Polynomial

In mathematics, a polynomial is a mathematical expression consisting of indeterminates (also called

variables) and coefficients, that involves only the operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication and
exponentiation to nonnegative integer powers, and has a finite number of terms.[1][2][3][4][5] An example of a
polynomial of a single indeterminate x is x2 − 4x + 7. An example with three indeterminates is
x3 + 2xyz2 − yz + 1.

Polynomials appear in many areas of mathematics and science. For example, they are used to form
polynomial equations, which encode a wide range of problems, from elementary word problems to
complicated scientific problems; they are used to define polynomial functions, which appear in settings
ranging from basic chemistry and physics to economics and social science; and they are used in calculus
and numerical analysis to approximate other functions. In advanced mathematics, polynomials are used to
construct polynomial rings and algebraic varieties, which are central concepts in algebra and algebraic
geometry.

Etymology

The word polynomial joins two diverse roots: the Greek poly, meaning "many", and the Latin nomen, or
"name". It was derived from the term binomial by replacing the Latin root bi- with the Greek poly-. That is, it
means a sum of many terms (many monomials). The word polynomial was first used in the 17th century.[6]

Notation and terminology

The graph of a polynomial function of

degree 3

The x occurring in a polynomial is commonly called a variable or an indeterminate. When the polynomial is
considered as an expression, x is a fixed symbol which does not have any value (its value is
"indeterminate"). However, when one considers the function defined by the polynomial, then x represents
the argument of the function, and is therefore called a "variable". Many authors use these two words
interchangeably.

A polynomial P in the indeterminate x is commonly denoted either as P or as P(x). Formally, the name of
the polynomial is P, not P(x), but the use of the functional notation P(x) dates from a time when the
distinction between a polynomial and the associated function was unclear. Moreover, the functional
notation is often useful for specifying, in a single phrase, a polynomial and its indeterminate. For example,
"let P(x) be a polynomial" is a shorthand for "let P be a polynomial in the indeterminate x". On the other
hand, when it is not necessary to emphasize the name of the indeterminate, many formulas are much
simpler and easier to read if the name(s) of the indeterminate(s) do not appear at each occurrence of the
polynomial.

The ambiguity of having two notations for a single mathematical object may be formally resolved by
considering the general meaning of the functional notation for polynomials. If a denotes a number, a
variable, another polynomial, or, more generally, any expression, then P(a) denotes, by convention, the
result of substituting a for x in P. Thus, the polynomial P defines the function

which is the polynomial function associated to P. Frequently, when using this notation, one supposes that a
is a number. However, one may use it over any domain where addition and multiplication are defined (that
is, any ring). In particular, if a is a polynomial then P(a) is also a polynomial.

More specifically, when a is the indeterminate x, then the image of x by this function is the polynomial P
itself (substituting x for x does not change anything). In other words,

which justifies formally the existence of two notations for the same polynomial.

Definition

A polynomial expression is an expression that can be built from constants and symbols called variables or
indeterminates by means of addition, multiplication and exponentiation to a non-negative integer power.
The constants are generally numbers, but may be any expression that do not involve the indeterminates,
and represent mathematical objects that can be added and multiplied. Two polynomial expressions are
considered as defining the same polynomial if they may be transformed, one to the other, by applying the
usual properties of commutativity, associativity and distributivity of addition and multiplication. For
example and are two polynomial expressions that represent the same
polynomial; so, one has the equality .

A polynomial in a single indeterminate x can always be written (or rewritten) in the form

where are constants that are called the coefficients of the polynomial, and is the
[7]
indeterminate. The word "indeterminate" means that represents no particular value, although any value
may be substituted for it. The mapping that associates the result of this substitution to the substituted
value is a function, called a polynomial function.

This can be expressed more concisely by using summation notation:

That is, a polynomial can either be zero or can be written as the sum of a finite number of non-zero terms.
Each term consists of the product of a number – called the coefficient of the term[a] – and a finite number
of indeterminates, raised to non-negative integer powers.

Classification

The exponent on an indeterminate in a term is called the degree of that indeterminate in that term; the
degree of the term is the sum of the degrees of the indeterminates in that term, and the degree of a
polynomial is the largest degree of any term with nonzero coefficient.[8] Because x = x1, the degree of an
indeterminate without a written exponent is one.

A term with no indeterminates and a polynomial with no indeterminates are called, respectively, a constant
term and a constant polynomial.[b] The degree of a constant term and of a nonzero constant polynomial is
0. The degree of the zero polynomial 0 (which has no terms at all) is generally treated as not defined (but
see below).[9]

For example:

is a term. The coefficient is −5, the indeterminates are x and y, the degree of x is two, while the degree of y
is one. The degree of the entire term is the sum of the degrees of each indeterminate in it, so in this
example the degree is 2 + 1 = 3.

Forming a sum of several terms produces a polynomial. For example, the following is a polynomial:

It consists of three terms: the first is degree two, the second is degree one, and the third is degree zero.

