STATISTICS AND

PROBABILITY
Science, Technology, Engineering and
Mathematics
Learning Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, the learner shall be able to:

1. Illustrate a random variable (discrete and continuous);

2. Distinguish between a discrete and a continuous
random variable; and
3. Find the possible values of a random variable.
4. Find the probabilities of a random variable
5. Construct a Discrete Probability Distribution
RECALL:
• Statistics is the science of conducting studies to collect,
organize, summarize, analyze, and draw conclusions from
data.

• A population consists of all subjects that are being studied.

• A sample is a group of subjects selected from a

population
RECALL:
• An experiment is any activity, which can be done
repeatedly under similar conditions.

• A sample space is the list of all possible outcomes of an

experiment.

There are many ways on how to systematically list the

possible outcomes of a given experiment.
RANDOM VARIABLE
• A random variable is a variable whose possible values are
determined by chance.

• A random variable is typically represented by an

uppercase letter, usually 𝑋 , while its corresponding
lowercase represents one of its values.
Variables can be broadly classified as either qualitative or
quantitative.

• Qualitative variables are variables that can be placed

into distinct categories, according to some characteristic
or attribute.

• Quantitative variables are numerical and can be ordered

or ranked.
Quantitative variables can be further classified into discrete
and continuous.
ACTIVITY 1!

Tossing a coin three times

𝑋 = the number of heads from a coin tossed 3 times
1st toss 2nd toss 3rd toss Outcome No. of heads
H HHH 3
H
T HHT 2
H
H HTH 2
T
T HTT 1
H THH 2
H
T THT 1
T
H TTH 1
T
T TTT 0
In this example, the possible values of 𝑋 are 0, 1, 2 or 3.
• Discrete random variables are those data that can be
counted. These variables can only take finite number of
distinct values.
ACTIVITY 2!

Holding a breath
𝑌 = the time (in seconds) a student can hold his/her
breath

In this example, the possible values range between

the lowest and the highest values recorded by
students. Hence, it is better to express the possible
values as an interval, such as 15 ≤ 𝑌 ≤ 90, if the
lowest and highest values are 15 and 90 ,
respectively.
• Continuous random variables can assume an infinite
number of values between any two specific values. They
are obtained by measuring.
PRACTICE EXERCISES:
1. Classify the following random variables as discrete or
continuous.

a. The number of defective computers produced by a

manufacturer
b. The weight of newborns each year in a hospital
c. The number of siblings in a family of a region
d. The amount of paint utilized in a building project
e. The speed of a car
f. Lifetimes (in hours) of 15 iPod batteries
g. The number of students who passed Pre-Calculus
PRACTICE EXERCISES:
2. Suppose three cellphones are tested at random. Let 𝑋 be
the random variable representing the number of defective
cellphones. List all the possible outcomes and identify the
values of the random variable 𝑋.
PRACTICE EXERCISES:
2. Suppose three cellphones are tested at random. Let 𝑋 be
the random variable representing the number of defective
cellphones. List all the possible outcomes and identify the
values of the random variable 𝑋.

𝑥 = 0, 1, 2 and 3.
PRACTICE EXERCISES:
3. Two balls are drawn in succession without replacement
from an urn containing 3 red balls and 2 blue balls. Let 𝑌 be
the random variable representing the number of blue balls.
List all the possible outcomes and find the values of the
random variable 𝑌.
PRACTICE EXERCISES:
3. Two balls are drawn in succession without replacement
from an urn containing 3 red balls and 2 blue balls. Let 𝑌 be
the random variable representing the number of blue balls.
List all the possible outcomes and find the values of the
random variable 𝑌.
𝒙
POSSIBLE
OUTCOMES (values
of 𝑿)

𝐵𝐵 2

𝑅𝐵 1
𝑥 = 0, 1 and 2.
𝐵𝑅 1

𝑅𝑅 0
PRACTICE EXERCISES:
4. Suppose a die is rolled. Let 𝑍 be the random variable
representing the number of dots shown on the top face. List
all the possible outcomes and give the values of the
random variable 𝑍.
PRACTICE EXERCISES:
4. Suppose a die is rolled. Let 𝑍 be the random variable
representing the number of dots shown on the top face. List
all the possible outcomes and give the values of the
random variable 𝑍.

𝑧 = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 𝑎𝑛𝑑 6
 DISCRETE PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION
A discrete probability distribution consists of the values of a
random variables can assume and their corresponding
probabilities.

Two requirements for a discrete probability distribution:

1. The probability of each value of a discrete random

variable is between 0 and 1 inclusive. That is 𝟎 ≤ 𝑷 𝒙 ≤ 𝟏.

2. The sum of all probabilities is 1. That is, ∑𝑷 𝒙 = 𝟏.

EXAMPLE:
1. Suppose three cellphones are tested at random. Let 𝑋 be the random variable
representing the number of defective cellphones. List all the possible outcomes and
identify the values of the random variable 𝑋. Construct its probability distribution.

𝑥 = 0, 1, 2 and 3.

Discrete Probability Distribution:

EXAMPLE:
2. Two balls are drawn in succession without replacement from an urn
containing 3 red balls and 2 blue balls. Let 𝑌 be the random variable
representing the number of blue balls. List all the possible outcomes and find
the values of the random variable 𝑌. Construct its probability distribution.
𝒙
POSSIBLE
OUTCOMES (values

𝑦 = 0, 1 and 2.
of 𝑿)

𝐵𝐵 2

𝑅𝐵 1

𝐵𝑅 1

𝑅𝑅 0

Probability Distribution:
3 red balls and 2 blue balls

The values are 0, 1 and 2.

Probability Distribution:
EXAMPLE:
3. Suppose a die is rolled. Let 𝑍 be the random variable
representing the number of dots shown on the top face.
List all the possible outcomes and give the values of the
random variable 𝑍. Construct its probability distribution

𝑧 = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6.

