Calculus

Swapneel Mahajan

www.math.iitb.ac.in/˜swapneel/105

1
1 Sets

1.1 Sets

A set consists of elements. For example:

• A = set of dogs in iitb campus,

• B = set of students in MA 105.

1.2 Number systems

1. N = {0, 1, 2, 3, . . .}
2. N+ = {1, 2, 3, . . .}
3. Z = {. . . , −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . }
4. Q = {m/n : m, n ∈ Z, n ̸= 0}
5. R
6. R\Q
Fact: There is no rational number whose square is 2.

2
1.3 Set of real numbers

We represent the set of real numbers R as a line:

√
0 1 2 2

Elements of R are points on the line.

Have we filled all the “holes” in the line?

The set of rational numbers does not achieve this goal,

but we believe that the set of real numbers does.

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1.4 Properties of R

The set of real numbers has the following.

• algebraic properties (addition/multiplication).

• order properties (greater than/less than).

• completeness property.

• archimedean property.

The archimedean property says that for any x ∈ R,

there exists a natural number n ∈ N such that n > x.

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Lemma. Let a, b∈ R with a < b. Then there exists
r ∈ Q and s ∈ R \ Q such that a < r, s < b.

Proof. Let us do this in two steps.

(i) Let [x] denote the integer part of x, that is,

x − 1 < [x] ≤ x.
1
Pick n >b−a , and put m = [na] + 1.
Then a <mn < b.
Now take r := m/n.

∈ Q such that
(ii) Using item (i), find r
√ √
a + 2 < r < b + 2.
√
Then a < r − 2 < b.
√
Now take s := r − 2.

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1.5 Intervals

We say I⊆ R is an interval if a, b ∈ I and

a < x < b , then x ∈ I .
Some standard examples of intervals are given below.

For a ≤ b ∈ R, define

(a, b) := {x ∈ R | a < x < b}

[a, b] := {x ∈ R | a ≤ x ≤ b}.
These are the open interval and closed interval,
respectively, from a to b.

Similarly, define

(a, ∞), [a, ∞), (−∞, b), (−∞, b].

The empty set ∅ and R are also intervals.

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2 Functions

2.1 Functions between sets

We specify a function as f : A → B.
Here A and B are sets.

A is the domain of f , and B is the codomain of f .

To every element a ∈ A, we have f (a) = b ∈ B .

A B
f
a f (a)

domain of f codomain of f

We write f (A) for the range of f . It is the set of all

values taken by f . It is a subset of B .

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 For f: A → B and g : B → C , define the
composite function g ◦ f : A → C by

(g ◦ f )(a) := g(f (a))

for a ∈ A.
A B C
f g
a f (a) g(f (a))

domain of f codomain of f codomain of g

= domain of g

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2.2 Functions between real numbers

If the codomain of f is R, that is, f : A → R, then we

say f is real-valued. For example,

• for A = set of dogs in iitb campus, consider

f (a) = weight of dog a,

• for B = set of students in MA 105, consider

f (B) = IQ of student b.

For us, mostly, the domain of f will be A ⊆ R.

For example, for functions on intervals, consider

f : [0, 1] → R, f (x) = x2 + 5,

g : [0, 1] → (3, 10), g(x) = x2 + 5.

Note very carefully: f and g are different functions
because their codomains are different!

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2.3 Absolute value function

The absolute value function is defined by

f : R → R, f (x) = |x|.

Its graph is shown below.

The absolute value function satisfies:

(i) |x| ≥ 0 with equality iff x = 0.

(ii) |x| = |−x|.

(iii) |xy| = |x||y|.

(iv) −|x| ≤ x ≤ |x|.

(v) |x + y| ≤ |x| + |y| (Triangle inequality).

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For notions of bounded and monotone functions, and of
convex and concave functions, see notes.

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3 Sequences

3.1 Sequences

Definition 1. A sequence of real numbers is a function

f : N+ → R from the set of positive natural numbers
to the set of real numbers.

Put f (n) = an . Thus specifying the function f is the

same as specifying

a1 , a2 , a3 , . . . .

We shall use the notation {an } for short.

We call an the n-th term of the sequence.

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Example. 1. an = 1/n.

1, 1/2, 1/3, 1/4, . . .

2. an = n.
1, 2, 3, 4, . . .

3. an = (−1)n .

−1, 1, −1, 1, . . .

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3.2 Bounded and monotone sequences

Definition 2. A sequence {an } of real numbers is

(i) bounded above if there is M such that

an ≤ M

for all n ≥ 1,

(ii) bounded below if there is M such that

M ≤ an

for all n ≥ 1,

(iii) bounded if it is bounded above and bounded

below, that is, if there are M1 , M2 such that

M1 ≤ an ≤ M2

for all n ≥ 1.

