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General over view of plant body structure

Plant cells

 Plants are multicellular organisms composed of millions of cells with specialized functions.
 At maturity, such specialized cells may differ greatly from one another in their structures.
 However, all plant cells have the same basic eukaryotic organization.
 They contain a nucleus, a cytoplasm, and subcellular organelles, and they are enclosed
in a membrane that defines their boundaries.

Plant tissue system

 Plant sporophytes are constructed from cells that are organized into units of a common
function called tissues. Hence, tissue is a group of cells having a common function or
structure.
 Some tissues are interconnected throughout the sporophyte to make up tissue systems.
 Immature cells and tissues are referred to as meristematic, and found in regions of growth
that are termed meristems.
 The three basic types of mature tissues are dermal (i.e., epidermis), vascular (i.e., xylem and
phloem), and ground (include cortex of stems and roots, pith of stems, and mesophyll of
leaves).

Meristematic tissue
 Plant growth is concentrated in localized regions of cell division called meristems.
 Meristems are actively dividing, embryonic tissues responsible for both primary and
secondary growth.
 Meristematic tissues are composed of cells that are in a state of division or retain the power
of dividing.
 Meristematic tissue consists of thin-walled, tightly packed living cells which undergo
frequent divisions.
 Within the embryo and young plant, meristematic tissues are responsible for generating new
cells that ultimately result in increased plant size.
 Meristematic cells undergo cell division and wall formation followed by differential cell
expansion.

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  Meristematic tissue of whether the shoot or root may be formed from a single cell or a
multiple layers of cells.
 When the meristems are formed from the multiple layer of cells, it is referred to as a
tunica corpus meristem.
→ The tunica portion is the outside layer and the corpus is the body of the meristem.

Types of meristematic tissue

 Meristems can be classified on the basis of origin and development, and position.
 Based on initiating cells (origin and development), meristem is classified as promeristem,
primary and secondary meristems.
I. Promeristem: is a region of new growth in plant organs where the foundation of new
organs or their parts begin
 It is also called primordial meristem.
II. Primary meristem: is derived from promeristem and found at the tips of the root, stem and
appendages.
 a group of cells beneath the apical meristem that become distinct in appearance from
neighboring groups of cells, a precursor to the following tissue systems:
 procambium: produces primary vascular tissues (primary xylem and primary phloem)
 protoderm: develops into the dermal tissue system.
 ground meristem: differentiates further into ground tissue, which is composed of
parenchyma cells.
III. Secondary meristem: is derived from primary permanent tissues, which have the capacity
of division; and are always laterals in position
 Meristems are also classified as apical, intercalary and lateral meristems based on the
position in the plants.
i. Apical meristem (apex): the growing points located at the tips of stems and roots, resulting in
the increasing of height or length.
 Both root and shoot apical meristems are composed of delicate cells that need protection.
 The root apical meristem is protected from the time it emerges by the root cap.
 A variety of adaptive mechanisms protect shoot apical meristem during germination.
→ The epicotyls or hypocotyl (“stem like” tissue above or below the cotyledons) may bend
as the seedling emerges to minimize the force on the shoot tip.

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 → In the monocots (a late evolving group of angiosperms) there is often coleoptile (sheath
of tissue) that forms a protective tube around the emerging shoot.
ii. Intercalary meristem: Intercalary means “inserted between” referring to the position of
these meristems.
 Persistent meristematic tissue some distance below the apical meristem usually extends
horizontally across the organ.
 Intercalary meristems arise in stem internodes, increasing the internode lengths.
 In some monocots, intercalary meristems occur between the nodes of a mature stem, usually
at the base of an internode.
 Also found at the base of grass leaves and cause leaves to elongate.
→ Therefore, grasses tolerate grazing and mowing due to their intercalary meristems
whose cells divide to re-grow a leaf from its base when the tip is munched off.
iii. Lateral meristem:
 Lateral meristems are cylindrical sheaths of cells, which function in growth that increases
width or girth.
 Most trees, shrubs, and some herbs have active lateral meristems, which are cylinders of
meristematic tissue within the stems and roots.
 Although secondary growth increases girth in many non woody plants, its effects are most
dramatic in woody plants which have two lateral meristems.
 Within the bark of a woody stem is the cork cambium (phellogen) that produces the
cork cells of the outer bark called
periderm.
 Just beneath the bark is the vascular
cambium that produces secondary
vascular tissue (secondary xylem on
the inside and secondary phloem on
the
Figure 1: Apical and lateral meristems of
root and shoot