Polynomials of small degree have been given specific names. A polynomial of degree zero is a constant
polynomial, or simply a constant. Polynomials of degree one, two or three are respectively linear
polynomials, quadratic polynomials and cubic polynomials.[8] For higher degrees, the specific names are not
commonly used, although quartic polynomial (for degree four) and quintic polynomial (for degree five) are
sometimes used. The names for the degrees may be applied to the polynomial or to its terms. For
example, the term 2x in x2 + 2x + 1 is a linear term in a quadratic polynomial.
The polynomial 0, which may be considered to have no terms at all, is called the zero polynomial. Unlike
other constant polynomials, its degree is not zero. Rather, the degree of the zero polynomial is either left
explicitly undefined, or defined as negative (either −1 or −∞).[10] The zero polynomial is also unique in that
it is the only polynomial in one indeterminate that has an infinite number of roots. The graph of the zero
polynomial, f(x) = 0, is the x-axis.

In the case of polynomials in more than one indeterminate, a polynomial is called homogeneous of
degree n if all of its non-zero terms have degree n. The zero polynomial is homogeneous, and, as a
homogeneous polynomial, its degree is undefined.[c] For example, x3y2 + 7x2y3 − 3x5 is homogeneous of
degree 5. For more details, see Homogeneous polynomial.

The commutative law of addition can be used to rearrange terms into any preferred order. In polynomials
with one indeterminate, the terms are usually ordered according to degree, either in "descending powers of
x", with the term of largest degree first, or in "ascending powers of x". The polynomial 3x2 − 5x + 4 is
written in descending powers of x. The first term has coefficient 3, indeterminate x, and exponent 2. In the
second term, the coefficient is −5. The third term is a constant. Because the degree of a non-zero
polynomial is the largest degree of any one term, this polynomial has degree two.[11]

Two terms with the same indeterminates raised to the same powers are called "similar terms" or "like
terms", and they can be combined, using the distributive law, into a single term whose coefficient is the
sum of the coefficients of the terms that were combined. It may happen that this makes the coefficient
0.[12] Polynomials can be classified by the number of terms with nonzero coefficients, so that a one-term
polynomial is called a monomial,[d] a two-term polynomial is called a binomial, and a three-term polynomial
is called a trinomial.

A real polynomial is a polynomial with real coefficients. When it is used to define a function, the domain is
not so restricted. However, a real polynomial function is a function from the reals to the reals that is
defined by a real polynomial. Similarly, an integer polynomial is a polynomial with integer coefficients, and
a complex polynomial is a polynomial with complex coefficients.

A polynomial in one indeterminate is called a univariate polynomial, a polynomial in more than one
indeterminate is called a multivariate polynomial. A polynomial with two indeterminates is called a
bivariate polynomial.[7] These notions refer more to the kind of polynomials one is generally working with
than to individual polynomials; for instance, when working with univariate polynomials, one does not
exclude constant polynomials (which may result from the subtraction of non-constant polynomials),
although strictly speaking, constant polynomials do not contain any indeterminates at all. It is possible to
further classify multivariate polynomials as bivariate, trivariate, and so on, according to the maximum
number of indeterminates allowed. Again, so that the set of objects under consideration be closed under
subtraction, a study of trivariate polynomials usually allows bivariate polynomials, and so on. It is also
common to say simply "polynomials in x, y, and z", listing the indeterminates allowed.
Operations

Addition and subtraction

Polynomials can be added using the associative law of addition (grouping all their terms together into a
single sum), possibly followed by reordering (using the commutative law) and combining of like
terms.[12][13] For example, if

and

then the sum

can be reordered and regrouped as

and then simplified to

When polynomials are added together, the result is another polynomial.[14]

Subtraction of polynomials is similar.

Multiplication

Polynomials can also be multiplied. To expand the product of two polynomials into a sum of terms, the
distributive law is repeatedly applied, which results in each term of one polynomial being multiplied by
every term of the other.[12] For example, if

then

Carrying out the multiplication in each term produces

Combining similar terms yields

which can be simplified to

As in the example, the product of polynomials is always a polynomial.[14][9]

Composition

Given a polynomial of a single variable and another polynomial g of any number of variables, the
composition is obtained by substituting each copy of the variable of the first polynomial by the
second polynomial.[9] For example, if and then

A composition may be expanded to a sum of terms using the rules for multiplication and division of
polynomials. The composition of two polynomials is another polynomial.[15]

Division

The division of one polynomial by another is not typically a polynomial. Instead, such ratios are a more
general family of objects, called rational fractions, rational expressions, or rational functions, depending on
context.[16] This is analogous to the fact that the ratio of two integers is a rational number, not necessarily
an integer.[17][18] For example, the fraction 1/(x2 + 1) is not a polynomial, and it cannot be written as a finite
sum of powers of the variable x.