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Definition 3. A sequence {an } of real numbers is

(i) (monotonically) increasing if

a1 ≤ a2 ≤ a3 ≤ . . . ,

(ii) (monotonically) decreasing if

a1 ≥ a2 ≥ a3 ≥ . . . ,

(iii) monotonic if it is either monotonically increasing or

monotonically decreasing.

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3.3 Convergence of sequences

Let {an } be a sequence of real numbers.

Definition 4 (ϵ–n0 ). We say {an } is convergent if
there is a ∈ R such that the following holds.

For every ϵ > 0, there exists n0 ∈ N+ such that

|an − a| < ϵ

for all n ≥ n0 .

In this case, we say {an } converges to a, or a is the

limit of {an }, and write

lim an = a or an → a (as n → ∞).

n→∞

If a sequence does not converge, we say the sequence

diverges or is divergent.

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Example.

1. The sequence an = 1/n converges to 0, or

equivalently,
1
lim = 0.
n→∞ n
Why? Let ϵ> 0. By archimedean property, there
is n0 ∈ N+ such that n1 < ϵ. Therefore,
0

|an − a| = | n1 | ≤ 1
n0 <ϵ

for n ≥ n0 .

2. The sequence an = n does not converge, or

equivalently, limn→∞ n does not exist. (Use
archimedean property.)

3. The sequence an = (−1)n does not converge.

(Take for example, ϵ = 1/2.)

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3.4 Uniqueness of a limit

Let {an } be any sequence of real numbers.

Parvati says that {an } converges to 10, while Shankar

says that {an } converges to 20.

Can both of them be right?

No. Give ϵ = 4 to both of them, and ask them to

provide n0 . This argument generalizes to yield the
following.
Lemma. Limit of a sequence of real numbers is unique
whenever it exists.

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3.5 Convergent implies bounded

Proposition. If a sequence {an } of real numbers

converges, then it is bounded.

Proof idea. A finite set of real numbers is always

bounded. The problem is that a sequence contains
infinitely many real numbers. But if {an } converges,
then some tail of this sequence lies in a finite
neighbourhood of the limit a.

For example: The sequences {n}, {n2 }, {2n } are

not bounded, and hence are divergent.

The converse of the above proposition is false. For

example, take an = (−1)n . This sequence is
bounded but it does not converge.

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3.6 Algebra of sequences

Lemma (Limit theorems). Suppose an → a and

bn → b are two convergent sequences of real
numbers. Then

(i) an + bn → a + b,

(ii) ran → ra for r ∈ R,

(iii) an bn → ab,

(iv) 1/an → 1/a if a ̸= 0.

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Proof. For item (i):

Let ϵ > 0.
Since an → a and bn → b, there is n0 ∈ N+ such
that

|an − a| < ϵ/2 and |bn − b| < ϵ/2

for n ≥ n0 .
Now using triangle inequality,

|(an +bn )−(a+b)| ≤ |an −a|+|bn −b| < ϵ/2+ϵ/2 = ϵ

for n ≥ n0 .
Thus, an + bn → a + b.

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 ≤ bn ≤ cn , and
Lemma (Sandwich theorem). If an
an → a and cn → a, then bn → a.
Example.

1. Let
n3 + 3n2 + 2
an = 4 .
n + 7n2 + 5
Then an → 0 since

1 3 2
0 ≤ an ≤ n + n2
+ n4
→ 0.

2. Let
1
an = n sin( n1 ).
Then an → 0 since

− n1 ≤ an ≤ 1
n and 1
n → 0.

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3.7 Completeness property

Proposition. Let {an } be a sequence of real

numbers. Then:

(i) If {an } is increasing and bounded above, then

{an } is convergent.

(ii) If {an } is decreasing and bounded below, then

{an } is convergent.

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Example.

1. The sequence an = 1/n is decreasing and

bounded below by 0, hence it converges.

2. Let a1 = 1, and for n ≥ 2,

3an−1 + 2 1 1
an = = an−1 + .
6 2 3
This sequence is bounded below by 0.

Is it decreasing?

a1 = 1, a2 = 5/6, a3 = 3/4.

For n ≥ 2,
1 1 2
an ≤ an−1 ⇐⇒ 2 an−1 + 3 ≤ an−1 ⇐⇒ 3 ≤ an−1 .

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Note: a1 ≥ 2/3.
If an−1 ≥ 2/3 for some n ≥ 2, then
an ≥ 12 ( 23 ) + 31 = 23 .
So by induction, an ≥ 2/3 for all n ≥ 1.
Hence {an } is decreasing.

By the completeness property, {an } converges

(say to a).

To compute a, we may proceed as follows. In

an = 21 an−1 + 13 , lhs goes to a and rhs goes to
1 1
2 a + 3.
So a = 12 a + 13 , and hence a = 2/3.

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3.8 Important limits

We mention a couple of important limits. Let a ∈ R.