Probability Distribution:

𝒛 𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝟒 𝟓 𝟔
𝑷(𝒛)
 PRACTICE EXERCISES:
1. When can we say that a distribution is a discrete
probability distribution?
2. Which of the following shows a discrete probability
distribution?
Discrete probability a. 𝒙 𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝟒 𝟓
distribution 𝑷(𝒙) 𝟏/𝟏𝟎 𝟏/𝟓 𝟑/𝟏𝟎 𝟕/𝟐𝟎 𝟏/𝟐𝟎

Not a discrete probability

distribution
b. 𝒙 𝟎 𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝟒
𝑷(𝒙) 𝟏/𝟏𝟎 𝟑/𝟏𝟎 𝟏/𝟓 𝟏/𝟒 𝟑/𝟏𝟎

Not a discrete probability c. 𝒙 𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝟒 𝟓

distribution 𝑷(𝒙) 𝟎. 𝟐𝟏𝟐 𝟎. 𝟒𝟔𝟖 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐𝟓 −𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟗 𝟎. 𝟐𝟐𝟒
PRACTICE EXERCISES:
3. A three-item true or false test is given to students as a quiz. Let the number
of correct answers be the random variable 𝑌. What are the values of the
random variable?

POSSIBLE OUTCOMES 𝒚

𝑷(𝒚)
PRACTICE EXERCISES:
4. From a box containing 4 black balls and 2 green balls, 2 balls are drawn in
succession. Each ball is placed back in the box before the next draw is
made. Let 𝑋 a random variable representing the number of green balls that
occur. Find the values of the random variable 𝑋 and its probability distribution

POSSIBLE OUTCOMES 𝒙
𝒙

𝑷(𝒙)
STATISTICS AND
PROBABILITY
Science, Technology, Engineering and
Mathematics
Learning Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, the learner shall be able to:
1. illustrate the mean and variance of a discrete random
variable.
2. calculate the mean and the variance of a discrete
random variable.
3. interpret the mean and the variance of a discrete
random variable.
4. solve problems involving mean and variance of
probability distributions.
Activity!
The frequency distribution below Number of
are the scores of 40 students in a Score
Students
test. Compute the mean score.
42 8
• What is the solved mean? 50 12
• How is the mean of a frequency 53 9
distribution computed? 38 7
• What does the solved mean
46 4
imply?
The Mean of a Discrete Random Variable
The mean of a discrete random variable 𝑿 is also
called the expected value of 𝑿. It is the weighted
average of the possible values that the random
variable can take.

Unlike the sample mean of a group of observations,

which gives each observation equal weight, the
mean of a random variable weights each outcome
𝑥𝑖 according to its probability, 𝑃(𝑥𝑖 ).
The mean or expected value of a discrete random
variable 𝑋 , denoted by 𝜇 , is computed using the
formula:
𝑬 𝑿 = 𝝁 = ෍ 𝒙𝒊 𝑷 𝒙 𝒊

where:
𝑋 = discrete random variable
𝑥𝑖 = outcome or value of the random variable
𝑃 𝑥𝑖 = probability of the outcome 𝑥𝑖
Steps in solving the mean of a discrete random
variable:

1. Construct the probability distribution for

the random variable 𝑋.
2. Multiply the value of the random variable
𝑋 by the corresponding probability.
3. Add the results obtained in Step 2.
Example 1
Consider rolling a fair die. What is the average
number of spots that would appear?

Solution
Let 𝑋 be the number of dots on the top face.
So, the probability distribution of 𝑋 is given by

𝒙
𝑷(𝒙)
So, we have

𝒙 𝑷(𝒙) 𝒙𝑷 𝒙
𝟏 𝟏/𝟔
𝟐 𝟏/𝟔
𝟑 𝟏/𝟔
𝟒 𝟏/𝟔
𝟓 𝟏/𝟔
𝟔 𝟏/𝟔

∑𝒙𝑷 𝒙 =
So, we have

𝒙 𝑷(𝒙) 𝒙𝑷 𝒙 Thus, 𝑬 𝑿 = 𝟑. 𝟓 . This

𝟏 𝟏/𝟔 𝟏/𝟔 means that the average
number of spots that
𝟐 𝟏/𝟔 𝟐/𝟔
would appear is 3.5.
𝟑 𝟏/𝟔 𝟑/𝟔 Although the die will
𝟒 𝟏/𝟔 𝟒/𝟔 never show a number,
𝟓 𝟏/𝟔 𝟓/𝟔
which is 3.5, this implies
that rolling the die many
𝟔 𝟏/𝟔 𝟔/𝟔
times, the theoretical
𝟐𝟏 mean would be 3.5.
∑𝒙𝑷 𝒙 = = 𝟑. 𝟓
𝟔
Example 2
A security guard recorded the number of people
entering the bank every hour during one working
day. The random variable 𝑌 represents the number
of people who entered the bank. The probability
distribution of 𝑌 is shown below.

𝒚 𝟎 𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝟒 𝟓
𝑷(𝒚) 𝟎 𝟎. 𝟏 𝟎. 𝟐 𝟎. 𝟒 𝟎. 𝟐 𝟎. 𝟏

What is the expected number of people who enters

the bank every hour?
Solution
𝒙 𝑷(𝒙) 𝒙𝑷 𝒙
𝟎 𝟎
𝟏 𝟎. 𝟏
𝟐 𝟎. 𝟐
𝟑 𝟎. 𝟒
𝟒 𝟎. 𝟐
𝟓 𝟎. 𝟏

∑𝒙𝑷 𝒙 =
Solution
𝒙 𝑷(𝒙) 𝒙𝑷 𝒙
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 So, 𝑬 𝑿 = 𝟑. 𝟎. Thus, the
average number of people
𝟏 𝟎. 𝟏 𝟎. 𝟏
entering the bank every
𝟐 𝟎. 𝟐 𝟎. 𝟒 hour during working day is 3.
𝟑 𝟎. 𝟒 𝟏. 𝟐
𝟒 𝟎. 𝟐 𝟎. 𝟖
𝟓 𝟎. 𝟏 𝟎. 𝟓

∑𝒙𝑷 𝒙 = 𝟑. 𝟎
Example 3
One thousand tickets are sold at 100 pesos
each for a color television valued at 35 000
pesos. What is the expected value of the gain
if you purchase one ticket?
a. Construct its probability distribution.

b. Find the mean.

a. Construct its probability distribution
GAIN (𝒙) 𝑷(𝒙) 𝒙𝑷 𝒙
₱𝟑𝟒 𝟗𝟎𝟎 𝟏 𝟑𝟒 𝟗𝟎𝟎
Win 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎

−₱𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟗𝟗𝟗 𝟗𝟗 𝟗𝟎𝟎

Loss 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
−
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎

b. Two things should be noted. First, for a win, the net gain is
34 900 pesos, since you do not get the cost of the ticket (100
pesos) back. Second, for a loss, the gain is represented by a
negative number, in this case −100 pesos. The solution, then, is
𝟑𝟒 𝟗𝟎𝟎 𝟗𝟗 𝟗𝟎𝟎 𝟔𝟓 𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑬 𝑿 = + − =− = −₱𝟔𝟓
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
 Note that the expectation is −65 pesos. This does
not mean that you lose 65 pesos, since you can only
win a television set valued at 35 000 pesos or lose 100
pesos on the ticket. What this expectation means is
that the average of the losses is 65 pesos for each of
the 1000 ticket holders.

