DISCRETE MATHS

● Every Contingency is satisfiable but a satisfiable function can be a

tautology also.
● But = and, nevertheless = and, unless = or
● P is necessary for q : q → p
● P is sufficient for q : p → q
● Implication = Contrapositive
● Converse = Inverse
● An inference which is tautology is called valid inference.
● ∃ comes with ^ (and)
● ∀ comes with → (implication)
● First order logic and Propositional logic both tautologies are different :(
● A bounded variable is a variable that is subject to a quantifier (∃ or ∀).
● Reflexive Symmetric closure of R = Symmetric Reflexive Closure of R.
● Reflexive Transitive closure of R = Transitive Reflexive closure of R.
● Symmetric transitive closure of R ≠ Transitive Symmetric closure of R.
● Quotient set : Set of all Equivalence classes of a relation.
● Partitions: The subsets form a partition P of set A if :
1. The union of the subsets in P is equal to A.
2. The partition P does not contain the empty set.
3. The intersection of any distinct subsets in P is empty.

● There is a direct link between equivalence class and partitions. For any
equivalence relation on a set A, the set of all its equivalence classes is a
partition on A.
● Finding equivalence relation using partitions :
A = { 1, 2, 3, 4 }
Partition set = { { 1, 2 }, { 3 }, { 4 } }
A1 A2 A3
Then, R = A1 x A1 U A2 x A2 U A3 x A3
● If R is reflexive, then R-1 is also reflexive.
● If R is symmetric, then R-1 is also symmetric.
● If R is transitive, then R-1 is also transitive.
● If R is antisymmetric, then R-1 is also antisymmetric.
● If R is asymmetric, then R-1 is also asymmetric.
● If R is an equivalence relation on a set A, then R -1 is an equivalence
relation.
● The union of two equivalence relations is reflexive and symmetric but
need not be transitive.
● The intersection of two equivalence relations is always an equivalence
relation.
● If f is a one-one function, g is also one-one then fog is one-one.
● If f is onto, g is also onto then fog is onto.
● If f is bijective, g is bijective then fog is bijective.
● Symmetric difference of x and y = all elements that's in x but not in y UNION
all elements that's in y but not in x. Works like XOR operation.
● U∖S same as U-S. It Set Difference Operator .
● No of equivalence relation = No of partitions of a set
(And these problems are solved using the DOIB template (see discrete snaps)).
● Zn = { 0,1,2,....n-1)
● A Hasse diagram is lattice when every pair of elements have a UNIQUE
least upper bound and a greatest lower bound.
● Self loops are not allowed in Directed graphs.
● Rooted tree is a directed graph while Tree is an undirected graph.
● Homeomorphic graph : Graph obtained from dividing edges with more
no of vertices.
● If any two graphs are isomorphic then they are homeomorphic also.
Converse need not be true.
● Simple Graph : No self loops and No parallel edges.
● Polyhedral Graph : A simple connected planar graph in which for all
vertices, degree(V) >= 3.
● In a planar graph with ‘k’ connected components :
V+R=E+(K+1)
● In a simple connected planar graph, the degree of each region is at least
3.
● For any simple connected planar graph, there exists at least one vertex
such that deg(V)<=5.
● Null graph : No edges , Trivial graph : Only 1 vertex.
● Chromatic number of every planar graph is less than or equal to 4.
● No of perfect matchings for K2n = (2n)! / 2n n! , Kn , n = n!
● Circuit Rank of a Graph : The no of edges we have to delete from G in order to
get a spanning tree = E - V + 1.
● No of spanning trees of a complete graph = nn-2
● Euler path : A path which contains each edge of G exactly once and each
vertex of G at least once.
● Traversable graph: A graph is said to be traversable if there exists a Euler path.
● A connected graph G is traversable iff number of vertices with odd degree in G
is exactly 2 or 0.
● Hamiltonian path : A path which contains each vertex of G exactly once.
● Hamiltonian graph : A graph which contains a cycle covering each vertex of G
exactly once.
● The number of different Hamiltonian cycles in a complete undirected labeled
graph on n vertices is (n−1)! /2
If the graph is unlabeled, the number of different Hamiltonian cycles becomes 1.
● Induced Subgraph : An induced subgraph of a graph is another graph, formed
from a subset of the vertices of the graph and all of the edges (from the
original graph) connecting pairs of vertices in that subset.
● Multigraph : A multigraph is a graph which is permitted to have multiple
edges (also called parallel edges), that is, edges that have the same end
nodes.
● Pseudograph : A pseudograph is a non-simple graph in which both
graph loops and multiple edges are permitted.
● Priority order of connectives :
NOT > AND > OR > Implication > Bi-implication
● ∃ ! This symbol means “exactly one”
For example : ∃! X P(x) This means there exists exactly one x for which P(x)
is true.
● Propositional logic tautology is equivalent to validity. This means
if a formula is valid then it is tautology. But in case of first order
logic tautology and validity are two different things . In FOL :
Tautology → validity but validity -/-> tautology. In case of FOL,
find the tautology by replacing predicates with variables.
● Divisibility relation D ( /, n) is complemented iff n is a square free number.
● Divisibility relation D ( /, n) is a boolean algebra iff n is a square free number.
● Divisibility relation D ( /, n) is always a distributive lattice because LCM and
GCD are distributive over each other.
● f1 and f2 are two functions, then (f1 + f2)x = f1(x) + f2(x) and (f1.f2)x = f1(x)f2(x)
● Magma means groupoid
● https://gateoverflow.in/exam/302/go-classes-test-series-2023-discrete-
mathematics-1
● https://gateoverflow.in/exam/308/go-classes-test-series-2023-discrete-
mathematics-test-2
● https://gateoverflow.in/exam/312/go-classes-test-series-2023-discrete-
mathematics-test-3
● https://gateoverflow.in/exam/318/go-classes-2023-discrete-mathematics-
test-4
● https://gateoverflow.in/exam/321/go-classes-2023-discrete-mathematics-
test-5
● The number of Abelian groups of order Pk (P is prime) is the number of
partitions of k.
● https://gateoverflow.in/1219/gate-cse-2007-question-21
● What is the minimum degree of a polynomial, given the initial
conditions? - Mathematics Stack Exchange
Good question :

