GRADE 10 GRAMMAR AND WRITING SKILLS NOTES

DETERMINERS
Definition: Determiners are words placed before a noun to clarify what the noun refers to. They
help specify whether a noun is general or specific, and how many or how much of it is being
discussed.
Types of Determiners:
1. Articles:
Definite Article: The - Refers to something specific or already known.
Example: The book on the table is mine.
Indefinite Articles: A, An - Refer to something general or non-specific.
Examples: 1. A boy is standing there. 2. An apple a day keeps the doctor away.
2. Demonstratives:
Words: This, That, These, Those - Point to specific things.
Examples: 1. This car is new. 2. Those books belong to him.
3. Possessives:
Words: My, Your, His, Her, Its, Our, Their - Show possession or ownership.
Examples: 1. Her bag is on the table. 2. Our team won the match.
4. Quantifiers:
Words: Some, Any, Many, Much, Few, Little, Several, Enough - Indicate quantity or amount.
Examples: 1. Many students attended the lecture. 2. There is little water in the bottle.
5. Numbers:
Cardinal Numbers: One, Two, Three, etc.
Ordinal Numbers: First, Second, Third, etc.
Examples: 1. I have three pens. 2. She won the first prize.
Distributives:
Words: Each, Every, Either, Neither - Refer to individual members of a group.
Examples: 1. Each student must submit the assignment. 2. Neither option is correct.
6. Interrogative Determiners:
Words: What, Which, Whose - Used to ask questions.
Examples: 1. What time is it? 2. Whose bag is this?
Rules for Using Determiners:
1. A determiner must precede a noun or a noun phrase.
Correct: The car is red.
Incorrect: Car the is red.
2. Articles are used differently based on the noun's sound:
Use ‘a’ before consonant sounds (a cat).
Use ‘an’ before vowel sounds (an elephant).
3. Possessive determiners indicate ownership.
Correct: Her dress is beautiful.
Incorrect: She dress is beautiful.

MODALS

Definition: Modals are auxiliary (helping) verbs that express necessity, possibility, permission,
ability, or obligation. They modify the main verb and do not stand alone.
Common Modals:

 Can, Could, May, Might, Shall, Should, Will, Would, Must, Ought to, Need, Dare

Rules for Modals:

1. Modal verbs are followed by the base form of the main verb.
Correct: She can dance.
Incorrect: She can dances.
2. Modals do not take -s, -ed, or -ing forms.
Correct: He should go.
Incorrect: He should goes.
3. Do not use additional helping verbs with modals:
Correct: He must go.
Incorrect: He does must go.
4. Questions and negatives are formed without auxiliary verbs:
Question: Can she dance?
Negative: She cannot dance.

Can
Usage: Expresses ability, possibility, or permission.
Rules:
Always followed by the base form of the verb.
Negative form: Cannot or Can't.
Question form: Place can before the subject.
Examples:
Ability: She can swim fast.
Possibility: It can be dangerous to climb mountains.
Permission: You can use my phone.
Negative: I cannot solve this problem.

Could
Usage: Past ability, polite requests, or possibility.
Rules:
Refers to general ability in the past (not a specific instance).
Used for hypothetical situations or polite offers.
Examples:
Past Ability: He could run 10 miles when he was younger.
Polite Request: Could you help me with this task?
Possibility: It could rain tomorrow.
Hypothetical: If I had time, I could join you.

May
Usage: Permission, possibility, or polite suggestions.
Rules:
Use may not for prohibition.
Often considered more formal than can.
Examples:
Possibility: It may snow tonight.
Permission: May I borrow your book?
Prohibition: You may not leave the room.

Might
Usage: Indicates possibility or a less certain version of may.
Rules:
Used in hypothetical or uncertain scenarios.
Examples:
Possibility: She might come to the party.
Hypothetical: If you study hard, you might pass the exam.

Shall
Usage: Suggests intention, offers, or strong determination (used more in British English).
Rules:
Often used with I and We.
For formal obligations or future plans.
Examples:
Future Intention: I shall visit her tomorrow.
Offer: Shall we go for a walk?
Determination: We shall overcome this problem.

Should
Usage: Suggests advice, duty, or probability.
Rules:
Use to indicate what is correct or expected.
Examples:
Advice: You should drink more water.
Duty: Students should respect their teachers.
Probability: The train should arrive by now.