Here is another way of looking at this situation: If

you purchased one ticket each week over a long
time, the average loss would be 65 pesos per ticket,
since theoretically, on average, you would win the set
once for each 1000 tickets purchased.
The Variance and Standard Deviation of
a Discrete Random Variable
The variance and standard deviation describe
the amount of spread, dispersion, or variability
of the items in a distribution.

A measure of spread for a distribution of a

random variable determines the degree to
which the values of a random variable differ
from the expected value.
The variance of a discrete probability distribution
of the random variable 𝑋 , denoted by 𝝈 , is 𝟐

given by the formula:

𝝈𝟐 = ෍(𝒙𝒊 − 𝝁)𝟐 𝑷(𝒙𝒊 )

where:
𝑥𝑖 = value of the random variable
𝑃 𝑥𝑖 = probability of the random variable 𝑋
𝜇 = mean of the probability distribution
Alternatively, the variance of a discrete
probability distribution of the random variable 𝑋,
denoted by 𝝈 , is given by the formula:
𝟐

𝝈𝟐 = ෍ 𝒙𝟐𝒊 𝑷 𝒙𝒊 − 𝝁𝟐

where:
𝑥𝑖 = value of the random variable
𝑃 𝑥𝑖 = probability of the random variable 𝑋
𝜇 = mean of the probability distribution
The standard deviation of a discrete probability
distribution of the random variable 𝑋, denoted
by 𝝈, is given by the formula:
𝟐
𝝈= 𝝈𝟐 = ෍ 𝒙𝒊 − 𝝁 𝟐𝑷 𝒙𝒊 = ෍ 𝒙𝒊 𝑷 𝒙𝒊 − 𝝁𝟐

where:
𝑥𝑖 = value of the random variable
𝑃 𝑥𝑖 = probability of the random variable 𝑋
𝜇 = mean of the probability distribution
Steps in finding the variance and standard deviation:
(Using the ORIGINAL FORMULA)

1. Find the mean of the probability distribution.

2. Subtract the mean from each value of the random
variable 𝑋.
3. Square the results obtained in Step 2.
4. Multiply the results obtained in Step 3 by the
corresponding probability.
5. Get the sum of the results obtained in Step 4 to
compute the variance and extract the square root
of the result to solve for the standard deviation.
Steps in finding the variance and standard deviation:
(Using the ALTERNATIVE FORMULA)

1. Find the mean of the probability distribution.

2. Square each value of the random variable 𝑋.
3. Multiply the results in Step 2 to their corresponding
probabilities.
4. Add the results obtained in Step 3.
5. Subtract the square of the mean from the result
obtained in Step 4 to compute the variance and
extract the square root of the result to solve for the
standard deviation.
Example 1
The number of cars sold per day at a local car
dealership, along with its corresponding
probabilities, is shown in the succeeding table.
Compute the variance and the standard
deviation of the probability distribution by
following the given steps. Interpret the result.
Number of Cars
𝒙
𝟎 𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝟒

𝑷(𝒙) 𝟏/𝟏𝟎 𝟏/𝟓 𝟑/𝟏𝟎 𝟏/𝟓 𝟏/𝟓

Using the alternative formula,
𝒙 𝑷 𝒙 𝒙𝑷 𝒙 𝒙𝟐 𝒙𝟐 𝑷 𝒙
0 0.10
1 0.20
2 0.30
3 0.20
4 0.20
∑𝒙𝑷 𝒙 ∑𝒙𝟐 𝑷 𝒙 =
Using the alternative formula,
𝒙 𝑷 𝒙 𝒙𝑷 𝒙 𝒙𝟐 𝒙𝟐 𝑷 𝒙
0 0.10 0.00 0.00 0.00
1 0.20 0.20 1.00 0.20
2 0.30 0.60 4.00 1.20
3 0.20 0.60 9.00 1.80
4 0.20 0.80 16.00 3.20
𝝁 = ∑𝒙𝑷 𝒙 = 𝟐. 𝟐𝟎 ∑𝒙𝟐 𝑷 𝒙 = 𝟔. 𝟒𝟎

𝜇 = 2.20 𝜎 2 = ∑ 𝑥 2 𝑃 𝑥 − 𝜇2 𝜎 = 1.56 = 1.25

= 6.40 − 2.20 2
= 1.56
Interpretation:
Since 𝜎 2 = 1.56 , we say that the average of the
squared differences or deviations of the number of
cars sold per day at a local car dealership from the
mean is 1.56.

Meanwhile, the standard deviation of 1.25 indicates

that the the average of differences or deviations of
the number of cars sold per day at a local car
dealership from the mean is 1.25.
Example 2
1. Suppose 3 coins are tossed. Construct the
probability distribution for the random
variable 𝑋 representing the number of heads
that appear. Compute for the variance and
standard deviation of the probability
distribution. Interpret the result
𝒙 𝑷 𝒙 𝒙𝑷 𝒙 𝒙𝟐 𝒙𝟐 𝑷 𝒙

∑𝒙𝑷 𝒙 = ∑𝒙𝟐 𝑷 𝒙 =
More Application:
Suit Sales
The number of suits sold per day at a retail store is shown
in the table, with the corresponding probabilities. Find
the mean, variance, and standard deviation of the
distribution.
𝒙 𝟏𝟗 𝟐𝟎 𝟐𝟏 𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟑
𝑷(𝒙) 𝟎. 𝟐 𝟎. 𝟐 𝟎. 𝟑 𝟎. 𝟐 𝟎. 𝟏
If the manager of the retail store wants to be sure that
he has enough suits for the next 5 days, how many
should the manager purchase?
ANSWER: 𝟐𝟎. 𝟖; 𝟏. 𝟔; 𝟏. 𝟑; 𝟏𝟎𝟒 suits
Number of Credit Cards
A bank vice president feels that each savings
account customer has, on average, three credit
cards. The following distribution represents the number
of credit cards people own. Find the mean, variance,
and standard deviation.
𝒙 𝟎 𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝟒
𝑷(𝒙) 𝟎. 𝟏𝟖 𝟎. 𝟒𝟒 𝟎. 𝟐𝟕 𝟎. 𝟎𝟖 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑
Is the vice president correct?