For polynomials in one variable, there is a notion of Euclidean division of polynomials, generalizing the
Euclidean division of integers.[e] This notion of the division a(x)/b(x) results in two polynomials, a quotient
q(x) and a remainder r(x), such that a = b q + r and degree(r) < degree(b). The quotient and remainder
may be computed by any of several algorithms, including polynomial long division and synthetic
division.[19]

When the denominator b(x) is monic and linear, that is, b(x) = x − c for some constant c, then the
polynomial remainder theorem asserts that the remainder of the division of a(x) by b(x) is the evaluation
a(c).[18] In this case, the quotient may be computed by Ruffini's rule, a special case of synthetic division.[20]

Factoring

All polynomials with coefficients in a unique factorization domain (for example, the integers or a field) also
have a factored form in which the polynomial is written as a product of irreducible polynomials and a
constant. This factored form is unique up to the order of the factors and their multiplication by an
invertible constant. In the case of the field of complex numbers, the irreducible factors are linear. Over the
real numbers, they have the degree either one or two. Over the integers and the rational numbers the
irreducible factors may have any degree.[21] For example, the factored form of

is

over the integers and the reals, and

over the complex numbers.

The computation of the factored form, called factorization is, in general, too difficult to be done by hand-
written computation. However, efficient polynomial factorization algorithms are available in most
computer algebra systems.

Calculus

Calculating derivatives and integrals of polynomials is particularly simple, compared to other kinds of
functions. The derivative of the polynomial

with respect to x is the polynomial

Similarly, the general antiderivative (or indefinite integral) of is

1
where c is an arbitrary constant. For example, antiderivatives of x2 + 1 have the form ⁠3 ⁠x3 + x + c.

For polynomials whose coefficients come from more abstract settings (for example, if the coefficients are
integers modulo some prime number p, or elements of an arbitrary ring), the formula for the derivative can
still be interpreted formally, with the coefficient kak understood to mean the sum of k copies of ak. For
example, over the integers modulo p, the derivative of the polynomial xp + x is the polynomial 1.[22]

Polynomial functions

A polynomial function is a function that can be defined by evaluating a polynomial. More precisely, a
function f of one argument from a given domain is a polynomial function if there exists a polynomial

that evaluates to for all x in the domain of f (here, n is a non-negative integer and a0, a1, a2, ..., an are
constant coefficients).[23] Generally, unless otherwise specified, polynomial functions have complex
coefficients, arguments, and values. In particular, a polynomial, restricted to have real coefficients, defines
a function from the complex numbers to the complex numbers. If the domain of this function is also
restricted to the reals, the resulting function is a real function that maps reals to reals.

For example, the function f, defined by

is a polynomial function of one variable. Polynomial functions of several variables are similarly defined,
using polynomials in more than one indeterminate, as in

According to the definition of polynomial functions, there may be expressions that obviously are not

polynomials but nevertheless define polynomial functions. An example is the expression

which takes the same values as the polynomial on the interval , and thus both expressions
define the same polynomial function on this interval.

Every polynomial function is continuous, smooth, and entire.

The evaluation of a polynomial is the computation of the corresponding polynomial function; that is, the
evaluation consists of substituting a numerical value to each indeterminate and carrying out the indicated
multiplications and additions.

For polynomials in one indeterminate, the evaluation is usually more efficient (lower number of arithmetic
operations to perform) using Horner's method, which consists of rewriting the polynomial as

Graphs

A polynomial function in one real variable can be represented by a graph.

The graph of the zero polynomial

f(x) = 0
is the x-axis.

The graph of a degree 0 polynomial

f(x) = a0, where a0 ≠ 0,
is a horizontal line with y-intercept a0

The graph of a degree 1 polynomial (or linear function)

f(x) = a0 + a1x, where a1 ≠ 0,
is an oblique line with y-intercept a0 and slope a1.

The graph of a degree 2 polynomial

f(x) = a0 + a1x + a2x2, where a2 ≠ 0
 is a parabola.

The graph of a degree 3 polynomial

f(x) = a0 + a1x + a2x2 + a3x3, where a3 ≠ 0
is a cubic curve.

The graph of any polynomial with degree 2 or greater

f(x) = a0 + a1x + a2x2 + ⋯ + a x , where
n
n
Polynomial of degree Polynomial of degree
an ≠ 0 and n ≥ 2
0: 1:
is a continuous non-linear curve.
f(x) = 2 f(x) = 2x + 1
A non-constant polynomial function tends to infinity when
the variable increases indefinitely (in absolute value). If
the degree is higher than one, the graph does not have
any asymptote. It has two parabolic branches with
vertical direction (one branch for positive x and one for
negative x).

Polynomial graphs are analyzed in calculus using

intercepts, slopes, concavity, and end behavior. Polynomial of degree Polynomial of degree
2: 3:

Equations
2
f(x) = x − x − 2 f(x) = x3/4 + 3x2/4 − 3x/2 − 2
= (x + 1)(x − 2) = 1/4 (x + 4)(x + 1)(x − 2)

A polynomial equation, also called an algebraic equation, is

an equation of the form[24]

For example,

is a polynomial equation.