Figure 2: Types of meristems

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Permanent tissue
 Permanent tissues are group of tissues which lost the power of division.
 This is in which growth has been ceased.
 Based on the kind of constituent cells they are classified in to simple and complex tissues.
A. Simple tissues: are composed of the same types of cells: include Parenchyma, Collenchyma,
and Sclerenchyma.
o Parenchyma: a tissue composed of living cells with very thin cell walls.
 It can be divide at maturity and help in the regeneration and healing of wounds.
o Collenchyma: found immediately under the epidermis of young stems, petioles, and leaf
veins.
 It is the supporting tissue of growing organs with irregularly thick walls.
o Sclerenchyma: is composed of dead cells that have heavily thickened walls with lignin and
60%–80% of cellulose
 Provides structural support in plants
B. Complex tissues: are composed of different types of cells, but function as a unit: like in
vascular tissue (Xylem and Phloem).
o Xylem: consists of cell types such as tracheids, vessels, xylem fibres and xylem
parenchyma.
o Phloem: composed of sieve cells, sieve tubes, companion cells, phloem fibres and phloem
parenchyma.
 The body of a vascular plant is composed of three tissue systems; such as the dermal, the
fundamental (or ground) and the vascular tissue systems.
Dermal tissue system: Tissues derived from the protoderm or cork cambiums that cover the
surface of the plant body. Protoderm is the tissue that develops from the tunica initials of the
apical meristem and gives rise to the epidermis and root cap (in some plants). In the root, it may
also be called dermatogen. Cork cambium (phellogen) is a sheet-like meristem that produces
cork.
The dermal tissues are complex (composed of several cell types) and include:
o Epidermis: a complex tissue that is usually a single cell layer thick and composed of the
following cell types.

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  Ordinary epidermal cells: the least specialized cells of the epidermis (i.e. cells that are
NOT specialized as guard cells, root hairs, trichomes, etc.). May secrete a cuticle.
 Guard cells: cells that surround and control the size of stomatal pores.
 Stomate (plural: stomata): an opening defined by pairs of guard cells that controls gas
exchange and water loss.
 Subsidiary cells: cells adjacent to guard cells and distinct in appearance from ordinary
epidermal cells.
 Trichomes: cells that project from the surface of the epidermis. Include the following
types:
 Unicellular trichome: consists of one cell.
 Multicellular trichome: consists of several cells.
 Secretory (glandular) trichome: secretes a substance.
 Root hair: specialized unicellular trichome found in roots.
Specialized epidermal cells and structures:
 Multiple epidermis: an epidermis with more than one cell layer thick. Multiple epidermis
are the following types:
 multistratose epidermis: in which all layers are derived from the protoderm.
 hypodermis: a layer or layers of cells beneath the epidermis that is derived from the
ground meristem, but distinct in appearance from adjacent ground tissue. May be
called an endodermis if it has a Casparian strip.
 velamen: a multistratose epidermis found in aerial roots.
 Bulliform cells (Motor cell): an enlarged epidermal cell in the leaves of grasses. These
are hygroscopic and help the leaves to roll upwards.
 Idioblast: a special cell in the tissue which differs in form, size and contents from other
cells in the same tissue. It may be filled with oils, tannins, gums, resins, etc.
 Lithocysts: literally translated "rock cells", cells containing a granule of calcium
carbonate called a cystolith.
 Cystolith: is grape-like cluster formed by the deposition of calcium carbonate on
an in growth of the cellulose cell wall as in leaves of Ficus elastica
 silica cells: cells in the epidermis of grasses that contain silica deposits.
 nectary: a gland that secretes nectar.