ANSWER:𝟏. 𝟑, 𝟎. 𝟗, 𝟏. No, on average, each person has about 1 credit card.

Cellular Phone Sales
The probability that a cellular phone company kiosk sells
X number of new phone contracts per day is shown
below. Find the mean, variance, and standard
deviation for this probability distribution.

𝒙 𝟒 𝟓 𝟔 𝟖 𝟏𝟎
𝑷(𝒙) 𝟎. 𝟒 𝟎. 𝟑 𝟎. 𝟏 𝟎. 𝟏𝟓 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓
What is the probability that they will sell 6 or more
contracts three days in a row?

ANSWER:𝟓. 𝟒; 𝟐. 𝟗𝟒; 𝟏. 𝟕𝟏; 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟕

STATISTICS AND
PROBABILITY
Science, Technology, Engineering and
Mathematics
Learning Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, the learner shall be able to:

1. Illustrate a normal random variable and its

characteristics;
2. Construct a normal curve; and
3. Identify regions under the normal curve
corresponding to different standard normal
values.
 NORMAL
DISTRIBUTIONS
What is Normal?
Illustration 1
Suppose a researcher selects a random sample of 100 adult
women, measures their heights, and constructs a histogram,
the researcher gets a graph similar to the one shown in
figure below.
Illustration 2
If the researcher increases the sample size and decreases
the width of the classes, the histograms will look like the ones
shown in the figures below.
Illustration 3
Finally, if it were possible to measure exactly the heights of
all adult females in the given population, the graph will look
like this.
Illustration 3
If we measure exactly the heights of all adult females in a
population and plot them, the histogram would approach
what is called a normal distribution, shown in the figure
below.

Bell-shaped Curve or
Gaussian Distribution
Data values are evenly distributed about the mean
Data values fall to the right of the mean
Data values fall to the left of the mean
Note that the “tail” of the curve indicates the
direction of skewness (right is positive, left is
negative).
Normal Distribution
 Normal Distribution

In a similar manner, the theoretical curve, called

a normal distribution curve, can be used to study
many variables that are not perfectly normally
distributed but are nevertheless approximately
normal.
Normal Distribution
The mathematical equation for a normal
distribution is
𝑋−𝜇 2
−
𝑒 2𝜎2
𝑦=
𝜎 2𝜋
where:
𝑋 = random variable
𝜇 = population mean
𝜎 = population standard deviation
Normal Distribution
Note that, in applied statistics, the area under a
normal distribution curve is used more often than
the values on the y axis. Therefore, when a normal
distribution is pictured, the y axis is sometimes
omitted.
Normal Distribution
The shape and position of a normal
distribution curve depend on two
parameters, the mean and the standard
deviation. Each normally distributed variable
has its own normal distribution curve, which
depends on the values of the variable’s
mean and standard deviation.
This figure shows two normal distributions with the same
mean values but different standard deviations. The
larger the standard deviation, the more dispersed, or
spread out, the distribution is.
This figure shows two normal distributions with the same
standard deviation but with different means. These
curves have the same shapes but are located at
different positions on the x axis.
This figure shows two normal distributions with different
means and different standard deviations.
Normal Distribution
A normal distribution is a continuous, symmetric, bell-
shaped distribution of a variable.
Properties of Normal Distribution
1. A normal distribution curve is bell-shaped.
2. The mean, median, and mode are equal and are
located at the center of the distribution.
3. A normal distribution curve is unimodal (i.e., it has only
one mode).
4. The curve is symmetric about the mean, which is
equivalent to saying that its shape is the same on both
sides of a vertical line passing through the center.
5. The curve is continuous; that is, there are no gaps or
holes. For each value of 𝑋, there is a corresponding
value of 𝑌.
Properties of Normal Distribution
6. The curve never touches the 𝑥 axis. Theoretically, no
matter how far in either direction the curve extends, it
never meets the 𝑥 axis – but it gets increasingly closer.
7. The total area under a normal distribution curve is equal
to 1.00, or 100%. This fact may seem unusual, since the
curve never touches the 𝑥 axis, but one can prove it
mathematically by using calculus.
8. The area under the part of a normal curve that lies within
1 standard deviation of the mean is approximately 0.68,
or 68%; within 2 standard deviations, about 0.95, or 95%;
and within 3 standard deviations, about 0.997, or 99.7%.
Empirical Rule or 68-95-99.7 Rule

𝟑𝟒% 𝟑𝟒%

𝟐. 𝟑𝟓% 𝟐. 𝟑𝟓%
𝟎. 𝟏𝟓% 𝟏𝟑. 𝟓% 𝟏𝟑. 𝟓%
𝟎. 𝟏𝟓%
 Application
1. In the distributions shown, state the
mean and standard deviation.
2. What scores are found up
to 1 standard deviation
away from the mean?

3. What percentage
comprises the range of
scores in item no. 2?

4. What scores comprises

95% of the data?
Application
Suppose that the distribution of the scores of
800 senior high school students in a test is normally
distributed with mean 40 and standard deviation 5,

1. Construct its normal curve.

2. Approximately how many percent of scores fall
between 35 and 45?
3. Approximately how many students scored
between 30 and 45?
 Application

Suppose that the distribution of the

scores of 800 senior high school
students in a test is normally
distributed with mean 40 and
standard deviation 5,

1. Construct its normal curve.

 Application

2. Approximately how many

percent of scores fall
between 35 and 45?

3. Approximately how many

students scored between 30
and 45?
 STANDARD
NORMAL
DISTRIBUTION
 Since each normally distributed variable has
its own mean and standard deviation, as stated
earlier, the shape and location of these curves
will vary.

In practical applications, then, you would

have to have a table of areas under the curve for
each variable. To simplify this situation,
statisticians use what is called the standard
normal distribution.
Standard Normal Distribution
The standard normal distribution is a normal distribution
with a mean of 0 and a standard deviation of 1.