When considering equations, the indeterminates

(variables) of polynomials are also called unknowns, and
the solutions are the possible values of the unknowns for
which the equality is true (in general more than one
solution may exist). A polynomial equation stands in
contrast to a polynomial identity like
(x + y)(x − y) = x2 − y2, where both expressions represent
the same polynomial in different forms, and as a
consequence any evaluation of both members gives a
valid equality.
In elementary algebra, methods such as the quadratic
formula are taught for solving all first degree and second
degree polynomial equations in one variable. There are
also formulas for the cubic and quartic equations. For
higher degrees, the Abel–Ruffini theorem asserts that
there can not exist a general formula in radicals. However,
root-finding algorithms may be used to find numerical Polynomial of degree Polynomial of degree
approximations of the roots of a polynomial expression of 4: 5:
any degree. f(x) = 1/14 (x + 4)(x + 1)(x − 1)(x
f(x) =− 1/20
3) (x + 4)(x + 2)(x + 1)(x
+ 0.5 (x − 3) + 2
The number of solutions of a polynomial equation with
real coefficients may not exceed the degree, and equals
the degree when the complex solutions are counted with
their multiplicity. This fact is called the fundamental
theorem of algebra.

Solving equations
Polynomial of degree Polynomial of degree
A root of a nonzero univariate polynomial P is a value a of 6: 7:
x such that P(a) = 0. In other words, a root of P is a 6 5 4
f(x) = 1/100 (x − 2x − 26x f(x)
+ 28x 3
= (x − 3)(x − 2)(x − 1)(x)(x +
solution of the polynomial equation P(x) = 0 or a zero of + 145x2 − 26x − 80) (x + 3)
the polynomial function defined by P. In the case of the
zero polynomial, every number is a zero of the
corresponding function, and the concept of root is rarely considered.

A number a is a root of a polynomial P if and only if the linear polynomial x − a divides P, that is if there is
another polynomial Q such that P = (x − a) Q. It may happen that a power (greater than 1) of x − a divides
P; in this case, a is a multiple root of P, and otherwise a is a simple root of P. If P is a nonzero polynomial,
there is a highest power m such that (x − a)m divides P, which is called the multiplicity of a as a root of P.
The number of roots of a nonzero polynomial P, counted with their respective multiplicities, cannot exceed
the degree of P,[25] and equals this degree if all complex roots are considered (this is a consequence of the
fundamental theorem of algebra). The coefficients of a polynomial and its roots are related by Vieta's
formulas.

Some polynomials, such as x2 + 1, do not have any roots among the real numbers. If, however, the set of
accepted solutions is expanded to the complex numbers, every non-constant polynomial has at least one
root; this is the fundamental theorem of algebra. By successively dividing out factors x − a, one sees that
any polynomial with complex coefficients can be written as a constant (its leading coefficient) times a
product of such polynomial factors of degree 1; as a consequence, the number of (complex) roots counted
with their multiplicities is exactly equal to the degree of the polynomial.

There may be several meanings of "solving an equation". One may want to express the solutions as explicit
numbers; for example, the unique solution of 2x − 1 = 0 is 1/2. This is, in general, impossible for equations
of degree greater than one, and, since the ancient times, mathematicians have searched to express the
solutions as algebraic expressions; for example, the golden ratio is the unique positive
solution of In the ancient times, they succeeded only for degrees one and two. For
quadratic equations, the quadratic formula provides such expressions of the solutions. Since the 16th
century, similar formulas (using cube roots in addition to square roots), although much more complicated,
are known for equations of degree three and four (see cubic equation and quartic equation). But formulas
for degree 5 and higher eluded researchers for several centuries. In 1824, Niels Henrik Abel proved the
striking result that there are equations of degree 5 whose solutions cannot be expressed by a (finite)
formula, involving only arithmetic operations and radicals (see Abel–Ruffini theorem). In 1830, Évariste
Galois proved that most equations of degree higher than four cannot be solved by radicals, and showed
that for each equation, one may decide whether it is solvable by radicals, and, if it is, solve it. This result
marked the start of Galois theory and group theory, two important branches of modern algebra. Galois
himself noted that the computations implied by his method were impracticable. Nevertheless, formulas for
solvable equations of degrees 5 and 6 have been published (see quintic function and sextic equation).

When there is no algebraic expression for the roots, and when such an algebraic expression exists but is
too complicated to be useful, the unique way of solving it is to compute numerical approximations of the
solutions.[26] There are many methods for that; some are restricted to polynomials and others may apply to
any continuous function. The most efficient algorithms allow solving easily (on a computer) polynomial
equations of degree higher than 1,000 (see Root-finding algorithm).

For polynomials with more than one indeterminate, the combinations of values for the variables for which
the polynomial function takes the value zero are generally called zeros instead of "roots". The study of the
sets of zeros of polynomials is the object of algebraic geometry. For a set of polynomial equations with
several unknowns, there are algorithms to decide whether they have a finite number of complex solutions,
and, if this number is finite, for computing the solutions. See System of polynomial equations.

