Boundary layer concept

Aerodynamic effect on cycle

Boundary layer formation over a flat
plate
 Boundary layer theory
• The boundary layer of a flowing fluid is the thin layer
close to the wall
• In a flow field, viscous stresses are very prominent
within this layer.
• Although the layer is thin, it is very important to know
the details of flow within it.
• The main-flow velocity within this layer tends to
zero while approaching the wall (no-slip condition).
• Also the gradient of this velocity component in a
direction normal to the surface is large as compared to
the gradient in the stream wise direction.
 Boundary Layer Equations
• In 1904, Ludwig Prandtl, the well known German
scientist, introduced the concept of boundary
layer and derived the equations for boundary
layer flow by correct reduction of Navier-Stokes
equations.
• He hypothesized that for fluids having relatively
small viscosity, the effect of internal friction in
the fluid is significant only in a narrow region
surrounding solid boundaries or bodies over
which the fluid flows.
 Cont..
• Thus, close to the body is the boundary layer
where shear stresses exert an increasingly
larger effect on the fluid as one moves from
free stream towards the solid boundary.
• However, outside the boundary layer where
the effect of the shear stresses on the flow is
small compared to values inside the
boundary layer (since the velocity
gradient ∂u/∂y is negligible),---------
 Cont..
• The fluid particles experience no vorticity and
therefore,
• the flow is similar to a potential flow.
Hence, the surface at the boundary layer
interface is a rather fictitious one, that divides
rotational and irrotational flow. Fig below
shows Prandtl's model regarding boundary
layer flow.
 Cont…
• Hence with the exception of the immediate vicinity of
the surface, the flow is frictionless (inviscid) and the
velocity is U (the potential velocity).
• In the region, very near to the surface (in the thin
layer), there is friction in the flow which signifies that
the fluid is retarded until it adheres to the surface (no-
slip condition).
• The transition of the mainstream velocity from zero at
the surface (with respect to the surface) to full
magnitude takes place across the boundary layer.
 Hints on Boundary layer
• Boundary layer thickness is δwhich is a function
of the coordinate direction x .
• The thickness is considered to be very small compared
to the characteristic length L of the domain.
• In the normal direction, within this thin layer, the
gradient is very large compared to the gradient ∂u/∂x in
the flow direction .
• Now we take up the Navier-Stokes equations for :
steady, two dimensional, laminar, incompressible
flows. Considering the Navier-Stokes equations
together with the equation of continuity, the following
dimensional form is obtained.
 Cont…
.
1
2D Momentum Equation
2

Continuity equation
in differential form

Boundary layer and free stream for a flow over flat plate
 Cont..
• u - velocity component along x direction.
• v - velocity component along y direction
• p - static pressure
• ρ - density.
• μ - dynamic viscosity of the fluid
The equations are now non-dimensionalised. The
length and the velocity scales are chosen
as L and U∞ respectively. The non-dimensional
variables are:
 Cont..
• The non-dimensional variables are:

• where U∞ is the dimensional free stream velocity and the pressure is non-
dimensionalised by twice the dynamic pressure
• Using these non-dimensional variables, the Eqs (1) to (2) become,

Reynolds number
 Order of Magnitude Analysis
• Let us examine what happens to the u velocity as
we go across the boundary layer.
• At the wall the u velocity is zero [with respect to
the wall and absolute zero for a stationary wall
(which is normally implied if not stated
otherwise)].
The value of u on the in viscid side, that is on the
free stream side beyond the boundary layer is U.
For the case of external flow over a flat plate,
this U is equal to U .
∞
 Based on the above, we can identify the following
scales for the boundary layer variables:

Variable Dimensional scale Non dimensional scale

u U 1
x L 1
y δ ε=δ/L

The symbol describes a value much smaller than 1.

Now we analyze equations 3 - 4, and look at the order of magnitude of each
individual term,
Eq 6 - the continuity equation
One general rule of incompressible fluid mechanics is that we are not allowed to
drop any term from the continuity equation.
•From the scales of boundary layer variables, the derivative is of the order
1.
•The second term in the continuity equation should also be of the order
1.The reason being v* has to be of the order ε because y* becomes ε=δ/L at its
maximum.
 Cont..
• Eq 3 - x direction momentum equation
• Inertia terms are of the order 1.
• is of the order 1
• is of the order .
• However after multiplication with 1/Re, the sum
of the two second order derivatives should
produce at least one term which is of the same
order of magnitude as the inertia terms. This is
possible only if the Reynolds number (Re) is of
the order of
• It follows from that -∂p */∂x * will not exceed the order of 1 so as to be in balance with
the remaining term.