𝟑𝟒% 𝟑𝟒%

𝟐. 𝟑𝟓% 𝟐. 𝟑𝟓%
𝟎. 𝟏𝟓% 𝟏𝟑. 𝟓% 𝟏𝟑. 𝟓%
𝟎. 𝟏𝟓%

−𝟑 −𝟐 −𝟏 𝟎 𝟏 𝟐 𝟑
Comparison

normal distribution standard normal distribution

Formula

All normally distributed variables can be

transformed into the standard normally distributed
variable by using the formula for the standard score:

𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 − 𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒏 𝑿−𝝁

𝒛= =
𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒅𝒂𝒓𝒅 𝒅𝒆𝒗𝒊𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝝈
 Once the 𝑋 values are transformed by using the
preceding formula, they are called 𝒛 values. The 𝒛
value or 𝒛 score is actually the number of standard
deviations that a particular 𝑋 value is away from the
mean. The 𝑧 −table gives the area (to four decimal
places) under the standard normal curve for any 𝑧
value from −3.49 to 3.49.
Finding Areas Under the Standard
Normal Distribution Curve

1. Draw the normal distribution curve and shade the

area.

2. Locate the area for the value of 𝑧 from the area

under the standard normal curve table.

3. Make a statement about the obtained area.

 There are three basic types of problems, and all
three are summarized in the Procedure Table. Note
that this table is presented as an aid in understanding
how to use the standard normal distribution table and
in visualizing the problems.
Case 1
To the left of any z value:
Look up the 𝑧 value in the table and use the area given.
Case 2
To the right of any 𝒛 value:
Look up the 𝑧 value and subtract the area from 1.
Case 3
Between any two 𝒛 values:
Look up both 𝑧 values and subtract the corresponding
areas.
Finding the area under the normal
distribution curve:

The 𝑧 − table gives the area

under the normal distribution curve
to the left of any 𝑧 value given in
two decimal places.

For example, the area to the

left of a 𝑧 value of 1.39 is found by
looking up 1.3 in the left column and
0.09 in the top row. Where the two
lines meet gives an area of 0.9177.
Example 1
Find the area to the left of 𝒛 = 𝟐. 𝟎𝟔
Example 2
Find the area to the right of 𝒛 = −𝟏. 𝟏𝟗
Example 3
Find the area between 𝒛 = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟖 and 𝒛 = −𝟏. 𝟑𝟕.
Example 4
Find the z value such that the area to the left of it
is 𝟎. 𝟎𝟕𝟔𝟒.
Example 5
Find the z value such that the area to the right of
it is 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟑𝟗.
Example 6
Find the z value such that the area under the
standard normal distribution curve
between 𝟎 and the 𝒛 value is 𝟎. 𝟐𝟏𝟐𝟑.
NOTE:

If the 𝑧 values are less than −3.49, use the area 0.0001.

If the 𝑧 values are greater than 3.49, use the area 0.999.
STATISTICS AND
PROBABILITY
Science, Technology, Engineering and
Mathematics
Learning Outcomes:
At the end of the lesson, the learner shall be
able to:

1. Convert a normal random variable to a

standard normal variable and vice versa;
and
2. Compute probabilities and percentiles
using the standard normal table.
Recall:
Finding Areas under the Standard Normal Curve:
 Area to the left of any z value:
Look up the 𝑧 value in the table and use the area given.

 Area to the right of any 𝒛 value:

Look up the 𝑧 value and subtract the area from 1.

 Area in between any two 𝒛 values:

Look up both 𝑧 values and subtract the corresponding
areas.
NOTE:

If the 𝑧 values are less than −3.49, use the area 0.0001.

If the 𝑧 values are greater than 3.49, use the area

0.9999.
A Normal Distribution Curve as a
Probability Distribution Curve
A normal distribution curve can be used as a probability
distribution curve for normally distributed variables.

The problems involving probability are solved in the

same manner as how the problems are solved involving
areas under the normal curve.

That is why, for example, the area to the left of 𝑧 = 1.75

can be represented by 𝑃(𝑧 < 1.75).
A Normal Distribution Curve as a
Probability Distribution Curve
Note:

In a continuous distribution, the probability of any exact

𝑧 value is 0 since the area would be represented by a
vertical line above the value. But vertical lines in theory
have no area. So 𝑃 𝑎 < 𝑧 < 𝑏 = 𝑃 𝑎 ≤ 𝑧 ≤ 𝑏 .
 Example:
Find the probability of the following:
1. 𝑃 𝑧 < 1.05 2. 𝑃 𝑧 ≥ −0.56 3. 𝑃(−0.52 < 𝑧 < 4.50)
APPLICATIONS OF
THE NORMAL
DISTRIBUTION
Transforming the original variable to a
standard normal distribution variable
The standard normal distribution curve can be used to
solve a wide variety of practical problems. The only requirement
is that the variable be normally or approximately normally
distributed.

To solve problems by using the standard normal

distribution, transform the original variable to a standard normal
distribution variable by using the formula

value − mean 𝑋 − 𝑋ത 𝑋−𝜇

𝑧= or 𝑧= or 𝑧=
standard deviation 𝑠 𝜎
Example 1
A survey found that women spend on average
₱146.21 on beauty products during the summer months.
Assume the standard deviation is ₱ 29.44 and the
variable is normally distributed.

a. Find the percentage of women who spend less than

₱160.00.
b. Find the percentage of women who spend greater
than ₱200.00.
 A survey found that women spend on average
₱146.21 on beauty products during the summer months.
Assume the standard deviation is ₱ 29.44 and the
variable is normally distributed.

a. Find the percentage of women who spend less than

₱160.00.
 A survey found that women spend on average
₱146.21 on beauty products during the summer months.
Assume the standard deviation is ₱ 29.44 and the
variable is normally distributed.

b. Find the percentage of women who spend greater

than ₱200.00.
Example 2
Each month, a household generates an average of 28
pounds of newspaper for garbage or recycling. Assume
the standard deviation is 2 pounds. If a household is
selected at random, find the probability of its
generating between 27 and 31 pounds per month.
Assume the variable is approximately normally
distributed.

If there are 1000 households, how many of them

generates 27 to 31 pounds?
Each month, a household generates an average of 28 pounds
of newspaper for garbage or recycling. Assume the standard
deviation is 2 pounds. If a household is selected at random, find
the probability of its generating between 27 and 31 pounds per
month. Assume the variable is approximately normally
distributed.
If there are 1000 households, how many of them
generates 27 to 31 pounds?
Percentiles
Percentiles divide the data set into 100 equal groups. Percentile
rank indicates the position of a certain value of a random
variable with respect to the other values.

