1/23/2025

SUB: SURVEYING II/II

PRESENTED BY:
TULA RAM BHANDARI
LECTURER
CIVIL DEPARTMENT

CHAPTER 5:
ORIENTATION AND FIELD ASTRONOMY

INTRODUCTION TO DATUM SYSTEM

The Datum system in surveying refers to a reference framework used to

define the position, elevation, and orientation of points on the Earth's
surface. It establishes the foundation for measurements and ensures
consistency in mapping, construction, and geospatial data. The system
consists of both horizontal and vertical datums, providing precise control
over geographic coordinates and elevations.

Components of the Datum System:

1. Horizontal Datum:

This relates to the position of points on the Earth’s surface, specifically

in terms of latitude and longitude.
It provides the foundation for geographic positioning, mapping, and
coordinate systems.

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DATUM SYSTEM………..

Common horizontal datums include:

WGS84 (World Geodetic System 1984): A global datum used by GPS
and modern mapping systems.

NAD83 (North American Datum 1983): A commonly used datum in

North America.

2. Vertical Datum:

This defines the elevation or height of points relative to a reference surface,

typically mean sea level (MSL) or another geoid model.
It provides a standard reference for measuring elevation or depth on the
Earth's surface.

Types of Datum Systems:

1.Geodetic Datum:
1. This is based on a mathematical model of the Earth (ellipsoid) and
includes both the shape of the Earth and the location of the reference
point.
2. It considers Earth's curvature and helps define coordinates for mapping
and navigation systems.

2.Local Datum:
These datums are used for specific regions and may be more localized than
geodetic datums. They are often employed for regional surveys where the
Earth’s curvature can be considered negligible over small areas.

3.Global Datum:
These are intended to represent the entire Earth’s surface and are used in
global positioning and mapping systems like GPS. They provide a more
accurate representation of the Earth's shape at a global level.

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Importance of the Datum System in Surveying:

•Accuracy: Ensures consistency and precision in mapping and position

recording.

•Consistency: It creates a standardized reference that surveyors and engineers

can rely on for work across various locations and projects.

•Coordinate Reference: Helps determine the exact location and elevation of a

point on the Earth's surface, which is crucial for construction, navigation, and
geospatial analysis.

In summary, a Datum system in surveying provides the foundational reference

points for accurate positioning, elevation measurement, and geospatial data
across the Earth’s surface.

ANALYTICAL INTERSECTION AND RESECTION

INTERSECTION

** It means the position of unknown point lies at the junction of

two rays whose coordinate
is found from angular measurements taken at known coordinate
points.

** If the point is inaccessible, it is surveyed by intersection method

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Analytical Intersection:
Known coordinates:
F Coordinate of C
Coordinate of D

C Field observations:
Angle FCD
Angle CDF
D Find Coordinate of point F

Procedure:
4. Find length CF and DF
1. Find angle CFD Use sine law
2. Find bearing of CD 5. Find Consecutive Coordinate of CF and DF

3. Find length CD 6. Find Total Coordinate of F

Analytical Resection

** It is the method of determining the observer’s position by making theodolite

Observations to two or three well known points.

** Two point problem and Three point problem

** Three point problem may arise to provide additional control points to be

Used as instrument.

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Two point Problem

A
B
y
x Known data
6
1 Coordinate of station A and B

To find coordinate of C
2
5 3 Assume a auxiliary station D
4 C at a known distance from C
D

Now, A and B be the given inaccessible stations

And C and D be the two observation stations
Field observations:
Angle 2
Angle 3
Angle 4
Angle 5

Two point Problem

Field observations:
A Angle 1
B Angle 2
Y Angle 3
X
6 Angle 4
1
M Procedure
2
1. Find angle X and Y
5 3 2. Find Length and Bearing of line AB
4 C
D 3. Find length BC
Use sine law in triangle ABC
4. Find bearing of line BC
5. Find consecutive coordinate of line BC
6. Find Total coordinate of station C
7. Find total coordinate of station D