6
 Cont…
• As a consequence of the order of magnitude
analysis, can be dropped from
the x direction momentum equation, because
on multiplication with it assumes the
smallest order of magnitude.
 Cont.
Similarly y direction momentum equation.
• All the terms of this equation are of a smaller
magnitude than those of Eq. 4.
• This equation can only be balanced if is
of the same order of magnitude as other
terms.
• Thus they momentum equation reduces to
7
 Cont…
• This means that the pressure across the
boundary layer does not change. The pressure is
impressed on the boundary layer, and its value is
determined by hydrodynamic considerations.
• This also implies that the pressure p is only a
function of x. The pressure forces on a body are
solely determined by the inviscid flow outside
the boundary layer.
• The application of Eq. 3 at the outer edge of
boundary layer gives
8
 Bernoulli’s equation form
• In dimensional form, this can be written as
10

On integrating Eq 10 the well known

Bernoulli's equation is obtained.
C
 Cont,,,
• Finally, it can be said that by the order of magnitude
analysis, the Navier-Stokes equations are simplified
into equations given below.

These are known as Prandtl's boundary-layer equations.

The available boundary conditions are:

• Solid surface:

Outer edge of boundary layer

 cont,…
• The unknown pressure p in the x-momentum equation can be
determined from Bernoulli's Eq, if the in viscid velocity
distribution U(x) is also known.
• We solve the Prandtl boundary layer equations
for and with U obtained from the outer in viscid
flow analysis. The equations are solved by commencing at the
leading edge of the body and moving downstream to the
desired location
• it allows the no-slip boundary condition to be satisfied which
constitutes a significant improvement over the potential flow
analysis while solving real fluid flow problems.
• The Prandtl boundary layer equations are thus a
simplification of the Navier-Stokes equations.
 Boundary Layer Coordinates
• The boundary layer equations derived are in
Cartesian coordinates.

• The Velocity components u and v represent x and

y direction velocities respectively.

• For objects with small curvature, these equations

can be used with -
• x coordinate : stream wise direction
• y coordinate : normal component

• They are called Boundary Layer Coordinates.

Application of Boundary Layer Theory
• The Boundary-Layer Theory is not valid beyond the point of separation.

• At the point of separation, boundary layer thickness becomes quite large for
the thin layer approximation to be valid.

• It is important to note that boundary layer theory can be used to locate the
point of seperation itself.

• In applying the boundary layer theory although U is the free-stream velocity

at the outer edge of the boundary layer, it is interpreted as the fluid velocity
at the wall calculated from inviscid flow considerations ( known as Potential
Wall Velocity)

• Mathematically, application of the boundary - layer theory converts the

character of governing Navier-Stroke equations from elliptic to parabolic

• This allows the marching in flow direction, as the solution at any location is
independent of the conditions farther downstream.
 Blasius Flow Over A Flat Plate
• The classical problem considered by H. Blasius was
– Two-dimensional, steady, incompressible flow over a flat
plate at zero angle of incidence with respect to the
uniform stream of velocity U∞.
– The fluid extends to infinity in all directions from the
plate.
• The physical problem is already illustrated in Fig.
• Blasius wanted to determine
(a) the velocity field solely within the boundary layer,
(b) the boundary layer thickness ,
(c) the shear stress distribution on the plate, and
(d) the drag force on the plate.
• The Prandtl boundary layer equations in the case
under consideration are
• 1a Boundary conditions

• Note that the substitution of the term in

the original boundary layer momentum
equation in terms of the free stream velocity
produces which is equal to zero.
 Cont..
• Hence the governing Eq.1a does not contain any pressure-gradient term.
• However, the characteristic parameters of this problem are that
is,

• This relation has five variables.

• It involves two dimensions, length and time.

• Thus it can be reduced to a dimensionless relation in terms of (5-2) =3

quantities ( Buckingham Pi Theorem)

• Thus a similarity variables can be used to find the solution

• Such flow fields are called self-similar flow field .

 Law of Similarity for Boundary Layer
Flows
•
It states that the u component of velocity with two velocity profiles
of u(x,y) at different x locations differ only by scale factors in u and y .

• Therefore, the velocity profiles u(x,y) at all values of x can be made

congruent if they are plotted in coordinates which have been made
dimensionless with reference to the scale factors.

• The local free stream velocity U(x) at section x is an obvious scale factor
for u, because the dimensionless u(x) varies between zero and unity
with y at all sections.

• The scale factor for y , denoted by g(x) , is proportional to the local

boundary layer thickness so that y itself varies between zero and unity.
 Cont..
• Velocity at two arbitrary x locations, namely x1 and
x2 should satisfy the equation

now, Blasius flow, it is possible to identify g(x)

with boundary layer thickness δwe know,
where

and
 Cont…
• Hence ,After deducing we have 11a

• Where and

11b

This is known as Blasius Equations

12 13
• The boundary conditions , in combination with Eg. 12and (13) become

• at , therefore
at therefore
•
 Cont…
• Equation 11a is a third order nonlinear differential equation .
Blasius obtained the solution of this equation in the form of series expansion
through analytical techniques

• We shall not discuss this technique. However, we shall discuss a numerical

technique to solve the aforesaid equation which can be understood rather easily.