For example, if a student get a raw score of 72 out of 100 items

and this corresponds to the 64𝑡ℎ percentile, this means that she
did better compared to the 64% of the students in her class.
Example 3
The national average SAT score (for Verbal and Math) is
1028. If we assume a normal distribution with standard
deviation of 92, what is the 90th percentile score?
Example 4
To qualify for a police academy, candidates must score
in the top 5% on a general abilities test. The test has a
mean of 200 and a standard deviation of 20. Find the
lowest possible score to qualify. Assume the test scores
are normally distributed.
Example 5
For a medical study, a researcher wishes to select people in the
middle 60% of the population based on blood pressure. If the
mean systolic blood pressure is 120 and the standard deviation
is 8 , find the upper and lower readings that would qualify
people to participate in the study.
STATISTICS AND
PROBABILITY
Science, Technology, Engineering and
Mathematics
Learning Outcomes:
At the end of the lesson, the learner shall be
able to:

1. illustrate random sampling;

2. distinguish between parameter and
statistic; and
3. Identify sampling distribution of sample
means.
RANDOM
SAMPLING
Relationship between population and sample
Sampling Techniques
Probability Sampling (Random Sampling)
The sampling method in which all the members of the
population has a pre-specified and an equal chance to
be a part of the sample.

Non-probability Sampling (Non-random Sampling)

When all the individuals of the population are not
given an equal opportunity of becoming a part of the
sample, the method is said to be Non-probability
sampling.
Formula in finding the sample size 𝒏
Slovin’s Formula
𝑁
𝑛=
1 + 𝑁𝑒 2

where
𝑛 = sample size
𝑁 = population size
𝑒 = margin of error
Types of Probability Sampling

1. Simple Random Sampling

A sampling technique in which every element of
the population has the same probability of being
selected for inclusion in the sample.
Types of Probability Sampling
2. Systematic Random Sampling
A sampling technique in which a list of elements of
the population is used as a sampling frame and
every k th element of the population is selected
until the desired number of elements in the sample
is obtained.
Procedure: Systematic Random Sampling

Step 1: Divide the population size by the sample

size and round the result down to the
nearest whole number, 𝑚.

Step 2: Use a random-number table or a similar

device to obtain a number, 𝑘, between 1
and 𝑚.

Step 3: Select for the sample those members of the

population that are numbered
𝑘, 𝑘 + 𝑚, 𝑘 + 2𝑚, …
3. Stratified Random Sampling
A random sampling technique in which the
population is first divided into groups (strata)
and then samples are randomly selected
separately from each stratum.
Procedure: Stratified Random Sampling

Step 1: Divide the population into subpopulations

(strata).

Step 2: From each stratum, obtain a simple random

sample of size proportional to the size of the
stratum; that is, the sample size for a stratum
equals the total sample size times the stratum
size divided by the population size.

Step 3: Use all the members obtained in Step 2 as the

sample.
3. Stratified Random Sampling
A random sampling technique in which the
population is first divided into groups (strata)
and then samples are randomly selected
separately from each stratum.
Example
You want to interview students in your school from
the 5 sections of Grade 11 STEM to determine their
opinion on the Online Learning Modality. How are
you going to choose your sample by using stratified
sampling if there are 44 students in Fibonacci; 43
students in Heisenberg, 43 in Leeuwenhoek; 46 in
Newton; and 49 in Pythagoras.
4. Cluster Sampling
A sampling technique in which population is
divided into groups called clusters by some means
such as geographic area or schools in a large
school district, etc. Then the researcher randomly
selects some of these clusters and uses all members
of the selected clusters as the subjects of the
samples.
Procedure: Cluster Sampling

Step 1: Divide the population into groups (clusters).

Step 2: Obtain a simple random sample of the

clusters.

Step 3: Use all the members of the clusters

obtained in Step 2 as the sample.
Summary of Random Sampling
Simple Random Subjects are selected by random numbers.
Systematic Subjects are selected by using every 𝑘 th
number after the first subject is randomly
selected from 1 through 𝑘.

Stratified Subjects are selected by dividing up the

population into groups (strata), and subjects
are randomly selected within groups.

Cluster Subjects are selected by using an intact group

that is representative of the population.
Illustration 1
A. Classify each sample as simple random, systematic,
stratified, or cluster.

1. In a large school district, all teachers from two buildings

are interviewed to determine whether they believe the
students have less homework to do now than in
previous years.

2. Every seventh customer entering a shopping mall is

asked to select her or his favorite store.
3. Nursing supervisors are selected using random
numbers to determine annual salaries.

4. Every 100th hamburger manufactured is checked to

determine its fat content.

5. Mail carriers of a large city are divided into four groups

according to gender (male or female) and according
to whether they walk or ride on their routes. Then 10
are selected from each group and interviewed to
determine whether they have been bitten by a dog in
the last year.
Illustration 2

You want to interview students in your school to

determine their opinion on the new school uniform.
How are you going to choose your sample by using
stratified sampling if there are 1,200 students in
Grade 7; 1,100 in Grade 8; 940 in Grade 9; 940 in
Grade 10; 900 in Grade 11; and 810 in Grade 12.
PARAMETERS AND
STATISTICS
Definition
Parameter
a characteristic or measure
obtained by using all the
data values from a specific
population.

Statistic
a characteristic or measure
obtained by using the data
values from a sample.
Comparison
STATISTIC PARAMETER

Statistic is a measure which Parameter refers to a

Meaning describes a fraction of measure which describes
population. population.
Numerical
Variable and Known Fixed and Unknown
value
𝜇 = Population Mean
𝑥ҧ = Sample Mean
𝜎 = Population Standard
Statistical 𝑠 = Sample Standard Deviation
Deviation
Notation 𝑝Ƹ = Sample Proportion
𝑃 = Population Proportion
𝑛 = sample size
𝑁 = Population size
Identify the parameter and statistic used in the
following situations:
1. A researcher wants to estimate the average death
age of Filipino women in the last decade and from a
sample of 100 deaths, he obtained a sample mean
age of 73.

Parameter:
-the average death age of Filipino women in the last
decade
Statistics:
- a sample of 𝟏𝟎𝟎 deaths
- a sample mean age of 𝟕𝟑
2. A researcher wants to know the average weight of
females aged 22 years or older in Butuan City. The
researcher obtains the average weight of 54 kg, from a
random sample of 40 females.

