Computer memory

A memory is just like a human brain. It is

used to store data and instructions. Computer memory
is the storage space in the computer, where data is to be
processed and instructions required for processing are
stored. The memory is divided into large number of
small parts called cells. Each location or cell has a
unique address, which varies from zero to memory size
minus one. For example, if the computer has 64k
words, then this memory unit has 64 * 1024 = 65536
memory locations. The address of these locations
varies from 0 to 65535.
Memory is primarily of three types −
 Cache Memory
 Primary Memory/Main Memory
 Secondary Memory
Note: primary memory again divided into RAM
and ROM
Cache Memory
Cache memory is a very high speed semiconductor
memory which can speed up the CPU. It acts as a
buffer between the CPU and the main memory. It is
used to hold those parts of data and program which are
most frequently used by the CPU. The parts of data and
programs are transferred from the disk to cache
memory by the operating system, from where the CPU
can access them.
Advantages
The advantages of cache memory are as follows −
 Cache memory is faster than main memory.
 It consumes less access time as compared to main

memory.
 It stores the program that can be executed within a

short period of time.

 It stores data for temporary use.

Disadvantages
The disadvantages of cache memory are as follows −
 Cache memory has limited capacity.
 It is very expensive.

Primary Memory (Main Memory)

Primary memory holds only those data and instructions
on which the computer is currently working. It has a
limited capacity and data is lost when power is
switched off. It is generally made up of semiconductor
device. These memories are not as fast as registers. The
data and instruction required to be processed resides in
the main memory. It is divided into two subcategories
RAM and ROM.
Characteristics of Main Memory
 These are semiconductor memories.
 It is known as the main memory.

 Usually volatile memory.

 Data is lost in case power is switched off.

 It is the working memory of the computer.

 Faster than secondary memories.

 A computer cannot run without the primary

memory.
Secondary Memory
This type of memory is also known as external memory
or non-volatile. It is slower than the main memory.
These are used for storing data/information
permanently. CPU directly does not access these
memories, instead they are accessed via input-output
routines. The contents of secondary memories are first
transferred to the main memory, and then the CPU can
access it. For example, disk, CD-ROM, DVD, etc.
Characteristics of Secondary Memory
 These are magnetic and optical memories.
 It is known as the backup memory.
 It is a non-volatile memory.
 Data is permanently stored even if power is
switched off.
 It is used for storage of data in a computer.
 Computer may run without the secondary memory.
  Slower than primary memories.
RAM
RAM (Random Access Memory) is the internal
memory of the CPU for storing data, program, and
program result. It is a read/write memory which stores
data until the machine is working. As soon as the
machine is switched off, data is erased.
RAM is of two types −
 Static RAM (SRAM)
 Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

Static RAM (SRAM)

The word static indicates that the memory retains its
contents as long as power is being supplied. However,
data is lost when the power gets down due to volatile
nature. SRAM chips use a matrix of 6-transistors and
no capacitors. Transistors do not require power to
prevent leakage, so SRAM need not be refreshed on a
regular basis.
Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
DRAM, unlike SRAM, must be
continually refreshed in order to maintain the data.
This is done by placing the memory on a refresh circuit
that rewrites the data several hundred times per second.
DRAM is used for most system memory as it is cheap
and small. All DRAMs are made up of memory cells,
which are composed of one capacitor and one
transistor.
ROM
ROM stands for Read Only Memory. The memory
from which we can only read but cannot write on it.
This type of memory is non-volatile. The information is
stored permanently in such memories during
manufacture. A ROM stores such instructions that are
required to start a computer. This operation is referred
to as bootstrap.
Types of ROM
PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory)
PROM is read-only memory that can be modified only
once by a user. The user buys a blank PROM and
enters the desired contents using a PROM program.
Inside the PROM chip, there are small fuses which are
burnt open during programming. It can be programmed
only once and is not erasable.
EPROM (Erasable and Programmable Read Only
Memory)
EPROM can be erased by exposing it to ultra-violet
light for a duration of up to 40 minutes. Usually, an
EPROM eraser achieves this function. During
programming, an electrical charge is trapped in an
insulated gate region
EEPROM (Electrically Erasable and Programmable
Read Only Memory)
EEPROM is programmed and erased electrically. It can
be erased and reprogrammed about ten thousand times.
Both erasing and programming take about 4 to 10 ms
(millisecond). In EEPROM, any location can be
selectively erased and programmed. EEPROMs can be
erased one byte at a time, rather than erasing the entire
chip

Types of Secondary memory:

Magnetic disks
Magnetic tape
Optical disk
USB flash drive
Mass storage devices
1.Magnetic disks: Magnetic disks are made of rigid
metals or synthetic plastic material. The disk platter is
coated on both the surfaces with magnetic material and
both the surfaces can be used for storage. The magnetic
disk furnishes direct access and is for both small and
large computer systems. The magnetic disk comes in
two forms:
2.Floppy disks : Floppy Disk These are small
removable disks that are plastic coated with magnetic
recording material. Floppy disks are typically 3.5″ in
size (diameter) and can hold 1.44 MB of data. This
portable storage device is a rewritable media and can be
reused a number of times. Floppy disks are commonly
used to move files between different computers.

