Strong writing skills empower individuals to express themselves clearly, engage in formal
and informal writing tasks, and communicate precisely and clearly.

41
 Developing and honing these language skills is crucial for effective communication in
personal and professional settings. Each skill complements the others, forming a
comprehensive foundation for language proficiency. By actively practicing and refining
these language skills, individuals can enhance their ability to understand, express, and
engage with others meaningfully, fostering effective communication and mutual
understanding.

Functions of language
1. Communication---Language serves as a primary means of communication between
individuals, allowing us to convey information, share experiences, and express our
thoughts, feelings, and needs. It enables social interaction and fosters connections among
individuals.
2. Knowledge transfer---Language is in instrumental in transferring knowledge from one
generation to another. Through language, ideas, experiences, and discoveries are
preserved and passed down, enabling progress and cultural continuity.
3. Cognitive development---Language plays vital role in cognitive development. It helps
structure and organize our thoughts, enhances problem-solving abilities, and enables
abstract thinking. Language acquisition during childhood significantly impacts
intellectual growth.
4. Expression of identity---Language is deeply intertwined with personal and cultural
identity. It enables us to express our unique perspectives, beliefs, and values, and fosters a
sense of belonging within specific linguistic communities. Different languages reflect
diverse cultural differences and worldviews.
5. Creativity and artistry----Language allows us to engage in creative expressions such as
literature, poetry, songwriting, and storytelling. It provides a medium for artistic
endeavors, enabling the exploration of emotions, imagination, and aesthetics.
6. Socialization and collaboration---Language facilitates socialization, cooperation, and
collaboration within communities. It enables individuals to understand and adhere to
societal norms, codes, and shared meanings. Language also forms the basis for teamwork,
negotiations, and the exchange of ideas.
7. Critical thinking and analysis---Language enables us to articulate and critically analyze
complex ideas, theories, and concepts. It helps in developing analytical skills, logical
reasoning, and the ability to express and defend arguments.
8. Influence and persuasion---Language is a powerful tool for persuasion and influence.
Through effective communication, individuals can convey their opinions, influence
others‘ beliefs and behaviours, and advocate for causes or ideologies.
9. Documentation and record keeping---Language enables the creation of written records,
documents, and archives, aiding in the preservation of historical events, scientific
discoveries, and cultural heritage. It provides a means to store and retrieve information
overtime.
10. Global communication---Language serves as a bridge between different cultures and
nations. It enables intercultural communication, fostering understanding, empathy, and
cooperation on a global scale. Language learning facilitates intercultural dialogue and
mutual respect.

42
 The uses of the English language in Nigeria
1. The language of Education ---the English language is widely used in the
propagation of education in Nigeria at all levels of education. It is the language of
instructions in schools. The Nigerian Educational policy of 1977 makes the English
language mandatory and the only language to be used for instructions/teaching in
schools.
2. The language of Government---the English language is the language of government
in Nigeria because almost all the transactions in government offices are carried out in
it.
3. The language of commerce and industry----the English language is used in
carrying out transactions in commerce and industry.
4. The language of international communication---the English language is used either
in or outside the country when Nigerians want to engage in international business or
transactions of any kind with persons beyond Nigerian geographical boundaries. It is
also used for announcement at airports because foreigners are likely to be among the
passengers.
5. The language of the media—the English language is the most widely used language
in the Nigerian media, both print (Newspapers and Magazines), and electronic
(Television and Radio), media.
6. The language of law and legal drafting----most books in law and legal drafting are
written in English. All the volumes of the Nigerian constitution are written in English.
All courtroom procedures are held in English.
7. The language of science and technology---the English language is the language of
science and technology in Nigeria. Most of the names of chemicals and scientific
formulae are written in English. In information and technology, the language used is
English.
8. The language of social interactions----the English language is used as a means of
social interactions in most social gatherings in Nigeria. It is also used when meeting
someone for the first time.
9. The language of integration----the English language is a language of unity. It unites
Nigerians in spite of our different and complex ethnic groups, political affiliations and
religions.
PARAGRAPHING
A paragraph is a unit of composition built around one central idea. Paragraphing is a way of
dividing continuous writing into convenient segments (parts) to make it meaningful and
readable. It can also be referred to as a combination of sentences dealing with a single theme and
forming aa distinct section of a piece of writing. Every good paragraph develops in different
ways; one idea or related ideas, and it usually has a beginning, middle, and an end.

A paragraph is made up of two parts, namely; A topic sentence and, supporting details. A topic
sentence is one that states in general terms the central idea of a paragraph. The central idea in
turn is one of the points of an essay‘s basic organisations. It refers to the sentence which states
clearly the aspect off the topic that is being discussed in the paragraph. The topic sentence may

43
be placed at the beginning, middle or end of most paragraphs, it may come at any point, or it may
be implied.
Examples:

The topic sentence at the beginning of the paragraph:

THE TACTIC WAS COMPLETELY SUCCESSFUL. Two changes were made in the attacking
formation both on the left and the right wings. In less than fifteen minutes to regulation time, two
quick goals were scored by the newly introduced players.