Will
Usage: Expresses future actions, willingness, or certainty.
Rules:
Use for definite future plans or promises.
Examples:
Future Action: I will meet you tomorrow.
Willingness: I will help you with your project.
Certainty: She will win the race.

Would
Usage: Used for polite requests, hypothetical situations, and past habits.
Rules:
Use in conditional sentences or for polite expressions.
Examples:
Polite Request: Would you like a cup of tea?
Hypothetical: If I were rich, I would travel the world.
Past Habit: When I was a child, I would play outside all day.

Must
Usage: Expresses obligation, necessity, or certainty.
Rules:
Negative form (must not) indicates prohibition.
Examples:
Obligation: You must wear a seatbelt while driving.
Necessity: I must finish this report today.
Prohibition: You must not touch the painting.

Ought to
Usage: Expresses moral duty or advice.
Rules:
Always followed by the base form of the verb.
Examples:
Advice: You ought to apologize for your mistake.
Duty: We ought to help those in need.

Need
Usage: Expresses necessity or lack of necessity.
Rules:
Need not (needn't) is used for lack of necessity.
In negative and interrogative sentences, it functions like a modal.
Examples:
Necessity: You need to submit the form.
Lack of Necessity: You need not worry about the results.

Dare
Usage: Expresses boldness or courage, usually in negative or interrogative sentences.
Rules:
Functions as a modal when used without to.
Examples:
Interrogative: Dare you climb that wall?
Negative: He dare not speak up in class.

FINITE AND NONFINITE VERBS

Finite Verbs: A finite verb is a verb that shows tense (past, present, or future) and
agrees with the subject in a sentence. It acts as the main verb of the sentence.
Examples:
 She writes a letter. (Present tense)
He went to school. (Past tense)
They will play football. (Future tense)

Non-Finite Verbs: A non-finite verb does not show tense and does not change
according to the subject. It usually functions as a noun, adjective, or adverb instead of the
main verb.
Types of Non-Finite Verbs:
Infinitives (to + base verb) → to eat, to sing, to run
Example: I love to read books.
Gerunds (verb + ing, used as a noun) → reading, swimming, dancing
Example: Swimming is fun.
Participles (verb forms used as adjectives)
Present Participle (-ing): The running boy is fast.
Past Participle (-ed/-en): The broken glass needs repair.

Difference Between Present Participle (V1+ing) and Gerund (V1+ing)

Present Participle (V1+ing)
A present participle acts as an adjective or helps form continuous tenses (progressive
verbs).
Functions:
Forms continuous tenses- She is reading a book
Acts as an adjective- The crying baby needs attention.
Gerund (V1+ing)
A gerund acts as a noun in a sentence. It can be a subject, object, or complement.
Functions:
Used as a subject- Swimming is my favorite hobby
Used as an object- I enjoy reading books.
Used as a complement- His passion is dancing.

SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT (CONCORD)

Subject-verb agreement means that the subject and the verb in a sentence must match in
number (singular or plural). This ensures the sentence is grammatically correct.
Basic Rules of Subject-Verb Agreement
1. Singular Subject → Singular Verb
When the subject is singular, the verb must also be singular.
Examples:
She writes beautifully.
The dog barks loudly.
2. Plural Subject → Plural Verb
When the subject is plural, the verb must also be plural.
Examples:
They write beautifully.
The dogs bark loudly.
Special Cases and Rules
3. Words Between Subject and Verb
Ignore extra words (like phrases) between the subject and the verb. The verb agrees with the
main subject only.
Examples:
The box of chocolates is on the table. (Subject: "box")
The students in the class are learning. (Subject: "students")
4. Collective Nouns
Collective nouns (e.g., team, family, group) can take a singular or plural verb depending on
whether the group acts as a single unit (singular) or individuals (plural).
Examples:
The team is winning. (The team as a single unit)
The team are arguing among themselves. (Members acting individually)
5. Indefinite Pronouns as Subjects
Some indefinite pronouns are singular, while others are plural.
Singular Indefinite Pronouns:
Each, Everyone, Someone, Anyone, Nobody, Everything, Something
Everyone is happy.
Something needs to be done.
Plural Indefinite Pronouns:
Few, Many, Several, Both
Few have completed the task.
Many were invited.
6. Compound Subjects (Joined by 'and')
If two subjects are joined by and, they usually take a plural verb.
Examples:
John and Mary are coming to the party.
The book and the pen belong to her.
Exception: If the subjects refer to the same person/thing, the verb is singular.
Bread and butter is my favorite breakfast.
7. Compound Subjects (Joined by 'or' or 'nor')
If subjects are joined by or/nor, the verb agrees with the subject closest to it.
Examples:
Either John or his friends are coming. (Plural "friends")
Neither the students nor the teacher is present. (Singular "teacher")
8. Subject After the Verb (Inverted Sentences)
In sentences where the subject comes after the verb (e.g., in questions), ensure the verb agrees
with the subject.
Examples:
Where is the book? (Singular "book")
Where are the keys? (Plural "keys")
9. Titles, Names, or Amounts as Subjects
Titles of books, movies, or collective amounts are usually singular.
Examples:
"The Lord of the Rings" is an epic movie.
Ten dollars is enough.
 TENSES
Tenses indicate the time of an action in a sentence. There are three main tenses:
Present Tense (Happening now)
Past Tense (Happened before)
Future Tense (Will happen later)