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Find angle X and Y

Known data:
A Angle 2, 3, 4 and 5
B
Y Procedure
X
6
1 1. Find angle 1
M
2. Find angle 6
2
5 3 3. Use sine law to triangle ABM
4 C
D Sin X = AM ……………….(1)
Sin Y BM
4. Again
Sin 1 = CM ……………….(2)
Sin 2 BM
Sin 3 = DM ……………….(3)
Sin 4 CM

3. Use sine law to triangle ABM

Find angle X and Y
Sin X = AM ……………….(1)
Sin Y BM
A 4. Again
B
Y Sin 1 = CM ……………….(2)
X Sin 2 BM
6
1 Sin 3 = DM ……………….(3)
M Sin 4 CM
2 Sin 5 = AM ……………….(4)
Sin 6 DM
5 3
4 C 5. Multiplying equation 2, 3, and 4 we get,
D AM = Constant K1 …………..(5)
BM

6. Now, from equation 1 and 5

Sin X = AM = K1 = Tan φ
Sin Y BM

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Find angle X and Y 6. Now, from equation 1 and 5

Sin X = AM = K1 = Tan φ
A Sin Y BM
B
Y
X Or, Sin X – Sin Y = Tan φ – 1
6 Sin X + Sin Y Tan φ + 1
1
M 2 Sin (X-Y)/2 . Cos (X+Y)/2
Or,
2 2 Sin (X+Y)/2 . Cos (X–Y )/2 = Tan (φ – 45)

5 3
4 Or, Tan (X-Y)/2 = Tan (X+Y)/2 . Tan (φ – 45)
C
D Or, X – Y = K2 ……………….(6)

7. Again,
X + Y = 360 – (Angle 1 + 2+ 3+ 4 + 5+ 6)
X + Y = K3 ……………….(7)

8. From equation 6 and 7,

Find the values of X and Y

Numerical

From two station C and D, the following observation were made to two inaccessible
stations A and B
Angle ADB = 35°45’25”
BDC = 40°18’52”
DCA = 30°15’36”
ACB = 36°42’42”
A
B
Y Coordinates of station A and B are
X
6
1 Point Easting Northing
M A 3585 m 2155 m
2 B 4875 m 2215 m
5 3
4 C Calculate the coordinate of C and D
D

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Solution
Solving we get,

A X+Y=
B
Y Sin X =
X Sin Y
6
1 X–Y=
M
X=
2
5 3 Y=
4 C Length AB =
D Bearing of AB =

Now, Coordinate of C and D Length AD =

Bearing of AD =
Point Easting Northing Length BC =
C
Bearing of BC =
D

Solution
Solving we get,

A X + Y = 70°34’28”
B
Y Sin X = Tan 37°8’45”
X Sin Y
6
1 X – Y = - 11°9’6”
M
X = 29°42’41”
2
5 3 Y = 40°51’47”
4 C Length AB = 1291.39 m
D Bearing of AB = 87°20’13”

Now, Coordinate of C and D Length AD = 1095.33 m

Bearing of AD = 201°52’7”
Point Easting Northing Length BC = 1413.37 m
C 5242.91 m 850.36 m
Bearing of BC = 164°54’42”
D 3177.01 m 1138.49 m

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Numerical on Intersection

D
Known coordinates:
Coordinate of C = 2202.45m E, 1977.05m N
Coordinate of D = 2881.69m E, 640.69m N

Field observations:
Angle FCD = 36°29’30”
Angle CDF = 38°35’10”

Find Coordinate of point F

Numerical on Intersection

D
Known coordinates:
Coordinate of C = 2202.45m E, 1977.05m N
Coordinate of D = 2881.69m E, 640.69m N

Field observations:
Angle FCD = 36°29’30”
Angle CDF = 38°35’10”

Coordinate of point F = 3067.89m E, 1544.33m N

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ANALYTICAL RESECTION
THREE POINT PROBLEM

** It is the method of determining the observer’s position by making theodolite

Observations to two or three well known points.
** Three point problem may arise to provide additional control points to be
Used as instrument.