Parameter:
-the average weight of females aged 22 years or older in
Butuan City
Statistics:
- the average weight of 54 kg
- a random sample of 40 females.
3. A researcher wants to estimate the average amount
of water consumed by male teenagers in a day. From
a simple random sample of 55 male teens the
researcher obtains an average of 1.5 L of water.

Parameter:
-the average amount of water consumed by male
teenagers in a day
Statistics:
- simple random sample of 55 male teens
- an average of 1.5 L of water
The population mean is defined as
1 𝑁
𝜇 = ∑𝑖=1 𝑥𝑖
𝑁

The population variance is defined as

1 𝑁
𝜎 = ∑𝑖=1 𝑥𝑖 − 𝜇 2
2
𝑁

The population standard deviation is defined as

1 𝑁
𝜎= 𝜎2 = ∑𝑖=1 𝑥𝑖 − 𝜇 2
𝑁
The sample mean is defined as
1 𝑛
𝑥ҧ = ∑𝑖=1 𝑥𝑖
𝑛

The sample variance is defined as

2 1 𝑛
𝑠 = ∑𝑖=1 𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥ҧ 2
𝑛−1

The sample standard deviation is defined as

1 𝑛
𝑠= 𝑠2 = ∑𝑖=1 𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥ҧ 2
𝑛−1
Exercises
1. The following are the heights to the nearest centimeters of 5
Statistics teachers in Agusan National High School
162 164 163 154 156
Compute the population (a) mean, (b) variance, and (c) standard
deviation
Exercises
2. The following are the scores in Statistics of the sampled 6 Grade
11 students:
60 70 82 85 86 90
Compute the sample (a) mean, (b) variance, and (c) standard
deviation
STATISTICS AND
PROBABILITY
Science, Technology, Engineering and
Mathematics
Learning Outcomes:
At the end of the lesson, the learner shall be
able to:

1. Identify sampling distribution of sample

means.
2. Finds the mean and variance of the sampling
distribution of the sample mean;
 SAMPLING
DISTRIBUTIONS OF
SAMPLE MEANS
In addition to knowing how individual data values
vary about the mean for a population, statisticians
are interested in knowing how the means of samples
of the same size taken from the same population
vary about the population mean.
Illustration:
Suppose fifty students got the following scores
90 − item midterm exam. Assume that these students
constitute the population.
If the teacher is interested in knowing how the sample
means of size 5 vary from the population mean.

Select 5 scores at random and solve for their mean score.

a. How many samples will there be?
b. What are the sample means?
c. How do the sample means differ from the
population mean?

𝜇 = 66.26
Note:
The sample means now from the illustration constitute
a sampling distribution of sample means.
Definition
A sampling distribution of sample means 𝒙
ഥ is a
distribution using the means computed from all
possible random samples of a specific size taken
from a population.

Sampling error is the difference between the

sample measure and the corresponding
population measure due to the fact that the
sample is not perfect representation of the
population.
How to construct a Sampling Distribution of Sample
Means from a given population:
1. Determine the number of samples of size 𝑛 from the
population of size 𝑁
For sampling with replacement: 𝑁 𝑛
𝑁
For sampling without replacement: 𝑛

2. List all the possible samples and compute the mean

of each sample.
3. Construct the probability distribution for the sample
means 𝑥.ҧ
The Mean, Variance and Standard
Deviation of Sample Means
For a sampling distribution of the sample mean 𝑥:ҧ

Mean : 𝝁𝒙ഥ = ∑ഥ
𝒙𝑷𝒙ഥ

Variance : 𝟐
𝝈𝒙ഥ = ∑ഥ 𝟐
𝒙 𝑷 ഥ
𝒙 − 𝟐
𝝁𝒙ഥ

Standard Deviation : 𝝈𝒙ഥ = 𝟐

𝝈𝒙ഥ
Example 1:

Suppose a professor gave an 8-point quiz to a small

class of four students. The results of the quiz were
2, 6, 4, and 8. For the sake of discussion, assume that
the four students constitute the population.
Questions:

a. What is the population mean 𝝁?

b. What is the population standard deviation 𝝈?

c. If all samples of size 2 are taken with replacement,
find the mean of each sample.
d. Construct the probability distribution for the
sample means 𝒙
ഥ?

ഥ
𝒙

𝑷ഥ𝒙
d. Solve for the mean, variance and standard
deviation of the sample means.
ഥ
𝒙 𝑷ഥ𝒙 ഥ𝑷ഥ𝒙
𝒙 ഥ𝟐
𝒙 ഥ𝟐 𝑷ഥ𝒙
𝒙
𝟐 𝟏
𝟏𝟔
𝟑 𝟐
𝟏𝟔
𝟒 𝟑
𝟏𝟔
𝟓 𝟒
𝟏𝟔
𝟔 𝟑
𝟏𝟔
𝟕 𝟐
𝟏𝟔
𝟖 𝟏
𝟏𝟔

ഥ𝑷ഥ𝒙 =
෍𝒙 ഥ𝟐 𝑷ഥ𝒙 =
෍𝒙
e. Compare 𝝁 and 𝝁𝒙ഥ .

f. Compare 𝝈 and 𝝈𝒙ഥ .

g. Divide the population standard deviation by the
square root of the sample size.

h. Compare the result in g to the standard deviation

of the sample means.
Properties of the Mean and Variance of Sampling
Distributions of Sample Means (with replacement)

1. The mean of the sample means will be the same as

the population mean. That is, 𝝁𝒙ഥ = 𝝁.

2. The standard deviation of the sample means will be

smaller than the standard deviation of the population.