Present Tense (Happening now)

Tense Structure Examples

He plays football.
Simple Present Subject + V1 (s/es) + Object They go to school daily.

She is reading a book.

Present Continuous Subject + is/am/are +
We are watching TV.
V1+ing + Object

Subject + has/have + V3 + I have finished my

Present Perfect
Object homework.
She has visited Paris.
They have been studying
Present Perfect Continuous Subject + has/have been + since morning.
V1+ing + Object She has been working here
for 5 years.

Past Tense (Happened before)

Tense Structure Examples

Simple Past Subject + V2 + Object He played football.
They went to school.
Past Continuous Subject + was/were + V1+ing She was reading a book.
+ Object We were watching TV.

Past Perfect Subject + had + V3 + Object I had finished my homework

before dinner.
She had visited Paris before
2019.
Past Perfect Continuous Subject + had been + V1+ing They had been studying for
+ Object 3 hours.
She had been working there
since 2015.
Future Tense (Will happen later)

Tense Structure Examples

Simple Future Subject + will/shall + V1 + He will play football.
Object They will go to school.

Future Continuous Subject + will be + V1+ing + She will be reading a book.

Object We will be watching TV.

Future Perfect Subject + will have + V3 + I will have finished my

Object homework by 8 PM.
She will have visited Paris by
next year.
Future Perfect Continuous Subject + will have been + They will have been
V1+ing + Object studying for 3 hours.
She will have been working
here for 5 years.

Past Future tense

Actions that were expected to happen in the future from a past perspective. It is often used
in reported speech, indirect speech, and conditional sentences.

Tense Structure Examples

Simple Past Future Sub + would/should + V1+ He said he would go to
obj school.
Past Future Continuous Sub + would/should + be + She thought she would be
V1+ing + obj reading at 5 PM.

Past Future Perfect Sub + would/should + have + They believed they would
V3 + obj have finished by now.

Past Future Perfect Sub + would/should + have He said he would have been
Continuous been + V1+ing + obj working here for 5 years.

REPORTED SPEECH
 Reported Speech (or Indirect Speech) is used to report what someone said without quoting their
exact words. Instead of using quotation marks, we change the sentence structure and verb
tense.
Types of Speech
a) Direct Speech (Exact words with quotation marks)
She said, "I am happy."
b) Reported (Indirect) Speech (No quotation marks, verb changes)
She said that she was happy.

Rules to be followed while changing from one speech to other.

Rule Type Direct Speech Reported Speech Example
Pronouns First-person pronouns Change according to She said, "I am
(I, we) the subject of the happy." → She said she
reporting verb was happy.
Second-person Change according to He told me, "You are
pronouns (you) the object of the late." → He told me I
reporting verb was late.
Third-person pronouns Usually remain the They said, "He is our
(he, she, they) same friend." → They said
he was their friend.
Tense Changes Present Simple Past Simple She said, "I like
coffee." → She said she
liked coffee.
Present Continuous Past Continuous He said, "I am
reading." → He said he
was reading.
Present Perfect Past Perfect She said, "I have
finished." → She said
she had finished.
Present Perfect Past Perfect He said, "I have been
Continuous Continuous waiting." → He said he
had been waiting.
Past Simple Past Perfect She said, "I went
home." → She said she
had gone home.
Past Continuous Past Perfect He said, "I was
Continuous sleeping." → He said
he had been sleeping.
Past Perfect No change She said, "I had seen
it." → She said she had
seen it.
 Future (will) Would He said, "I will call
you." → He said he
would call me.
Future Continuous Would be She said, "I will be
(will be) waiting." → She said
she would be waiting.
Future Perfect (will Would have He said, "I will have
have) finished." → He said he
would have finished.
Can Could

