ELEMENTARY STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY

COUNTING RULES
Counting rules are mathematical principles used to determine the
number of ways to arrange, select, or organize items. These rules provide
systematic methods for calculating possible outcomes in various situations,
especially in combinatorics and probability.
6.1 TREE DIAGRAM AND FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLE OF COUNTING
When faced with multiple choices, how do
you figure out how many possible outcomes exist?
The fundamental principle of counting offers a
simple solution and tree diagram helps you to
visualize this.
For instance, consider a scenario where you have to choose a meal from
two categories: 'Food' and 'Drink.' Under 'Food,'
you can select either 'Pizza' or 'Burger,' while
under 'Drink,' your options include 'Juice' or 'Soda.'

6.1.a Tree Diagram

In this section, we will explore two important concepts in counting:
tree diagrams and the fundamental principle of counting. Both tools are
essential for visualizing and calculating possible outcomes in various
scenarios.
A tree diagram is a graphical representation used to display all
possible outcomes of a particular event or series of events. It visually
illustrates the different paths that can be taken, making it easier to see all
potential combinations. It is a device used to list all the possibilities of a
sequence of events in a systematic way.
How to Create a Tree Diagram:
Step 1: Start with a single point (the root) that represents the initial choice
or event.
Step 2: From this point, draw branches for each possible outcome of the
first event.
Step 3: For each outcome, draw further branches to represent the
subsequent choices or events.
Step 4: Continue this process until all events have been accounted for.

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Example 1: As a BSED Math student, you need to prepare for a math

presentation for your class. You have the following options for topics and
formats:

Presentation Topics Presentation

Formats
Algebra Oral Presentation
Geometry Poster
Probability Interactive
Activity

What are the possible combinations of topics and formats?

Topics Formats the possible outcomes
Oral Presentation Algebra, Oral Presentation
Algebra Poster Algebra, Poster
Interactive Activity Algebra, Interactive Activity

Oral Presentation Geometry, Oral Presentation

Geometry Poster Geometry, Poster
Interactive Activity Geometry, Interactive Activity

Oral Presentation Probability, Oral Presentation

Probability Poster Probability, Poster
Interactive Activity Probability, Interactive Activity

6.1.b Fundamental Principle of Counting: Multiplication Rule

In a sequence of events in which the first one has m 1 possibilities,

the second has m 2, the third has m 3, and so on, and the total number of
possible outcomes will be

m1 ⋅ m2 ⋅m3 ⋅⋯ ⋅mn
where n is the number of events.
Example 2. As a BSED Math student preparing for upcoming exams, you
have three subjects to study: Algebra, Geometry, and Statistics. To create
an effective study plan, you need to consider
different study methods and times. For study
methods, you can choose from reading the
textbook, watching video lessons, or practicing
problems. Additionally, you have the option to
study during the morning, afternoon, or evening.
By combining these choices, you can develop a
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personalized study schedule that maximizes your
learning and ensures you cover all the necessary material. How many
different study plans can you create for your upcoming exams by selecting
one subject, one study method, and one study time?

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Solution The total number of possible study plans is 3 ⋅3 ⋅3=27

Example 3 The digits 5,6,7,8, and 9 are to be used to form a five-digit

number. How many different numbers can be formed if
a. Repetitions are permitted
b. Repetition is not allowed
c. The number must be even and repetitions are not allowed
a. Repetitions are permitted
Since repetitions are allowed, each digit can be chosen from the 5
available digits (5, 6, 7, 8, 9) for each of the five positions in the
number.
Thus, the total number of different five-digit numbers that can be
formed is calculated as follows:
Total numbers=5 ⋅5 ⋅5 ⋅5⋅5 =55=3 125 ways

b. Repetition is not allowed

When repetitions are not allowed, we need to choose a digit for
each position without replacement. The first digit can be any of the
5 digits. The second digit can then be any of the remaining 4 digits,
the third digit can be any of the 3 remaining digits, and so on.
Thus, the total number of different five-digit numbers is:

Total numbers=5 ⋅4 ⋅3⋅ 2⋅1=120 ways

c. The number must be even and repetitions are not allowed

To form a five-digit number that is even, the last digit must be one of
the even digits
available from the set (6 or 8). Therefore, the last position can be
chosen in two ways. Since there are only four choices left, the first
position can be chosen in four ways, the second in three ways, and so
on. Thus there are
4 ⋅3 ⋅2⋅1 ⋅2=48 ways
6.1.c Fundamental Principle of Counting: Addition Rule

In a sequence of events in which the first one has m 1 possibilities,

the second has m 2, the third has m 3, and so on, and if the events are
mutually exclusive, then the total number of possible outcomes will be
m1 +m2+ m3 +⋯+ mn
Note: Mutually exclusive
events are events that
where n is the total number of events. cannot occur at the
same time. In
A student needs to select an extracurricular probability, this means
Example 4 that if one event
activity at school. They can choose between
happens, the other
two options: joining the basketball team, event cannot happen
which has 10 available spots, or
3 participating simultaneously.
in the school band, which has 8 available Ex. Selecting a
spots. Card: When drawing
a card from a
standard deck of
 ELEMENTARY STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY

Solution:
To find the total number of choices available to the student, we can use
the Addition Rule:
Choices for basketball: m 1=10

Choices for band: m 2=8

Applying the Addition Rule:

Total Choices=10+8=18
Therefore, the student has 18 different choices for extracurricular activities.

Example 5 In the College of Education, the dean is tasked with

selecting a representative for the Academic Affairs Committee, which aims to
improve the academic experience for both faculty and students. Given that there
are 30 faculty members, and 70 students enrolled in various teacher education
programs within the college, and knowing that no faculty member is also a
student, how many different choices are available for the representative to this
committee?
Solution:
Total choices=Number of faculty members+Number of students
Total choices=30+70=100

Therefore, the total number of different choices for the representative to the
committee is 100.

6.2 PERMUTATIONS
Permutations aren't just for math problems—they're everywhere! Ever wonder
how many ways you could arrange letters in a word? Or how many ways you can
create a passcode with specific digits? Those are permutations at play!

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Alferez, M. & Duro, M.C.(2015). Statistics and Probability. MSA Publishing

House
Blay, B. E. (2013). Elementary statistics. Anvil Publishing.
Sirug, W. (2011). Basic Probability and Statistics. Mindshapers Co., Inc.