The special case where all the polynomials are of degree one is called a system of linear equations, for
which another range of different solution methods exist, including the classical Gaussian elimination.

A polynomial equation for which one is interested only in the solutions which are integers is called a
Diophantine equation. Solving Diophantine equations is generally a very hard task. It has been proved that
there cannot be any general algorithm for solving them, or even for deciding whether the set of solutions is
empty (see Hilbert's tenth problem). Some of the most famous problems that have been solved during the
last fifty years are related to Diophantine equations, such as Fermat's Last Theorem.
Polynomial expressions

Polynomials where indeterminates are substituted for some other mathematical objects are often
considered, and sometimes have a special name.

Trigonometric polynomials

A trigonometric polynomial is a finite linear combination of functions sin(nx) and cos(nx) with n taking on
the values of one or more natural numbers.[27] The coefficients may be taken as real numbers, for real-
valued functions.

If sin(nx) and cos(nx) are expanded in terms of sin(x) and cos(x), a trigonometric polynomial becomes a
polynomial in the two variables sin(x) and cos(x) (using List of trigonometric identities#Multiple-angle
formulae). Conversely, every polynomial in sin(x) and cos(x) may be converted, with Product-to-sum
identities, into a linear combination of functions sin(nx) and cos(nx). This equivalence explains why linear
combinations are called polynomials.

For complex coefficients, there is no difference between such a function and a finite Fourier series.

Trigonometric polynomials are widely used, for example in trigonometric interpolation applied to the
interpolation of periodic functions. They are also used in the discrete Fourier transform.

Matrix polynomials

A matrix polynomial is a polynomial with square matrices as variables.[28] Given an ordinary, scalar-valued
polynomial

this polynomial evaluated at a matrix A is

where I is the identity matrix.[29]

A matrix polynomial equation is an equality between two matrix polynomials, which holds for the specific
matrices in question. A matrix polynomial identity is a matrix polynomial equation which holds for all
matrices A in a specified matrix ring Mn(R).
Exponential polynomials

A bivariate polynomial where the second variable is substituted for an exponential function applied to the
first variable, for example P(x, ex), may be called an exponential polynomial.

Related concepts

Rational functions

A rational fraction is the quotient (algebraic fraction) of two polynomials. Any algebraic expression that
can be rewritten as a rational fraction is a rational function.

While polynomial functions are defined for all values of the variables, a rational function is defined only for
the values of the variables for which the denominator is not zero.

The rational fractions include the Laurent polynomials, but do not limit denominators to powers of an
indeterminate.

Laurent polynomials

Laurent polynomials are like polynomials, but allow negative powers of the variable(s) to occur.

Power series

Formal power series are like polynomials, but allow infinitely many non-zero terms to occur, so that they do
not have finite degree. Unlike polynomials they cannot in general be explicitly and fully written down (just
like irrational numbers cannot), but the rules for manipulating their terms are the same as for polynomials.
Non-formal power series also generalize polynomials, but the multiplication of two power series may not
converge.

Polynomial ring

A polynomial f over a commutative ring R is a polynomial all of whose coefficients belong to R. It is

straightforward to verify that the polynomials in a given set of indeterminates over R form a commutative
ring, called the polynomial ring in these indeterminates, denoted in the univariate case and
in the multivariate case.

One has
So, most of the theory of the multivariate case can be reduced to an iterated univariate case.

The map from R to R[x] sending r to itself considered as a constant polynomial is an injective ring
homomorphism, by which R is viewed as a subring of R[x]. In particular, R[x] is an algebra over R.

One can think of the ring R[x] as arising from R by adding one new element x to R, and extending in a
minimal way to a ring in which x satisfies no other relations than the obligatory ones, plus commutation
with all elements of R (that is xr = rx). To do this, one must add all powers of x and their linear
combinations as well.

Formation of the polynomial ring, together with forming factor rings by factoring out ideals, are important
tools for constructing new rings out of known ones. For instance, the ring (in fact field) of complex
numbers, which can be constructed from the polynomial ring R[x] over the real numbers by factoring out
the ideal of multiples of the polynomial x2 + 1. Another example is the construction of finite fields, which
proceeds similarly, starting out with the field of integers modulo some prime number as the coefficient ring
R (see modular arithmetic).

If R is commutative, then one can associate with every polynomial P in R[x] a polynomial function f with
domain and range equal to R. (More generally, one can take domain and range to be any same unital
associative algebra over R.) One obtains the value f(r) by substitution of the value r for the symbol x in P.
One reason to distinguish between polynomials and polynomial functions is that, over some rings,
different polynomials may give rise to the same polynomial function (see Fermat's little theorem for an
example where R is the integers modulo p). This is not the case when R is the real or complex numbers,
whence the two concepts are not always distinguished in analysis. An even more important reason to
distinguish between polynomials and polynomial functions is that many operations on polynomials (like
Euclidean division) require looking at what a polynomial is composed of as an expression rather than
evaluating it at some constant value for x.