Then:

1. If |a| < 1, then limn→∞ an = 0.

2. If a > 0, then limn→∞ a1/n = 1.

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4 Continuity

4.1 Continuous functions

Definition 5 (ϵ–δ ). Let f : A → R. We say f is

continuous at c ∈ A if the following condition holds.

For every ϵ > 0, there exists δ > 0 such that

|x − c| < δ =⇒ |f (x) − f (c)| < ϵ.

We say f is continuous on A if f is continuous at each

point of A.

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Example.

1. Let f (x) = 3x − 5.
Then f is continuous at all c ∈ R.
Take δ = ϵ/3. Then |x − c| < δ implies

|(3x − 5) − (3c − 5)| = 3|x − c| < ϵ.

2. Let f (x) = [x].

Then f is continuous at non-integer points and
discontinuous at integer points.

• c is a non-integer point. Pick δ > 0 which

avoids the adjacent integer points.

• c is an integer point. Give ϵ = 1/2. No choice

of δ works.

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4.2 Algebra of continuous functions

Lemma. Suppose f, g : A → R are continuous at

c ∈ A. Then so are

(i) f + g,

(ii) rf for r ∈ R,

(iii) f g,

(iv) 1/f if f (c) ̸= 0.

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 Proof. For item (i): Let ϵ> 0. Since f and g are
continuous at c, there is δ > 0 such that

|x−c| < δ =⇒ |f (x)−f (c)| < ϵ/2 and |g(x)−g(c)| < ϵ/2.

Now using triangle inequality,

|(f +g)(x)−(f +g)(c)| ≤ |f (x)−f (c)|+|g(x)−g(c)|

< ϵ/2 + ϵ/2 = ϵ.

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Lemma. Let f : A → B and g : B → R.
If f is continuous at c∈ A and g is continuous at
f (c) ∈ B , then the composite g ◦ f is continuous at
c ∈ A.

As a consequence:

• polynomials in x such as p(x) = x2 ,

p(x) = 2x3 − 3x + 1 are continuous.

• A function such as x3 sin|x| + cos x2 is

continuous.

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4.3 Characterization using sequences

Theorem. Let f : A → R. Then f is continuous at

c ∈ A iff the following condition holds.
For any sequence {xn } in A with xn → c, we have
f (xn ) → f (c).

This forges a connection between Definition 5 and

Definition 4.

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Example.

1. Consider f (x) = [x].

= 5, f (c) = 5. Let xn = 5 − n1 . Then
At c
xn → 5, but [xn ] = 4 and so [xn ] ̸→ 5.
Thus, f is not continuous at c = 5.

2. Define

sin(1/x) if x ̸= 0,
f (x) =
r if x = 0.

2
Let xn = (2n+1)π . Then xn → 0, but
f (x) = sin( (2n+1)π
2 ) = (−1)n does not

converge.

So f is not continuous at c = 0, no matter what

r is.

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4.4 Properties of continuous functions

Theorem (Intermediate value property). Let I be an

interval, and f : I → R be a continuous function. Let
r ∈ R be such that f (x1 ) < r < f (x2 ) for some
x1 < x2 in I . Then there exists x ∈ (x1 , x2 ) such
that f (x) = r .

The proof uses the completeness property of R, and is

omitted.

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Example. Let us show that the function
f (x) = x4 + 2x3 − 2 has a root in (0, 1). Its graph
is shown below. The red point is x = 1.

Since f is a polynomial, it is continuous.

Now f (0) = −2 and f (1) = 1.

So by IVP, f attains every value between −2 and 1 in
the interval (0, 1), and in particular, the value 0.

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 : A → R be a continuous function,
Corollary. Let f
and I ⊆ A be an interval. Then f (I) is an interval.
Corollary. Let f : I → R be continuous and
injective. Then f is either increasing or decreasing.
Also, f −1 : f (I) → R is continuous.

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We now prove the existence of the square root function
√
g : [0, ∞) → [0, ∞), g(x) = x.

Take f : [0, ∞) → [0, ∞) with f (x) = x2 . This

function is continuous and injective. Also
f ([0, ∞)) = [0, ∞). So f −1 exists by the above
result. Take g = f −1 .

The graph of f on (0, 2) and of g on (0, 4) are shown

below.
y
y

x x

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Theorem. Let f : [a, b] → R be continuous. Then f
is bounded on [a, b] and attains its maximum and
minimum on [a, b]. Further, f ([a, b]) is a closed and
bounded interval.

The proof is omitted.

Example. Let us see what can go wrong if the domain
is an interval but not a closed interval.

1. Take f : (0, 1) → R with f (x) = x1 . Then f is

continuous but not bounded.

2. Take f : [0, ∞) → R with f (x) = x. Then f is

continuous but not bounded.

3. Take f : (0, 1) → R with f (x) = x. Then f is

continuous and bounded, but does not attain its
maximum or minimum.

38