Mathematical Logic: GATE CSE 2003 | Question: 33 (gateoverflow.in)

Mathematical Logic: GATE CSE 2006 | Question: 26 (gateoverflow.in)
Do not get confused by “and" between tigers and lions in the statement. This
“And" does not mean that we will write “tiger(x) ∧ lion(x)", because
that would have meant that an animal is both tiger and lion, which is
not what we want.

Mathematical Logic: GATE CSE 2008 | Question: 30 (gateoverflow.in)

Very Important concept :

For propositional logic(PL) / Sentential logic, “Tautology” of an expression means the
same thing as “Validity” of that expression. But this is Not true in FOL.

Mathematical Logic: GATE CSE 2015 Set 2 | Question: 55 (gateoverflow.in)

Please study this !

Mathematical Logic: GATE CSE 2018 | Question: 28 (gateoverflow.in)

Amazing question, amazing answer on GO :

Mathematical Logic: GATE CSE 2019 | Question: 35 (gateoverflow.in)

Mathematical Logic: GATE IT 2006 | Question: 21 (gateoverflow.in)

Set Theory & Algebra: GATE CSE 2000 | Question: 2.6 (gateoverflow.in)

Set Theory & Algebra: GATE CSE 2001 | Question: 2.2 (gateoverflow.in)

Set Theory & Algebra: GATE CSE 2006 | Question: 24 (gateoverflow.in)

Set Theory & Algebra: GATE CSE 2016 Set 2 | Question: 28 (gateoverflow.in)
It's important to understand the statement first and then try to answer .

Good Analytical question :

Set Theory & Algebra: GATE CSE 2015 Set 2 | Question: 40 (gateoverflow.in)

Such a great question :

Set Theory & Algebra: GATE CSE 2016 Set 1 | Question: 28 (gateoverflow.in)

Set Theory & Algebra: GATE IT 2006 | Question: 6 (gateoverflow.in)

Set Theory & Algebra: GATE CSE 1996 | Question: 1.4 (gateoverflow.in)
Set Theory & Algebra: GATE CSE 1987 | Question: 9e (gateoverflow.in)
Good intuitive question.

Set Theory & Algebra: GATE CSE 1995 | Question: 1.19 (gateoverflow.in)

No of equivalence relation = No of partitions of a set

And these problems are solved using DOIB template (see discrete snaps)

Set Theory & Algebra: GATE CSE 1997 | Question: 6.3 (gateoverflow.in)

Set Theory & Algebra: GATE CSE 1998 | Question: 10b (gateoverflow.in)

Set Theory & Algebra: GATE CSE 2016 Set 2 | Question: 26 (gateoverflow.in)

Good question
Set Theory & Algebra: GATE CSE 2021 Set 1 | Question: 43 (gateoverflow.in)
Set Theory & Algebra: GATE CSE 1996 | Question: 2.1 (gateoverflow.in)

Set Theory & Algebra: GATE CSE 2001 | Question: 2.3 (gateoverflow.in)

Dimag ka dahi x 100 , But interesting question !