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Ground tissue system: tissues derived from the ground meristem. All are simple tissues
composed of a single type of cell, which is named after the tissue. The tissues of the ground
tissue system include:
o Parenchyma: tissues composed of cells with thin primary cell wall. Types include:
 Chlorenchyma: contains chloroplasts and functions in photosynthesis.
 Aerenchyma: contains large intracellular air spaces and functions in gas exchange.
 Endodermis: characterized by a suberized casparian strip; regulates transport of
materials into the vascular bundles of most roots, some leaves and stems.
 Storage parenchyma: characterized by large accumulations of storage products such as
starch, protein, oil, hemicellulose, or water.
o collenchyma: tissues composed of cells with unevenly thickened primary cell walls that
strengthen growing organs. Types are classified according to the arrangement of the wall
thickenings and include.
 angular collenchyma: cell wall is thickest in the corners.
 lamellar collenchyma: cell wall is thickest on two opposite sides.
 lacunar collenchyma: cell wall is thickest in the corners, intercellular air spaces present.
o sclerenchyma: tissues composed of cells with thick, secondary cell wall that are usually
lignified. Types are classified according to cell shape and include:
 fiber: long, straight and thin, often occurring in bundles. Sometimes called "extraxylary
fibers" to distinguish them from xylary fibers, which look similar, but have a different
evolutionary origin.
 sclereids: variable in shape, but not like fibers. Types are further classified according to
shape and include:
 brachysclereids: also called stone cells, length and width nearly equal.
 astrosclereids: star shaped, with several projecting arms.
 trichosclereids: hair-like, similar to fibers, except branched.
 macrosclereids: column shaped, longer than wide.
 osteosclereids: bone shaped, elongated with swollen ends.
Vascular tissue system: Tissues derived from the procambium or vascular cambium that
transports water and photosynthate (carbohydrates). The vascular tissues are complex (composed
of several cell types) and include:

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o Xylem: the water-conducting tissue of plants.
 tracheary element: a conducting cell of the xylem, characterized by an elongated shape
and lignified secondary cell wall.
 vessel element: a tracheary element with perforation plates.
perforation plate: the end wall of a vessel element where the secondary cell wall was
not deposited and the primary cell wall has been digested.
 foraminate: contains several round perforations.
 scalariform: contains several elongated perforations such that the remaining
cell wall resembles the rungs of a ladder.
 simple: contains a single perforation.
vessel: a long tube of vessel elements connected by perforation plates
 tracheid: a tracheary element that lacks perforations plates, water flows from between
tracheids through pits.
 fiber tracheid: a cell in the xylem that is intermediate between a tracheid and a libriform
fiber.
 libriform fiber: a cell in the xylem that is very long and thin and has simple pits,
sometimes called "xylary fibers" to distinguish them from extraxylary fibers, which look
similar.
o Phloem: the photosynthate-conducting tissue of plants.
 Sieve element: a conducting cell in the phloem.
 Sieve-tube member: a sieve element with perforation plates, characteristic of
angiosperms.
 Sieve plate: the end wall of a sieve-tube element that is perforated by sieve plate
pores.
 Sieve plate pore: an enlarged plasmodesma that perforates a sieve plate.
 Sieve tube: a long tube of sieve elements (also called sieve tube members)
connected by sieve plates.
 Sieve cell: a sieve element that lacks perforation plates, characteristic of
gymnosperms.
 P-protein: a stringy protein within sieve elements that blocks sieve plate pores when
the sieve tube is damaged.

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  Companion cell: a cell in the phloem that is connected to a sieve-tube member by
numerous plasmodesmata.
 Albuminous cell: a cell in the phloem that is connected to a sieve cell by numerous
plasmodesmata.

Figure 3: Highly idealized longitudinal section through part of a vascular bundle in a stem,
illustrating various anatomical aspects of the xylem and the phloem.

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