3.Hard disks: It is a rigid magnetic disc that is

used to store data. It permanently stores data and is
located within a drive unit.
• The hard disk is also known as a hard drive. It is a
rigid magnetic disc that stores data permanently, as
it is a non-volatile storage device.
• The hard disk is located within a drive unit on the
computer's motherboard and comprises one or
more platters packed in an air-sealed casing. The
data is written on the platters by moving a magnetic
head over the platters as they spin.
• The data stored on a computer's hard drive
generally includes the operating system, installed
software, and the user's files and programs,
including pictures, music, videos, text documents,
etc.
4.Magnetic tape: magnetic tape is serial access storage
medium and it can store a large volume of data at low
costs. The conventional magnetic tape is in reels of up
to 3600 feet made of Mylar plastic tape. The tape is
one-half inch in width and is coated with magnetic
material on one side. The reel of tape is loaded on a
magnetic tape drive unit. During any read/write
operation, the tape is moved from one spool to another
in the same way as in the audiocassette tape recorder.
The magnetic tape is densely packed with magnetic
spots in frames across its width.
5. Optical drives: optical drives are a storage medium
from which data is read and to which it is written by
lasers. Optical disks can store much more data . Optical
store devices are the most widely used and reliable
storage devices. The most widely used type of optical
storage devices are explained below:
6.CD (compact disk) : A small plastic disc on which
music or other digital information is stored in the form
of a pattern of metal-coated pits from which it can be
read using laser light reflected off the disc.
• Compact Disk is a portable secondary storage
device in the shape of a round medium disk.
• It is made of polycarbonate plastic.
• The concept of CD was co-developed by Philips
and Sony in 1982.
• The first CD was created on 17 August 1982 at the
workshop of Philips in Germany.
• In the beginning, it was used for storing and
playing sound recordings, later it was used for
various purposes such as for storing documents,
audio files, videos, and other data like software
programs in a CD.
• There are three types of CDs −
• CD-ROM (Compact Disk – Read Only
Memory) − The data on these CDs are recorded by
the manufacturer. Proprietary Software, audio or
video are released on CD-ROMs.
• CD-R (Compact Disk – Recordable) − Data can
be written by the user once on the CD-R. It cannot
be deleted or modified later.
• CD-RW (Compact Disk – Rewritable) − Data
can be written and deleted on these optical disks
again and again.
7. DVD (Digital Versatile Disk): A type of compact
disc able to store large amounts of data, especially high-
resolution audiovisual material.
• DVD is short for digital versatile disc or digital
video disc.
• It is a type of optical media used for storing optical
data. Although it has the same size as a CD, its
storage capacity is much more than a CD.
• So, it is widely used for storing and viewing
movies and to distribute software programs as they
are too large to fit on a CD.
• DVD was co-developed by Sony, Panasonic,
Philips, and Toshiba in 1995.
Types of DVDs:
• DVDs can be divided into three main categories
which are as follows:
• DVD-ROM (Read-Only): These types of DVDs
come with media already recorded on them, such as
movie dvds. As the name suggests, data on these
discs cannot be erased or added, so these discs are
known as a read-only or non-writable DVD.
• DVD-R (Writable): It allows you to record or
write information to the DVD. However, you can
 write information only once as it becomes a read-
only DVD once it is full.
• DVD-RW (Rewritable or Erasable): This type of
discs can be erased, written, or recorded multiple
times.

8.USB flash drives: USB flash drives are removable,

rewritable and are physically much smaller drives,
which have the weight of less than 30g. Such devices
are a good substitute for floppy disks and CD – ROMs
as they are smaller, faster, have thousands of times
more capacity, and are more durable and reliable
Mass storage devices:
Mass storage devices refer to the saving of huge data in
a persistent manner. Mass storage machines can store
up to several trillion bytes of data and hence are used to
store or save large databases, such as the information of
customers of a big retail chain and library transactions
of students in a college. Some of the commonly used
mass storage devices are explained below:
1)Disk array : A disk array is a hardware element that
contains a large group of hard disk drives (HDDs). It
may contain several disk drive trays and has an
architecture which improves speed and increases data
protection. The system is run via a storage controller,
which coordinates activity within the unit.
2) Blue ray disc: Blu-ray or Blu-ray Disc (BD) is
a digital optical disc data storage format. It was
designed to supersede the DVD format, and is capable
of storing several hours of video in high-
definition (HDTV 720p and 1080p) and ultra high-
definition resolution (2160p). The main application of
Blu-ray is as a medium for video material such
as feature films and for the physical distribution of
video games for the PlayStation 3, PlayStation
4 and Xbox One. The name "Blu-ray" refers to the blue
laser (actually a violet laser) used to read the disc,
which allows information to be stored at a greater
density than is possible with the longer-wavelength red
laser used for DVDs.
Register Memory
• smallest and fastest memory in a computer.
• It is not a part of the main memory
• located in the CPU in the form of registers.
• A register temporarily holds frequently used data,
instructions, and memory address that are to be
used by CPU.
 • They hold instructions that are currently processed
by the CPU.
• Registers hold a small amount of data around 32
bits to 64 bits.
Types of registers
1. Data Register
2. Program Counter (PC)
3. Instructor Register
4. Accumulator Register
5. Address Register
6. I/O Address Register
7. I/O Buffer Register