P
C B

B P

Analytical Solution:

1. (φ-45°) method
2. Collin’s point method

3. Tienstra Formula

P
C B

B P

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1. (φ-45°) method

Let A, B and C be the three given points and p be the observer’s position.

A A

X
Y
α β
P C
γ C X Y

B α β
B
Referring the Figure P

Known Values are = Coordinates of station A, B and C Y

To find = Coordinate of unknown station P

A Referring the Figure

Let, Observed angles be

X
Y α, β and γ
α β
P Let, Angle ABP = X
γ C
And Angle ACP = Y

First, find length and bearing of line AB, BC and CA and angles A, B and C

Now, Find angle X and angle Y

Applying Sine rule to triangle ABP

Sin X = AP ……………….(1)
Sin α AB
Again, Applying Sine rule to triangle ACP

Sin Y = AP ……………….(2)
Sin β AC

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A
To find angle X and angle Y

Applying Sine rule to triangle ABP X Y

α β
Sin X = AP ……………….(1)
Sin α AB P
γ C
Again, Applying Sine rule to triangle ACP
B
Sin Y = AP ……………….(2)
Sin β AC

From 1 and 2, we get

Sin X = AC Sin α = Constant = K1 = Tan φ
Sin Y AB Sin β

Now,
Sin X = Tan φ
Sin Y

Using Componendo and Devidendo we get

Or, Sin X – Sin Y = Tan φ – 1
Sin X + Sin Y Tan φ + 1

Or, 2 Sin (X-Y)/2 . Cos (X+Y)/2

2 Sin (X+Y)/2 . Cos (X–Y )/2 = Tan (φ – 45)

Or, Tan (X-Y)/2 = Tan (X+Y)/2 . Tan (φ – 45)

Or, X – Y = K2 ……………….(3)

where,
X + Y = 360 – (Angle A + α + β)
X + Y = K3 ……………….(4)

Now, From equation 3 and 4,

Find the values of X and Y

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A A

X
Y
α β
P C
γ C X Y

B α β
B

P
Now, To find Coordinate of station P,
Y
1. Find length and bearing of line AB, BC and CA
2. Find angles A, B and C
3. Find length of line BP using Sine rule at triangle ABP

4. Find bearing of line BP

5. Find coordinate of station P

2. Colin’s Method:
X
Y
α β
To find value of X and Y
P
γ C
We have,
Sin X = K B
Sin Y
But, X + Y = φ
Or, X = φ - Y

Now, Sin X = K Sin Y

Or Sin (φ – Y) = K Sin Y
Or Sin φ Cos Y – Cos φ Sin Y = K Sin Y
Or Sin φ – Cos φ tan Y = K Tan Y

Or Y = Tan‫־‬¹{Sinφ / (K + Cos φ)}

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Numerical

From a station R, the following observation were made to three inaccessible

stations C, D and E
Angle CRD = 138°10’20”
C
DRE = 75°45’00”
ERC = 146°04’40”
Y
X
Coordinates of station C, D and E are α β
R
Point Easting Northing γ D
C 2202.45 m 1977.05 m
E
D 2881.69 m 640.69 m
E 1962.27 m 355.31 m

Calculate the coordinate of R

C
SOLUTION
Distance Y
CE = X
α β
CD =
R
ED = γ D
Angle
ECD = E
CED =
CDE =
Solving, angle
X=
Y= Now, Solving
Solving, Distance Coordinate of station R
CR = ER =
NR =
Angle ECR =

Bearing of CR =

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C
Solving
Distance Y
CE = 1639.429 m X
α β
CD = 1499.071 m
R
ED = 962.691 m γ D
Angle
ECD = 35°22’02” E
CED = 64°19’55”
CDE = 80°18’03”
Solving, angle
X = 17°23’26”
Y = 22°59’32” Now, Solving
Solving, Distance Coordinate of station R
CR = 878.028 m ER = 2326.28 m
NR = 1107.80 m
Angle ECR = 16°31’54”

