Chapter 1

CELLS- The fundamental unit of Life

PRE TEST
1. What is the basic unit of life?
2. Who discovered cell and when?
3. Who proposed the cell theory?
4. What is an organelle?

Cytoplasm:
It is a jelly-like, viscous, colourless semi-fluid substance that occurs between the plasma
membrane and the nuclear membrane.
The aqueous ground substance of cytoplasm is called cytosol that contains a variety of cell
organelles and other insoluble waste products and storage products, like starch, glycogen,
lipid, etc.

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Functions:
• Protoplasm acts as a store of vital chemicals like amino acids, proteins,
sugars, vitamins, etc.
• It is the site of certain metabolic reactions, like glycolysis, synthesis of
fatty acids, nucleotides, etc.

NUCLEUS
The nucleus has a double layered covering called nuclear membrane. The nuclear membrane has
pores which allow the transfer of material from inside the nucleus to its outside, that is, to the
cytoplasm.
The nucleus contains chromosomes, which are visible as rod-shaped structures only when the
cell is about to divide. Chromosomes contain information for inheritance of characters from
parents to next generation in the form of DNA (Deoxyribo Nucleic Acid) molecules.
Chromosomes are composed of DNA and protein.
The nucleus contains chromosomes, which are visible as rod-shaped structures only when the
cell is about to divide. Chromosomes contain information for inheritance of characters from
parents to next generation in the form of DNA (Deoxyribo Nucleic Acid) molecules.
Chromosomes are composed of DNA and protein. Functional segments of DNA are called genes.
In a cell which is not dividing, this DNA is present as part of chromatin material. Chromatin
material is visible as entangled mass of thread like structures. Whenever the cell is about to
divide, the chromatin material gets organised into chromosomes.
Functions of a Nucleus:

 The nucleus plays a central role in cellular reproduction, the process by which a single
cell divides and forms two new cells.
 It also plays a crucial part, along with the environment, in determining the way the cell
will develop and become at maturity, by directing the chemical activities of the cell.
 In some organisms like bacteria, the nuclear region of the cell may be poorly defined due
to the absence of a nuclear membrane. Such an undefined nuclear region containing only

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 nucleic acids is called a nucleoid. Such organisms, whose cells lack a nuclear membrane,
are called prokaryotes (Pro = primitive or primary; karyote ≈ karyon = nucleus).
Organisms with cells having a nuclear membrane are called eukaryotes.
 Prokaryotic cells also lack most of the other cytoplasmic organelles present in eukaryotic
cells. Many of the functions of such organelles are also performed by poorly organized
parts of the cytoplasm. The chlorophyll in photosynthetic prokaryotic bacteria is
associated with membranous vesicles (bag like structures) but not with plastids as in
eukaryotic cells

Prokaryotic cell

Cell organelles:
Inside the cell there are different sub cellular structures performing different activities to keep
the cell alive and functional. These part are called Cell organelles. They are
explained below:
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
Endoplasmic reticulum is a complicated and interconnected system of membrane bound channels
and tubules. It is spread throughout the cytoplasm and is continuous with the plasma membrane
and nuclear membrane.
There are two types of Endoplasmic Reticulum.
a) Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum. (RER)
b) Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum. (SER)

Rough endoplasmic reticulum

They are found in cells which synthesize proteins. This type of endoplasmic reticulum possesses
rough walls because the ribosomes remain attached with membrane of endoplasmic reticulum.
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
They are found in cells which synthesize lipid. The walls are smooth and ribosomes are not

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attached to its membrane.

Functions of Endoplasmic Reticulum

 Endoplasmic Reticulum (E.R) provides large surface area for the metabolic activities of
the cell.
 Rough endoplasmic reticulum plays an important role in protein synthesis.
 Smooth endoplasmic reticulum is involved in the synthesis of steroid, hormones and
lipids.
GOLGI COMPLEX OR GOLGI APPARATUS
The Golgi apparatus was first described by Camillo Golgi. Golgi complex consist of saucer- like
compartments called cisternae. These membranes often have connections with the membranes of
ER and therefore constitute another portion of a complex cellular membrane system etwork of
interconnecting tubules, vesicles and vacuoles at the peripheral regions.

Functions of Golgi Complex

 Golgi apparatus is involved in the formation of lysosomes.
 It is also responsible for the synthesis of cell wall and cell membrane.
 Its functions include the storage, modification and packaging of products in vesicles.