The topic sentence in the middle of the paragraph:

Two changes were made in the attacking formation both on the left and the right wings. THE
TACTIC WAS COMPLETELY SUCCESSFUL. In less than fifteen minutes to regulation time, two
quick goals were scored by the newly introduced players.

The topic sentence at the end of the paragraph:

Two changes were made in the attacking formation both on the left and the right wings. In less
than fifteen minutes to regulation time, two quick goals were scored by the newly introduced
players. THE TACTIC WAS COMPLETELY SUCCESSFUL.
The supporting details of a paragraph are specific assertions of fact that support the topic
sentence. Supporting details may include examples, statistics, and the opinions of authorities.

A paragraph contains one topic sentence but many supporting details. The sentences in a
paragraph would vary in their levels of generality. This means the degree in which a sentence is
either specific or general in the assertion it makes.

Features of a good paragraph

A well-developed paragraph has the following characteristics or features:
Unity
Coherence
Emphasis
Unity- A paragraph is said to have unity when its sentences stick to the topic and do not deviate
to secondary issues or accommodate irrelevancies. The entire sentences must focus on the topic
of the paragraph to the exclusion of everything else. Every sentence in the paragraph must
connect appropriately and have a direct relationship with the main idea. Even when there are
several ideas expressed in the paragraph, there must be a unifying force and a string that binds
them together. This singleness of purpose or interconnectedness of ideas is what unity is about.

Coherence- Another quality of a good paragraph is coherence. This has to do with having the
parts of a paragraph in a meaningful order. The ideas presented in a paragraph must be orderly
and understandable. There must be a logical sequence of ideas. These can be attained through the

44
use of conjuncts or transitional words such as: however, nevertheless, in addition,
consequently, indeed, finally, as a result, in spite of, in contrast to, again, etc. Coherence can
also be achieved through the precise use of pronouns to avoid repetition of some nouns. The third
way by which coherence can be achieved is through the repetition of specific ideas, although not
necessarily the same words or phrases.

Emphasis- Emphasis is another quality that a paragraph can have which can give it paragraph
unity. This can be achieved through the use of contrasting sentences and repetition of ideas.

Paragraph Development
This has to do with the expansion or enlargement of a paragraph. There are many devices that
can be used to develop a paragraph and build the main idea expressed in the topic sentence.
Some of the devices that can be used to develop a paragraph are listed as follows:

i. Definition of the concepts/subject- in defining a word, you may want to discuss its
etymology (origin) in order to shed light on its present meaning.
ii. Comparison and contrast- the similarities and differences between people and things
can be used to expand a paragraph.
iii. Presentation of arguments for or against the proposition- this gives an adequate
illustration of the main ideas.
iv. Repetition of an idea for emphatic purpose but not in exactly the same words
previously used.
v. Giving of copious examples to support the claim made by the writer or to clarify a
difficult point.
vi. Vivid description of the person, the place, the thing or the process, should be
presented in chronological order.
vii. By quotation and the explanation of the issues raised in the quotation.
viii. Classification of people and things based on observed characteristics.

A well-organised paragraph is the heart of the essay. Once you have mastered its construction,
you would have gone a long way in mastering the construction of the whole essay, which is
orgaanised in much the same manner.

Paragraph opening
The way you start your paragraph is very important. The strategy to use depends on the subject
matter. The language depends on the purpose of the write up. If it is a magazine article, the
language may be different from when it is a formal essay. You could start by defining a concept
that you hope to write on or the explanation of an idea.

45
 Concluding paragraph
The concluding paragraph is as important as the opening paragraph. Many people conclude by
summarizing the main points so that the reader would be reminded of the writer‘s line of
thinking or argument as the case may be. A lot however depends on the subject matter.

Methods of ordering details in a paragraph

Organizing the sentences in your paragraph according to a logical order helps the reader to
follow the development of your ideas. Some common kinds of logical order are:

 Chronological order
 Comparison/contrast
 Logical division of ideas
 Order of importance
 Cause and effect
Each kind of order uses particular words and phrases (transition words) to show the relationship
between ideas. For example, in a paragraph using chronological order, you would use
expressions of time such as: first, next, after that, finally, before, after, since, then, etc. In a
paragraph describing differences (contrast), you would use expressions like these: the most
significant difference, larger than, unlike, on the hand, in contrast, differ from, etc. In a
paragraph showing similarities (comparison), you would use expressions such as: similarly, as
expensive as, just as, just like, compare with, in comparison, etc. Logical division of ideas
simply means that ideas are grouped together, and each group is discussed accordingly. They
may be introduced in order of importance, or in some order that makes sense to the reader. You
would use transition words such as: firstly, secondly, thirdly to introduce each group or
paragraph. A cause-and-effect paragraph uses transition words that express reasons and results,
such as: the first cause, the next reason, because of…, the first effect, as a result of,
therefore, etc.

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