Divisibility

If R is an integral domain and f and g are polynomials in R[x], it is said that f divides g or f is a divisor of g if
there exists a polynomial q in R[x] such that f q = g. If then a is a root of f if and only
divides f. In this case, the quotient can be computed using the polynomial long division.[30][31]

If F is a field and f and g are polynomials in F[x] with g ≠ 0, then there exist unique polynomials q and r in
F[x] with

and such that the degree of r is smaller than the degree of g (using the convention that the polynomial 0
has a negative degree). The polynomials q and r are uniquely determined by f and g. This is called
Euclidean division, division with remainder or polynomial long division and shows that the ring F[x] is a
Euclidean domain.

Analogously, prime polynomials (more correctly, irreducible polynomials) can be defined as non-zero
polynomials which cannot be factorized into the product of two non-constant polynomials. In the case of
coefficients in a ring, "non-constant" must be replaced by "non-constant or non-unit" (both definitions agree
in the case of coefficients in a field). Any polynomial may be decomposed into the product of an invertible
constant by a product of irreducible polynomials. If the coefficients belong to a field or a unique
factorization domain this decomposition is unique up to the order of the factors and the multiplication of
any non-unit factor by a unit (and division of the unit factor by the same unit). When the coefficients belong
to integers, rational numbers or a finite field, there are algorithms to test irreducibility and to compute the
factorization into irreducible polynomials (see Factorization of polynomials). These algorithms are not
practicable for hand-written computation, but are available in any computer algebra system. Eisenstein's
criterion can also be used in some cases to determine irreducibility.

Applications

Positional notation

In modern positional numbers systems, such as the decimal system, the digits and their positions in the
representation of an integer, for example, 45, are a shorthand notation for a polynomial in the radix or base,
in this case, 4 × 101 + 5 × 100. As another example, in radix 5, a string of digits such as 132 denotes the
(decimal) number 1 × 52 + 3 × 51 + 2 × 50 = 42. This representation is unique. Let b be a positive integer
greater than 1. Then every positive integer a can be expressed uniquely in the form

where m is a nonnegative integer and the r's are integers such that

0 < rm < b and 0 ≤ ri < b for i = 0, 1, . . . , m − 1.[32]

Interpolation and approximation

The simple structure of polynomial functions makes them quite useful in analyzing general functions
using polynomial approximations. An important example in calculus is Taylor's theorem, which roughly
states that every differentiable function locally looks like a polynomial function, and the Stone–
Weierstrass theorem, which states that every continuous function defined on a compact interval of the real
axis can be approximated on the whole interval as closely as desired by a polynomial function. Practical
methods of approximation include polynomial interpolation and the use of splines.[33]
Other applications

Polynomials are frequently used to encode information about some other object. The characteristic
polynomial of a matrix or linear operator contains information about the operator's eigenvalues. The
minimal polynomial of an algebraic element records the simplest algebraic relation satisfied by that
element. The chromatic polynomial of a graph counts the number of proper colourings of that graph.

The term "polynomial", as an adjective, can also be used for quantities or functions that can be written in
polynomial form. For example, in computational complexity theory the phrase polynomial time means that
the time it takes to complete an algorithm is bounded by a polynomial function of some variable, such as
the size of the input.

History

Determining the roots of polynomials, or "solving algebraic equations", is among the oldest problems in
mathematics. However, the elegant and practical notation we use today only developed beginning in the
15th century. Before that, equations were written out in words. For example, an algebra problem from the
Chinese Arithmetic in Nine Sections, c. 200 BCE, begins "Three sheafs of good crop, two sheafs of
mediocre crop, and one sheaf of bad crop are sold for 29 dou." We would write 3x + 2y + z = 29.

History of the notation

The earliest known use of the equal sign is in Robert Recorde's The Whetstone of Witte, 1557. The signs +
for addition, − for subtraction, and the use of a letter for an unknown appear in Michael Stifel's
Arithemetica integra, 1544. René Descartes, in La géometrie, 1637, introduced the concept of the graph of a
polynomial equation. He popularized the use of letters from the beginning of the alphabet to denote
constants and letters from the end of the alphabet to denote variables, as can be seen above, in the
general formula for a polynomial in one variable, where the as denote constants and x denotes a variable.
Descartes introduced the use of superscripts to denote exponents as well.[34]

See also

List of polynomial topics

Notes

1. Beauregard & Fraleigh (1973, p. 153)

2. Burden & Faires (1993, p. 96)

3. Fraleigh (1976, p. 245)

 4. McCoy (1968, p. 190)

5. Moise (1967, p. 82)

6. See "polynomial" and "binomial", Compact Oxford English Dictionary

7. Weisstein, Eric W. "Polynomial" (https://mathworld.wolfram.com/Polynomial.html) .

mathworld.wolfram.com. Retrieved 2020-08-28.