Bearing of CR = 171°53’33”

3. Tienstra Formula
A
A θ3
θ3

θ1
θ2 β
α
P C
γ C θ2 θ1

B α β
B

P
Formula:
Y
Where,
Ep = K1 EC + K2 EB + K3 EA
K1 + K2 + K3 K1 = 1 /(Cot θ1 – Cot α)

K2 = 1 /(Cot θ2 – Cot β)
Np = K1 NC + K2 NB + K3 NA
K1 + K2 + K3 K3 = 1 /(Cot θ3 – Cot γ)

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Numerical

From a station R, the following observation were made to three inaccessible

stations C, D and E
Angle CRD = 138°10’20”
C
DRE = 75°45’00”
ERC = 146°04’40”
Y
X
Coordinates of station C, D and E are α β
R
Point Easting Northing γ D
C 2202.45 m 1977.05 m
E
D 2881.69 m 640.69 m
E 1962.27 m 355.31 m

Calculate the coordinate of R

C
Tienstra Formula θ3

Distance
CE = β
CD = α
R
ED = γ D
Angle
ECD = E
CED = θ2 θ1
CDE =

Angle CRD =
DRE =
ERC =
Now,
Now, Solving
K1 =
Coordinate of station R
K2 =
ER =
K3
NR =

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C
Tienstra Formula θ3

Distance
CE = 1639.429 m β
CD = 1499.071 m α
R
ED = 962.691 m γ D
Angle
ECD = 35°22’02” E
CED = 64°19’55” θ2 θ1
CDE = 80°18’03”

Angle CRD = 138°10’20”

DRE = 75°45’00”
ERC = 146°04’40”
Now,
Now, Solving
K1 = 0.62581
Coordinate of station R
K2 = 0.86589
ER = 2326.28 m
K3 = 0.60320
NR = 1107.80 m

FIELD ASTRONOMY

Field Astronomy in surveying refers to the use of astronomical observations

to determine the position of a point on the Earth's surface, typically for the
purpose of geodetic and topographic surveys. It involves the measurement
of angles, azimuths, and sometimes time, using celestial bodies such as the
Sun, stars, or planets, in relation to a known point on the Earth. This method
is often employed in the field to establish or verify the geographic position,
orientation, and elevation of surveying points.

Key Concepts in Field Astronomy:

1. Astronomical Observations:
Surveyors use instruments like theodolites or sextants to measure
angles between celestial objects (such as the Sun, stars, or planets) and
the horizon.
The time of observation is critical, as it helps to calculate the exact
position of the observed celestial body.

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2. Azimuth:

•The azimuth is the angular measurement from a known reference

direction (usually true north) to a point on the horizon where a
celestial object is observed.
•It’s important for determining the orientation of survey lines.

3. Altitude or Elevation:

•Altitude refers to the angle between the celestial object and the
observer's horizon. It helps determine the object's position relative to
the observer’s location.

4. Latitude and Longitude:

•By observing celestial bodies and using precise calculations,

surveyors can determine the latitude and longitude of a specific
point.

5. Time:

•Accurate timing is crucial, as the position of celestial objects changes

with time. Using chronometers or precise clocks, surveyors can
calculate the position of a celestial body at any given time.

6. Celestial Navigation:

•Surveyors use principles from celestial navigation to triangulate and

calculate exact geographic coordinates.

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Applications of Field Astronomy in Surveying:

1.Establishing Control Points: Field astronomy is used to establish geodetic

control points, which are critical for large-scale surveys and mapping
projects.

2.Verifying Coordinates: It can help verify the coordinates of known points,

particularly in areas without established landmarks or GPS coverage.

3.Determining Azimuths: The method is also used to determine accurate

azimuths for survey lines, which is essential for the proper alignment of
construction projects, roads, and boundaries.