• Note that the equation for f does not contain x.

• Boundary conditions at x=0 and y=∞ merge into the condition

This is the key feature of similarity solution.

• We can rewrite Eq. (11a) as three first order differential equations in the following
way
(11b)
(11c)
 Cont..
• Let us next consider the boundary conditions.
• The condition f(0)=0 remains valid.

• The condition f’(0)= means that G(0) =0

• The condition f’(∞)=1 gives us G(∞)=1 .

• Note that the equations for f and G have initial
values. However, the value for H(0) is not known.
Hence, we do not have a usual initial-value
problem.
 Shooting Technique
• It is the numerical solving techniques of the higher
order problems.
We handle this problem as an initial-value problem by
choosing values of and solving by numerical
methods f(ɳ),G(ɳ) and H(ɳ) .where ɳ similarity
variable.
In general, the condition G(∞)=1 will not be satisfied
for the function G arising from the numerical solution.
We then choose other initial values of H so that
eventually we find an H(0) which results in G(∞)=1 .
This method is called the shooting technique .
Boundary layer shapes

Fig: f, G and H distribution in the boundary layer

 Cont,,
• Measurements to test the accuracy of
theoretical results were carried out by many
scientists. In his experiments, J. Nikuradse,
found excellent agreement with the
theoretical results with respect to velocity
distribution(u/U∞) within the boundary layer
of a stream of air on a flat plate.
• In the next slide we'll see some values of the
velocity profile shape f’(ɳ)=u/U∞ =G & f’’(ɳ) =H
in tabular format.
Values of the velocity profile shape
G H
ɳ f

0 0 0 0.33206
0.2 0.00664 0.006641 0.33199
0.4 0.02656 0.13277 0.33147
0.8 0.10611 0.26471 0.32739
1.2 0.23795 0.39378 0.31659
1.6 0.42032 0.51676 0.29667
2.0 0.65003 0.62977 0.26675
2.4 0.92230 0.72899 0.22809
2.8 1.23099 0.81152 0.18401
3.2 1.56911 0.87609 0.13913
3.6 1.92954 0.92333 0.09809
4.0 2.30576 0.95552 0.06424
4.4 2.69238 0.97587 0.03897
4.8 3.08534 0.98779 0.02187
5.0 3.28329 0.99155 0.01591
8.8 7.07923 1.00000 0.00000
 Wall Shear Stress
• With the profile known, wall shear can be
evaluated as or

• Now
from table

or 16

(wall shear stress)

 Local skin friction coefficient
• and the local skin friction coefficient is

• Substituting from (16) we get

• (skin friction coefficient)

• In 1951, Liepmann and Dhawan , measured the shearing stress on a flat plate
directly. Their results showed a striking confirmation of Eq 16.
• Total frictional force per unit width for the plate of length L is

• and the average skin friction coefficient is

• where
 cont..
• For a flat plate of length L in the stream wise direction and
width w perpendicular to the flow, the Drag D would be

Boundary Layer Thickness

• Since u/U∞ 0.99,as y ∞, it is customary to select the boundary
layer thickness δ as that point where u/U∞ approaches 0.99.
• From Table 28.1,u/U∞ reaches 0.99 at η= 5.0 and we can
write
 Boundary layer thickness
• However, the aforesaid definition of boundary layer
thickness is somewhat arbitrary, a physically more
meaningful measure of boundary layer estimation is
expressed through displacement thickness .

Fig: Displacement thickness Fig: Momentum thickness

 Boundary layer thickness
• Displacement thickness(δ*) : It is defined as the distance by
which the external potential flow is displaced outwards due to
the decrease in velocity in the boundary layer.

• Therefore,
17

Substituting the values of u/U∞ and ɳ from (Eq13)& (Eq 11b) into
(Eq 17) and we obtained.
 Boundary layer thickness
• Momentum thickness (δ**): It is defined as the loss of momentum in the
boundary layer as compared with that of potential flow. Thus

With the substitution of u/U∞ and ɳ from Eg. (13) and (11b), we can evaluate
numerically the value of δ** for a flat plate as
 Separation of Boundary Layer
• It has been observed that the flow is reversed at
the vicinity of the wall under certain conditions.

• The phenomenon is termed as separation of

boundary layer.

• Separation takes place due to excessive

momentum loss near the wall in a boundary
layer trying to move downstream against
increasing pressure, i.e., (∂p/ ∂ x)>0 , which is
called adverse pressure gradient.
Outcome based questions