8. "Polynomials | Brilliant Math & Science Wiki" (https://brilliant.org/wiki/polynomials/) . brilliant.org.

Retrieved 2020-08-28.

9. Barbeau 2003, pp. 1 (https://books.google.com/books?id=CynRMm5qTmQC&pg=PA1) –2

10. Weisstein, Eric W. "Zero Polynomial" (https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ZeroPolynomial.html) .

MathWorld.

11. Edwards 1995, p. 78 (https://books.google.com/books?id=ylFR4h5BIDEC&pg=PA78)

12. Edwards, Harold M. (1995). Linear Algebra (https://books.google.com/books?id=ylFR4h5BIDEC&pg=P

A47) . Springer. p. 47. ISBN 978-0-8176-3731-6.

13. Salomon, David (2006). Coding for Data and Computer Communications (https://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=Zr9bjEpXKnIC&pg=PA459) . Springer. p. 459. ISBN 978-0-387-23804-3.

14. Introduction to Algebra (https://books.google.com/books?id=PagNAQAAIAAJ&q=the+addition+of+pol

ynomials+is+an+operation+that+takes+any+two+polynomials+and+produce+always+another+polyn
omial,) . Yale University Press. 1965. p. 621. "Any two such polynomials can be added, subtracted, or
multiplied. Furthermore, the result in each case is another polynomial"

15. Kriete, Hartje (1998-05-20). Progress in Holomorphic Dynamics (https://books.google.com/books?id=

HwqjxJOLLOoC&q=The+composition+of+two+polynomials+is+always+another+polynomial.&pg=PA1
59) . CRC Press. p. 159. ISBN 978-0-582-32388-9. "This class of endomorphisms is closed under
composition,"

16. Marecek, Lynn; Mathis, Andrea Honeycutt (6 May 2020). Intermediate Algebra 2e (https://openstax.or
g/details/books/intermediate-algebra-2e) . OpenStax. §7.1.

17. Haylock, Derek; Cockburn, Anne D. (2008-10-14). Understanding Mathematics for Young Children: A
Guide for Foundation Stage and Lower Primary Teachers (https://books.google.com/books?id=hgAr3m
aZeQUC&q=division+integers+not+closed&pg=PA49) . SAGE. p. 49. ISBN 978-1-4462-0497-9. "We
find that the set of integers is not closed under this operation of division."

18. Marecek & Mathis 2020, §5.4]

19. Selby, Peter H.; Slavin, Steve (1991). Practical Algebra: A Self-Teaching Guide (2nd ed.). Wiley.
ISBN 978-0-471-53012-1.
20. Weisstein, Eric W. "Ruffini's Rule" (https://mathworld.wolfram.com/RuffinisRule.html) .
mathworld.wolfram.com. Retrieved 2020-07-25.

21. Barbeau 2003, pp. 80 (https://books.google.com/books?id=CynRMm5qTmQC&pg=PA80) –2

22. Barbeau 2003, pp. 64 (https://books.google.com/books?id=CynRMm5qTmQC&pg=PA64) –5

23. Varberg, Purcell & Rigdon 2007, p. 38 (https://archive.org/details/matematika-a-purcell-calculus-9th-e

d/page/38/mode/1up?view=theater&q=polynomial) .

24. Proskuryakov, I.V. (1994). "Algebraic equation" (https://books.google.com/books?id=PE1a-EIG22kC&p

g=PA88) . In Hazewinkel, Michiel (ed.). Encyclopaedia of Mathematics. Vol. 1. Springer. ISBN 978-1-
55608-010-4.

25. Leung, Kam-tim; et al. (1992). Polynomials and Equations (https://books.google.com/books?id=v5uXk

wIUbC8C&pg=PA134) . Hong Kong University Press. p. 134. ISBN 9789622092716.

26. McNamee, J.M. (2007). Numerical Methods for Roots of Polynomials, Part 1 (https://books.google.co
m/books?id=4PMqxwG-eqQC) . Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-08-048947-6.

27. Powell, Michael J. D. (1981). Approximation Theory and Methods. Cambridge University Press.
ISBN 978-0-521-29514-7.

28. Gohberg, Israel; Lancaster, Peter; Rodman, Leiba (2009) [1982]. Matrix Polynomials. Classics in
Applied Mathematics. Vol. 58. Lancaster, PA: Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics.
ISBN 978-0-89871-681-8. Zbl 1170.15300 (https://zbmath.org/?format=complete&q=an:1170.1530
0) .

29. Horn & Johnson 1990, p. 36.

30. Irving, Ronald S. (2004). Integers, Polynomials, and Rings: A Course in Algebra (https://books.google.c
om/books?id=B4k6ltaxm5YC&pg=PA129) . Springer. p. 129. ISBN 978-0-387-20172-6.

31. Jackson, Terrence H. (1995). From Polynomials to Sums of Squares (https://books.google.com/book

s?id=LCEOri2-doMC&pg=PA143) . CRC Press. p. 143. ISBN 978-0-7503-0329-3.