Set Theory & Algebra: GATE CSE 2003 | Question: 39 (gateoverflow.in)

Set Theory & Algebra: GATE CSE 2005 | Question: 43 (gateoverflow.in)
Practice and recall these questions

Set Theory & Algebra: GATE CSE 2006 | Question: 25 (gateoverflow.in)

 ● A Hasse diagram is lattice when every pair of elements have a UNIQUE
least upper bound and a greatest lower bound.
● Set Theory & Algebra: GATE IT 2008 | Question: 28 (gateoverflow.in)

Set Theory & Algebra: GATE CSE 2007 | Question: 21 (gateoverflow.in)

Must read the answer.

Set Theory & Algebra: GATE CSE 2014 Set 3 | Question: 50 (gateoverflow.in)

Set Theory & Algebra: GATE CSE 2019 | Question: 10 (gateoverflow.in)

Set Theory & Algebra: GATE CSE 1995 | Question: 7(A) (gateoverflow.in)
fermat's little theorem
Set Theory & Algebra: GATE IT 2007 | Question: 16 (gateoverflow.in)

Set Theory & Algebra: GATE CSE 2003 | Question: 38 (gateoverflow.in)

Set Theory & Algebra: GATE CSE 2015 Set 1 | Question: 34 (gateoverflow.in)

Set Theory & Algebra: GATE CSE 1991 | Question: 01,xiv (gateoverflow.in)

Set Theory & Algebra: GATE CSE 2003 | Question: 31 (gateoverflow.in)

Very good question

Set Theory & Algebra: GATE CSE 1997 | Question: 4.4 (gateoverflow.in)
Good one
What is the minimum degree of a polynomial, given the initial conditions? -
Mathematics Stack Exchange
 C
ombinatory: GATE CSE 1990 | Question: 3-iii (gateoverflow.in)

Combinatory: GATE CSE 1991 | Question: 16,a (gateoverflow.in)

Combinatory: GATE CSE 2000 | Question: 5 (gateoverflow.in)

Good question

Combinatory: GATE CSE 2004 | Question: 75 (gateoverflow.in)

Combinatory: GATE CSE 2007 | Question: 85 (gateoverflow.in)

Combinatory: GATE CSE 2014 Set 1 | Question: 49 (gateoverflow.in)

Combinatory: GATE CSE 2020 | Question: 42 (gateoverflow.in)

Combinatory: GATE CSE 2021 Set 1 | Question: 19 (gateoverflow.in)

Combinatory: GATE CSE 1987 | Question: 10b (gateoverflow.in)

Combinatory: GATE CSE 2005 | Question: 44 (gateoverflow.in)

Combinatory: GATE CSE 2016 Set 1 | Question: 27 (gateoverflow.in)

Combinatory: GATE IT 2004 | Question: 34 (gateoverflow.in)

Combinatory: GATE IT 2007 | Question: 76 (gateoverflow.in)

Graph Theory: GATE CSE 1994 | Question: 1.6, ISRO2008-29 (gateoverflow.in)

Graph Theory: GATE CSE 2012 | Question: 38 (gateoverflow.in)

Graph Theory: GATE CSE 2003 | Question: 40 (gateoverflow.in)

Graph Theory: GATE CSE 2006 | Question: 72 (gateoverflow.in)

Graph Theory: GATE CSE 2005 | Question: 10 (gateoverflow.in)

No of faces = No of regions ( you don't have too subtract 1 here)

Graph Theory: GATE CSE 2008 | Question: 23 (gateoverflow.in)

Kuch samajh nahi aaya

Very small mistake is that inside the forest only trees will be there and you have to
calculate maximum no of edges for tree (n-1) and not for a complete graph.
Graph Theory: GATE CSE 1992 | Question: 03,iii (gateoverflow.in)

Graph Theory: GATE CSE 2005 | Question: 11 (gateoverflow.in)\

Samjhoo bhai ye sab panoti

Graph Theory: GATE CSE 2007 | Question: 23 (gateoverflow.in)

Very good question :

Graph Theory: GATE CSE 2014 Set 1 | Question: 51 (gateoverflow.in)

Graph Theory: GATE CSE 2019 | Question: 12 (gateoverflow.in)

Graph Theory: GATE CSE 2019 | Question: 38 (gateoverflow.in)

Nai samajh aaya 2nd point !!

Graph Theory: GATE CSE 2021 Set 1 | Question: 36 (gateoverflow.in)

Graph Theory: GATE IT 2005 | Question: 56 (gateoverflow.in)
Good question .

Graph Theory: GATE IT 2008 | Question: 27 (gateoverflow.in)