Shall Should

May Might

Must Had to

Time & Place Words Today That day

Tomorrow The next day

Yesterday The previous day

Now Then

This That

These Those

Here There
Yes/No Questions Uses auxiliary verbs Use “if” or “whether” She asked, “Do you like
(do/does/did) coffee?” → She asked if
I liked coffee.
Question format Statement format He asked, “Did you see
the movie?” → He
asked if I had seen the
movie.
WH- Questions Begins with WH- word WH -word remains, but She asked, “Where do
word order changes to you live?” → She asked
statement form where I lived.
Commands & Requests Imperative form Use “to” for positive He said, “Close the
commands, “not to” door.” → He told me to
for negative commands close the door.
No reporting verb Use told, ordered, She said, “Don’t be
asked, requested, late.” → She told me
advised, warned not to be late.
Suggestions & Advice “Let’s” phrase Use “suggested + - She said, “Let’s go
ing” or “suggested home.” → She
that” suggested going home.
“Should” phrase Use “advised + to” The doctor said, “You
should exercise.” →
The doctor advised me
to exercise.
“Must” phrase Changes to “had to” He said, “You must
(if expressing study.” → He said I
obligation) had to study.

ERROR AND CORRECTION

Rule Type Common Errors Correction Rule Example

Subject-Verb Singular subject Ensure verb agrees with the ❌ She go to school.
Agreement with plural verb or subject ✅ She goes to school.
vice versa
Tense Consistency Mixing different Keep the tense consistent ❌ He is going to the
tenses incorrectly throughout market and bought
fruits.
✅ He went to the market
and bought fruits
Pronoun Agreement Incorrect pronoun Match pronouns with their ❌ Every student must
reference antecedents bring their book.
✅ Every student must
bring his or her book.
Articles (a, an, the) Wrong usage or Use ‘a’ before consonant sounds, ❌ She bought an apple
omission ‘an’ before vowel sounds, ‘the’ for and a orange.
 specifics ✅ She bought an apple
and an orange.
Preposition Usage Wrong or missing Use the correct preposition based ❌ She is interested on
preposition on context music.
✅ She is interested in
music.
Word Order Incorrect sentence Maintain correct subject-verb- ❌ Always she late
structure object sequence comes.
✅ She always comes
late.
Redundant Words Unnecessary Remove redundant words ❌ He returned back
repetition home.
✅ He returned home.
Spelling Errors Misspelled words Check spelling carefully ❌ Recieve
✅ Receive

Double Negatives Using two negatives Use only one negative ❌ I don’t need no help.
incorrectly ✅ I don’t need help.

Wrong Modifier Misplaced adjectives Place modifiers correctly ❌ She only ate the cake.
Placement or adverbs ✅ She ate only the cake.

Wrong Incorrect degree Use correct adjective/adverb ❌ She is moresmarter

Comparative & usage degree than him.
Superlative Forms ✅ She is smarter than
him.
Parallelism Unequal sentence Maintain parallel structure in lists ❌ He likes dancing, to
structure sing, and reading.
✅ He likes dancing,
singing, and reading.
Punctuation Errors Missing or wrong Use commas, periods, apostrophes ❌ Lets go to the park
punctuation correctly ✅ Let’s go to the park.

Conjunction Errors Incorrect or missing Use appropriate ❌ I am tired so I will go

conjunction coordinating/subordinating to sleep.
conjunctions ✅ I am tired, so I will go
to sleep.

WRITING SKILLS (FORMAL LETTER) -To Editor

Format

[Your Address]
New Delhi – 110001
[Date]

The Editor
The Times of India
New Delhi – 110002

Subject:

Respected Sir/Madam,

Introduction (Opening Paragraph)

Body (Main Content – 1-2 Paragraphs)

Conclusion (Closing Paragraph)

Thanking you

Yours sincerely,
[Your Name]

Introductory Statements for a Letter to the Editor

Complaint Letters
Through the columns of your esteemed newspaper, I wish to draw attention to [issue] that has
been affecting [specific group/area].
Awareness Letters
I am writing to highlight an important issue that needs immediate public attention—[issue].
Suggestion Letters
I would like to propose a solution to [problem], which, if implemented, could greatly benefit
society.
Appreciation Letters
I wish to commend [person/organization] for their commendable efforts in [activity]