4.Remote and Inaccessible Locations: Field astronomy can be useful in

remote areas where other surveying methods, like GPS or conventional
surveying, may be impractical or unavailable.

Advantages of Field Astronomy:

•Independence from GPS: It can be used in locations where GPS signals may
be weak or unavailable, such as underground, in forests, or in high latitudes.

•High Accuracy: With the right instruments and careful observations, field
astronomy can provide high-accuracy results for determining position and
orientation.

Disadvantages:

. Requires Clear Skies: Observations are dependent on clear weather and

visible celestial bodies, limiting when and where this method can be used.

. Complex Calculations: The process involves intricate calculations, often

requiring knowledge of astronomical principles and access to astronomical
tables.

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GEOGRAPHICAL CO ORDINATE SYSTEM

The Geographical Coordinates System is a system used to define the position

of any point on the Earth's surface using two key values: latitude and
longitude. These coordinates are used globally for navigation, mapping, and
location-based services, providing a standardized way to pinpoint locations.

Key Elements of the Geographical Coordinate System:

1. LATITUDE

- Latitude measures the north-south position of a point on the Earth's

surface relative to the Equator.

- Latitude values range from 0° at the Equator to 90° North at the North
Pole and 90° South at the South Pole.

LATITUDE ………

•Latitudes are denoted in degrees (°) and can be further divided into
minutes (') and seconds (").

•Positive values (North of the Equator) are represented as North

Latitude (N),

•and negative values (South of the Equator) are represented as

South Latitude (S).

•Example: The latitude of the Equator is 0°, while the latitude of the
North Pole is 90° N.

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2. LONGITUDE

•Longitude measures the east-west position of a point on the Earth's surface

relative to the Prime Meridian, which is an imaginary line running from the
North Pole to the South Pole, passing through Greenwich, England.

•Longitude values range from 0° at the Prime Meridian to 180° East and 180°
West.

•Longitudes are also measured in degrees (°), which can be divided into
minutes (') and seconds (").

•Positive values (East of the Prime Meridian) are represented as East

Longitude (E), and negative values (West of the Prime Meridian) are
represented as West Longitude (W).

•Example: The longitude of the Prime Meridian is 0°, and the longitude of New
York City is approximately 74° W.

3. Altitude (or Elevation) (Optional):

•In some cases, altitude is included as a third coordinate, which indicates

the height of the point above or below sea level.

•Altitude is typically measured in meters (m) or feet (ft).

Coordinate Notation:

Coordinates are typically written as latitude, longitude in this format:

•Latitude comes first, followed by longitude.

•Example: A location at 40° N, 74° W represents a point 40 degrees north

of the Equator and 74 degrees west of the Prime Meridian.

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Coordinates can be expressed in different formats:

•Degrees, Minutes, and Seconds (DMS): A more traditional format that

divides each degree into 60 minutes (') and each minute into 60 seconds (").

• Example: 40° 26' 46" N, 74° 0' 21" W.

•Decimal Degrees (DD): A modern, simplified format where the degrees are
expressed as decimal numbers.

• Example: 40.446° N, -74.002° W.

Usage of Geographical Coordinates:

1.Global Positioning System (GPS): GPS devices use geographical coordinates

to provide accurate positioning for navigation.

2.Maps and Navigation: Geographical coordinates are used to plot points on

maps and provide directions.

3.Geodetic Surveys: Surveyors use geographical coordinates to define

boundary lines, elevation, and other important features of land.

4.Location-Based Services: Geographical coordinates power many mobile

apps, such as mapping software and location-based marketing.

5.Weather Forecasting: Scientists use coordinates to study and predict

weather patterns, sea currents, and climate phenomena.

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Benefits of the Geographical Coordinate System:

•Global Consistency: It provides a universal standard for locating points on the

Earth’s surface, regardless of the region or country.

•Navigation: Crucial for navigation, especially in air travel, maritime

navigation, and GPS systems.