3. The standard error of the sample mean is equal to the

population standard deviation 𝜎 divided by the
𝝈
square root of the sample size, thus, 𝝈𝒙ഥ = .
𝒏
Activity:

Suppose the sampling in Example 1 is done without

replacement, calculate the mean, variance and
standard deviation of the sampling distribution of 𝒙
ഥ.

a. Construct a sampling distribution of the sample

means for this population when 𝑛 = 2.

b. Find the mean, variance and standard deviation of

the sampling distribution.
Population: 𝟐, 𝟒, 𝟔, 𝟖

Samples ഥ
𝒙
ഥ
𝒙
(𝒏 = 𝟐)

𝑷ഥ𝒙
ഥ
𝒙 𝑷ഥ𝒙 ഥ
𝒙𝑷ഥ𝒙 𝒙𝟐
ഥ 𝒙𝟐 𝑷ഥ𝒙
ഥ
1
3
6
1
4
6
2
5
6
1
6
6
1
7
6
ഥ𝑷ഥ𝒙 =
෍𝒙 ഥ𝟐 𝑷ഥ𝒙 =
෍𝒙
STATISTICS AND
PROBABILITY
Science, Technology, Engineering and
Mathematics
Learning Outcomes:
At the end of the lesson, the learner shall be able
to:

1. Illustrate the Central Limit Theorem;

2. Define the sampling distribution of the sample
mean using the Central Limit Theorem; and
3. Solve problems involving sampling distributions
of the sample mean.
Central Limit
Theorem
Another property of the sampling distribution of
sample means pertains to the shape of the
distribution and is explained by the central limit
theorem.
Illustration:
(This example is from the Sampling Distribution of Sample Means)

Suppose a professor gave an 8-point quiz to a small

class of four students. The results of the quiz were
2, 4, 6, and 8. For the sake of discussion, assume that
the four students constitute the population.

This is graph of the

original distribution
which is a uniform
distribution.
Now, if all samples of size 2 are taken with
replacement and the mean of each sample
is found, the distribution is as shown.
A frequency distribution of sample means is as follows.
This shows the graph of the sample means.

The histogram appears to be approximately normal.

Theorem
As the sample size 𝑛 increases without limit, the
shape of the distribution of the sample means
taken with replacement from a population with
mean 𝜇 and standard deviation 𝜎 will approach a
normal distribution.
 According
to most statistics
books, the sample
size 𝑛 is LARGE
ENOUGH when
𝒏 ≥ 𝟑𝟎.
It’s important to remember two things when you use
the central limit theorem:

1. When the original variable is normally distributed,

the distribution of the sample means will be normally
distributed, for any sample size n.
2. When the distribution of the original variable might
not be normal, a sample size of 30 or more is
needed to use a normal distribution to approximate
the distribution of the sample means. The larger the
sample, the better the approximation will be.
If the sample size is sufficiently large, the central limit
theorem can be used to answer questions about
sample means in the same manner that a normal
distribution can be used to answer questions about
individual values.
The only difference is that a new formula must be
used for the 𝑧 values.

For Random Variable 𝑿, ഥ,

For Random Variable 𝒙
we have we have
ഥ−𝝁
𝒙
𝒙−𝝁 𝒛= 𝝈
𝒛=
𝝈 𝒏
Remarks
1. Regardless of the shape of the population
distribution, the mean and standard deviation of
the sampling distribution are
𝝈
𝝁𝒙ഥ = 𝝁 and 𝝈𝒙ഥ =
𝒏
2. Since the random variable gives the statistic 𝑥ҧ with
𝜎
mean 𝜇 and standard deviation , the formula
𝑛
ഥ−𝝁
𝒙
derived as 𝒛 = 𝝈 .
𝒏
Illustration
1. Suppose that the systolic blood pressures of a
certain population are normally distributed with
mean 𝜇 = 125 and 𝜎 = 8 and a sample with size 26
taken from this population. What is the probability
that a single sample will have a mean blood
pressure of less than 122 ? Assume that the
population is normally distributed.
1. Suppose that the systolic blood pressures of a certain
population are normally distributed with mean 𝜇 = 125 and
𝜎 = 8 and a sample with size 26 taken from this population.
What is the probability that a single sample will have a mean
blood pressure of less than 122? Assume that the population is
normally distributed.
Illustration
2. A random sample of 50 students is chosen from a
large population with an average diastolic blood
pressure of 90 and a standard deviation of 5. What is
the probability that the mean diastolic blood pressure
of these 50 students is greater than 92?
Illustration
3. In the national achievement test, a school had a
total mean score of 59 with a standard deviation
of 7. If 40 students who took the test are selected
at random, what is the probability that the mean
of their scores fall between 59 and 60?
STATISTICS AND
PROBABILITY
Science, Technology, Engineering and
Mathematics
Learning Outcomes:
At the end of the lesson, the learner shall be
able to:

1. Illustrate the 𝑡 distribution; and

2. Identifies percentiles using 𝑡 table.
The 𝒕 Distribution
Characteristics of the 𝒕 Distribution
The 𝑡 distribution is similar to the standard normal
distribution in these ways:

1. It is bell-shaped.
2. It is symmetric about the mean.
3. The mean, median, and mode are equal to 0
and are located at the center of the distribution.
4. The curve never touches the x axis.
Degrees of Freedom and
𝒕 Distribution as Family of Curves
The degrees of freedom are the number of values that are
free to vary after a sample statistic has been computed,
and they tell the researcher which specific curve to use
when a distribution consists of a family of curves.
Degrees of Freedom and
𝒕 Distribution as Family of Curves
Note that the symbol 𝑑. 𝑓. Will be used for degrees
of freedom. It is found by subtracting the sample
size 𝑛 by 1. That is 𝑑. 𝑓 = 𝑛 − 1.
The 𝒕 Distribution Table
Example 1:
Find the value of 𝑡 to the right of the mean when
𝑛 = 22 and 𝛼 = 0.01.
Example 2:
Find the value of 𝑡 to the left of the mean when 𝑛 =
26 and 𝛼 = 0.05.
Example 3:
Find the value of 𝑡 to the left and to the right of the
mean when 𝑛 = 26 and 𝛼 = 0.20.
 When a 𝑑. 𝑓. falls in between 2 values, for
example, if it falls between 65 and 70 . Many
textbooks say to use the closest value, for
example, 68 is closer to 70 than 65; however, in the
reference book that we use, a conservative
approach is used. In this case, always round down
to the nearest table value. In this case, 68 rounds
down to 65.
Percentiles
Percentiles divide the data set into 100 equal groups. Percentile
rank indicates the position of a certain value of a random
variable with respect to the other values.

For example, if a student get a raw score of 72 out of 100 items

and this corresponds to the 64𝑡ℎ percentile, this means that she
did better compared to the 64% of the students in her class.
Example 4:
Find the 90𝑡ℎ percentile using the 𝑡 distribution when
𝑛 = 20.
Example 5:
What is the area to the right of 𝑡 = 1.323 under the 𝑡
distribution with a 𝑑. 𝑓. = 21?
Example 6:
What is the area to the left of 𝑡 = −1.711 under the 𝑡
distribution with a 𝑑. 𝑓. = 24?