32. McCoy 1968, p. 75

33. de Villiers, Johann (2012). Mathematics of Approximation (https://books.google.com/books?id=l5mIr

o_6RlUC) . Springer. ISBN 9789491216503.

34. Eves, Howard (1990). An Introduction to the History of Mathematics (6th ed.). Saunders. ISBN 0-03-
029558-0.

a. The coefficient of a term may be any number from a specified set. If that set is the set of real
numbers, we speak of "polynomials over the reals". Other common kinds of polynomials are
polynomials with integer coefficients, polynomials with complex coefficients, and polynomials with
coefficients that are integers modulo some prime number p.
 b. This terminology dates from the time when the distinction was not clear between a polynomial and
the function that it defines: a constant term and a constant polynomial define constant functions.

c. In fact, as a homogeneous function, it is homogeneous of every degree.

d. Some authors use "monomial" to mean "monic monomial". See Knapp, Anthony W. (2007). Advanced
Algebra: Along with a Companion Volume Basic Algebra. Springer. p. 457. ISBN 978-0-8176-4522-9.

e. This paragraph assumes that the polynomials have coefficients in a field.

References

Barbeau, E.J. (2003). Polynomials (https://books.google.com/books?id=CynRMm5qTmQC) . Springer.

ISBN 978-0-387-40627-5.

Beauregard, Raymond A.; Fraleigh, John B. (1973), A First Course In Linear Algebra: with Optional
Introduction to Groups, Rings, and Fields, Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, ISBN 0-395-14017-X

Bronstein, Manuel; et al., eds. (2006). Solving Polynomial Equations: Foundations, Algorithms, and
Applications (https://books.google.com/books?id=aIlSmBV3yf8C) . Springer. ISBN 978-3-540-27357-8.

Burden, Richard L.; Faires, J. Douglas (1993), Numerical Analysis (5th ed.), Boston: Prindle, Weber and
Schmidt, ISBN 0-534-93219-3

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Fraleigh, John B. (1976), A First Course In Abstract Algebra (2nd ed.), Reading: Addison-Wesley, ISBN 0-
201-01984-1

Horn, Roger A.; Johnson, Charles R. (1990). Matrix Analysis. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-
521-38632-6..

Lang, Serge (2002), Algebra, Graduate Texts in Mathematics, vol. 211 (Revised third ed.), New York:
Springer-Verlag, ISBN 978-0-387-95385-4, MR 1878556 (https://mathscinet.ams.org/mathscinet-getite
m?mr=1878556) . This classical book covers most of the content of this article.

Leung, Kam-tim; et al. (1992). Polynomials and Equations (https://books.google.com/books?id=v5uXkwI

UbC8C) . Hong Kong University Press. ISBN 9789622092716.

Mayr, K. (1937). "Über die Auflösung algebraischer Gleichungssysteme durch hypergeometrische

Funktionen". Monatshefte für Mathematik und Physik. 45: 280–313. doi:10.1007/BF01707992 (https://do
i.org/10.1007%2FBF01707992) . S2CID 197662587 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:197662
587) .

McCoy, Neal H. (1968), Introduction To Modern Algebra, Revised Edition, Boston: Allyn and Bacon,
LCCN 68015225 (https://lccn.loc.gov/68015225)
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Sethuraman, B.A. (1997). "Polynomials" (https://books.google.com/books?id=yWnTIqmUOFgC&pg=PA1

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(https://archive.org/details/ringsfieldsvecto0000seth) . Springer. ISBN 978-0-387-94848-5.

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=PA263) . Elements of Mathematics. Undergraduate Texts in Mathematics. pp. 263–318.
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030-75050-3.

Umemura, H. (2012) [1984]. "Resolution of algebraic equations by theta constants" (https://books.googl

e.com/books?id=xaNCAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA261) . In Mumford, David (ed.). Tata Lectures on Theta II:
Jacobian theta functions and differential equations. Springer. pp. 261–. ISBN 978-0-8176-4578-6.

Varberg, Dale E.; Purcell, Edwin J.; Rigdon, Steven E. (2007). Calculus (9th ed.). Pearson Prentice Hall.
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von Lindemann, F. (1884). "Ueber die Auflösung der algebraischen Gleichungen durch transcendente
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von Lindemann, F. (1892). "Ueber die Auflösung der algebraischen Gleichungen durch transcendente
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External links

Markushevich, A.I. (2001) [1994], "Polynomial" (https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/index.php?title=Po

lynomial&oldid=36519) , Encyclopedia of Mathematics, EMS Press

"Euler's Investigations on the Roots of Equations" (https://web.archive.org/web/20120924140505/htt

p://mathdl.maa.org/mathDL/46/?pa=content&sa=viewDocument&nodeId=640&pf=1) . Archived from
the original (http://mathdl.maa.org/mathDL/46/?pa=content&sa=viewDocument&nodeId=640&pf=1)
on September 24, 2012.