•Mapping: Enables accurate mapping of the Earth's features, both natural and
man-made.

Limitations:

•Accuracy: Geographical coordinates alone do not always provide the level of

detail required for precise engineering, construction, or surveying projects.
Local reference systems or projections may be needed.

•Geoid vs. Ellipsoid: The Earth’s shape is complex, and the geoid (the true
shape of the Earth) does not align perfectly with the mathematical model
(ellipsoid) used in the geographical coordinate system.

MAP PROJECTION SYSTEM OF NEPAL

The map projection system of Nepal refers to the methods used to

represent the Earth's curved surface onto a flat map, considering the
country's geographical location and shape.

Nepal uses the Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) projection system,

based on the WGS 84 (World Geodetic System 1984) datum for mapping
and surveying purposes. The country is primarily divided into UTM zones
44N and 45N, as it lies between longitudes 80°04'E and 88°12'E.

In addition to UTM, Nepal also uses the Modified Transverse Mercator

(MTM) projection system for certain purposes. The MTM system divides the
country into smaller zones for more localized and accurate mapping.
These projection systems are essential for creating accurate maps,
conducting land surveys, and supporting geospatial activities like
infrastructure planning and disaster management.

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Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) System

•Basis: Nepal primarily uses the UTM projection system, which divides the
Earth's surface into a series of zones.

•Zones in Nepal: The country falls within UTM zones 44N and 45N.

•Datum: The WGS 84 (World Geodetic System 1984) is used as the

reference ellipsoid.

•Characteristics:
• Divides the map into a grid system.
• Provides accurate representation for small areas, making it suitable
for land surveying and geospatial analysis.
• Widely used in Nepal for topographic mapping, GIS (Geographic
Information Systems), and cadastral surveys.

UTM COORDINATES

UTM coordinates are a type of coordinate system used to represent locations

on the Earth's surface in a flat, grid-like format. UTM stands for Universal
Transverse Mercator, which is a map projection system that divides the Earth
into 60 longitudinal zones, each 6° wide, and provides a way to project the
curved surface of the Earth onto a flat map with minimal distortion.

Key Features of UTM Coordinates

1.Grid-Based System:

1. UTM divides the Earth's surface into 60 zones numbered from 1 to 60,
starting at the 180° longitude (International Date Line) and
progressing eastward.
2. Each zone is 6° of longitude wide.

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2. Northing and Easting:

1. Easting (X-coordinate): Measures the horizontal distance (in meters)

from the central meridian of the zone (arbitrarily set at 500,000
meters to avoid negative values).

2. Northing (Y-coordinate): Measures the vertical distance (in meters)

from the equator.
1.In the northern hemisphere, northing starts at 0 meters at the
equator.
2.In the southern hemisphere, northing starts at 10,000,000 meters
at the equator and decreases as you move south.

3. Zones and Latitude Bands:

1. Each UTM zone is labeled by a zone number (1 to 60) and a latitude
band (C to X):
1.Latitude bands are 8° high and are denoted by letters from C
(80°S) to X (84°N), skipping I and O.
2.For example, Kathmandu in Nepal lies in Zone 45N.

4. Datum:

1. The UTM system typically uses the WGS 84 (World Geodetic System
1984) datum for global consistency, but other datums can also be
used depending on the mapping requirements.

Format of UTM Coordinates

A UTM coordinate is written as:

1. Zone Number and Hemisphere: Identifies the UTM zone and whether it is
north or south of the equator.

2. Easting (meters): X-coordinate from the zone's central meridian (500,000

meters is the default centerline).

3. Northing (meters): Y-coordinate from the equator or southern baseline.

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Example:

•Latitude/Longitude: 27.7172°N, 85.3240°E (Kathmandu, Nepal)

•UTM Coordinates: 45N 334031mE 3065296mN

• 45N: Zone 45, Northern Hemisphere

• 334031mE: Easting (meters)
• 3065296mN: Northing (meters)

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