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LYSOSOMES
Lysosomes are small membrane bound vesicles which contain various types of digestive
enzymes. These serve as intracellular digestive system as they contain digestive enzymes, hence
they are called digestive bags .
They are produced by the joint activity of Endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus. If the
membrane of Lysosome happens to get ruptured, the enzymes of Lysosome would digest the
entire cellular structure causing death of the cell. So Lysosomes are called suicide bags’

Functions of Lysosomes
 Lysosomes are involved in the intracellular digestion of food particles ingested by the
cell through endocytosis.
 The lysosomes of WBCs (White blood cells) destroy pathogens and other foreign
particles and thus take part in natural defense of the body.
RIBOSOMES
Ribosomes are small granular structures made up of ribo nucleic acids (RNA) and proteins. They
occur free in the cytoplasm as well as attached to the outer surface of the rough endoplasmic
reticulum.
Each ribosome consists of two subunits – a small subunit and a large subunit. At the time of
protein synthesis many ribosomes get attached to messenger RNA and form a structure called
polyribosome or polysome.

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Functions of Ribosomes
Ribosomes play an important role in protein synthesis. So they are called, ‘protein factories’ of
the cell.
VACUOLES
Vacuoles are fluid– filled sacs bound by a single membrane and are present in plant cells as well
as in certain protozoans as food vacuoles and contractile vacuoles. In plant cells, major portion
of the cell is occupied by vacuoles and are bound by the definite membrane called tonoplast.
Vacuoles of plants are filled with cell sap containing minerals, sugars, amino acids and dissolved
waste products. The central vacuole of some plant cells may occupy 50-90% of the cell volume.
In single-celled organisms like Amoeba, the food vacuole contains the food items that the
Amoeba has consumed. In some unicellular organisms, specialised vacuoles also play important
roles in expelling excess water and some wastes from the cell.
Functions of Vacuoles –
 Vacuoles store and concentrate mineral salts as well as nutrients.
 They maintain proper osmotic pressure in the cell for its turgidity and absorption of
water.
MITOCHONDRIA
Mitochondria are globular or cylindrical organelles. Each mitochondrion is bound by two
membranes – an outer continuous membrane and an inner membrane thrown into folds called
cristae. The inner chamber is filled with homogenous dense material called the matrix. The
matrix of mitochondria contains enzymes necessary for the oxidation of food during respiration
and release of energy in the form of ATP (Adenosine Tri Phosphate) molecules. ATP are called
energy currencies of the cell. The body uses energy stored in ATP for making new chemical
compounds and for mechanical work. Therefore, mitochondria are called power houses of the
cell. The mitochondria contain proteins, lipids and a small amount of DNA.

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Functions of Mitochondria
 Mitochondria synthesize energy rich compounds such as ATP.
 Mitochondria provide important intermediates for the synthesis of several biochemicals
like chlorophyll, cytochromes, steroids, aminoacids etc
PLASTIDS
Plastids are disc or oval shaped organelles which occur in plant cells only. Plastids are of three
types. They are Leucoplasts, Chromoplasts and Chloroplasts.
i) Leucoplasts: These are colourless plastids which store food in the form of starch, lipids and
proteins
ii) Chromoplasts: These are yellow or reddish in colour due to the presence of pigments other
than chlorophyll. Chromoplasts provide colour to many flowers and fruits.
iii) Chloroplasts: These are green coloured plastids which possess the photosynthetic pigment
chlorophyll.

Each chloroplast consists of a double membraned envelope and a matrix. The inner membrane is
arranged along the length of the plastids as lamellae. At certain regions, the lamellae are
thickened and appear like pile of coins. These are called the grana. Each granum consists of disc
shaped membranous sacs called thylakoids. Inside these grana, the chlorophyll is located. The
non-thylakoid portion of the matrix is called stroma. It contains a number of enzymes involved in
photosynthesis.

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Functions of Plastids:
Leucoplasts are responsible for storing food; such as carbohydrates, protein and lipid.
Chromoplasts impart various colours to the plant parts. A leaf of a plant is green in colour
because of chloroplast. Chloroplast is the site of photosynthesis.
CENTROSOME
Centrosome is present in animal cells and in certain lower plants. It is absent in prokaryotic cells
and in higher plant cells. It is located near one pole of the nucleus. It contains a pair of small,
hollow granules called centrioles.
Functions of Centrioles
Centrioles play an important role in the formation of spindle fibres during cell division

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