PART - 1

TEXT BOOK FOR

SOCIAL SCIENCE SECONDARY COURSE

UTTARAKAND OPEN SCHOOL, DEHRADUN

Bharti Niketan, Opposite IT Park Danda lakhond,

Sahastradahara Road, Dehradun - 248001
 CONTENT-1
NO. CHAPTER PAGE NO.

MODULE-1

INTRODUCTION TO SOCIAL SCIENCE............................................................................1-21

1. ANCIENTWORLD............................................................................................................22-42

2. MEDIEVAL WORLD.........................................................................................................43-60

3. MODERN WORLD-1........................................................................................................61-78

4.MODERN WORLD-2.......................................................................................................80-103

5. IMPACT OF BRITISH RULE ONINDIA: ECONOMIC,

SOCIAL AND CULTURAL (1757-1857).............................................................................104-125

6. RELIGIOUS AND SOCIAL AWKENING IN COLOIAL INDIA........................................126-144

7. POPULAR RESISTANCE TO THE BRITISH RULE......................................................145-166

MODULE-2

8. INDIAN NATIONAL MOVEMENT..................................................................................167-192

9. PHYSIOGRAPHY OF INDIA.........................................................................................193-213

10. CLIMATE.....................................................................................................................214-232

11. BIO-DIVERSITY...........................................................................................................233-250

12. AGRICULTURE IN INDIA...........................................................................................251-271

13.TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATION.......................................................................272-294

14. POPULATION: OUR GREATEST RESOURCE.........................................................295-319

Introduction to Social Science MODULE - 1
India and the World
through the Ages

INTRODUCTION TO SOCIAL
SCIENCE Notes

Imagine that you owned a time machine and that you travelled back to those days
when your great grandparents were children. You found that your home and the
surroundings look very different. If you travel back further, you will be even more
surprised and fascinated by the food, clothes and even the language that your
ancestors were using. Wouldn’t it be interesting to know what happened in the past?
Do you realize that we can relate with our past even today. Does it not sound like
a mystery that we must solve? In order to do this, we will use sources to understand
how human life progressed from pre-historic times till today.

OBJECTIVES
After studying this lesson you will be able to:
 establish that study of Social Science includes disciplines like History, Geography,
Economics, Political Science and Sociology;
 appreciate that all these subject areas are interconnected and together form the
knowledge mass of Social Science;
 discuss the different stages through which human societies evolved and
 identify opportunities and challenges of our present day society.

0.1 SOCIAL SCIENCE AS AN ACADEMIC DISCIPLINE

As the name itself suggests, Social Science is concerned about society. It aims at
understanding all aspects of society as well as finding solutions to deal with social
problems. It is a broad area of knowledge and includes several different disciplines
under its domain. The main ones that you need to know at this stage are:
 History and Archaeology
 Geography

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MODULE - 1 Introduction to Social Science
India and the World
through the Ages  Political Science
 Sociology
 Economics
The various modules and units of this course in Social Science are connected with
these very subjects. In this Unit, we will try to understand the discipline of Social
Science, especially History. We will understand the importance of studying Social
Notes
Science and how closely it is related to our lives. We will see how, as human beings,
we have gone through several stages to evolve from when we lived in caves to today’s
modern world of cities. We will read about History not simply as a set of facts about
our past but also learn from them. Social Science also helps us to acquire a capacity
to make inter connections between various subjects. We will learn to draw linkages
between events and processes of development across the times. This will help us
to draw connections between our past, present and future. Let us study more about
these subjects to understand their impact on our lives.

How do you think studying the subject of Social Science at secondary level will help
you to understand better the society around you? Explain with at least two reasons.
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0.2 STUDY OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

An academic discipline, or a field of study, is a branch of knowledge that is taught
at various levels of education and researched at university level. Any field of study
has several sub-disciplines or branches. These may at times overlap. Some important
branches or sub-disciplines of Social Science are Economics, History and Archaeology,
Geography, Political Science and Sociology.

You would be surprised to know that in the beginning, there was only one discipline,
i.e. Philosophy. Philosophy means love for wisdom or knowledge. That is why even
now the highest Degree in any subject is Ph.D. (Doctor of Philosophy). Later, when
knowledge started increasing and expanding, a need was felt to classify knowledge
into different disciplines. Science and Social Science came to be differentiated. Both
refer to different aspects of our reality. Environment Science deals with knowledge
regarding the natural and physical world. Social Science on the other hand deals with
knowledge concerned with all aspects of society and human beings themselves. Let
us begin with History.

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0.2.1 History and Archaeology through the Ages

What is History? History is an account of events that have happened in the past.
It is about the real people and the real things. It does not deal with mere ideas and
ideals or what should have been. On the other hand, it is a study of what has been.
History does not deal with individuals alone. It is concerned with nations and societies.
It is not limited to kings and queens, but all human beings. It includes all men and
women, rich and poor irrespective of their background in terms of religion caste etc.
Notes
Have you ever wondered how and what happened to our ancestors in ancient times?
You will learn about them in this book. While going through this course, note down
all the events which seem interesting to you. Go to the libraries and search the internet
to see if you can get more information on them. We will also help you in your search
for more knowledge.
Why do we study History? The study of History helps us to know our roots,
strengths and achievements and gives us a sense of pride as well as direction. What
we call progress would be non-existent if we do not have proper knowledge and
understanding of our past. There is a general belief that history deals with the past,
which we think is dead. In reality, our past has important lessons for the present and
the future. History records this legacy that has an important bearing on our lives. In
essence, history relates the story of cooperative actions of a large number of men
and women in their quest for a better life. When we think of how we can know about
our past, we get connected to Archaeology. Often these past activities and
achievements bring a sense of pride. Let us keep them safe for our future generations.
Archaeology is the study of the ancient times with respect to society and culture.
The traces of those events can be found in material remains i.e. the artifacts, burials,
ruined buildings, monuments, etc. and are studied by archaeologists. They
interpret them to provide knowledge about the times to which these artifacts belong.
The study of Archaeology also includes the written records that are very ancient and
cannot be easily deciphered or understood. These sources give more reliable and
authentic information.
Most of the time, such traces are found buried underground and have to be dug out.
This is called archaeological excavation. Mohenjo-daro, Harappa and Nalanda
are some well known sites where excavations have been undertaken and valuable
material found. Such excavations are often carried out and reported in the
newspapers. A very interesting recent discovery is that of the remains of a city found
under the sea near Gujarat. It is believed to be Hindu God Krishna’s city Dwarka.
Rakhigarhi, in Haryana, is another very recent excavation site.
A trip to such a site will transfer you back to those times. You must visit such sites
whenever you get an opportunity. Also, find out more about such sites in other
countries too.

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through the Ages Archaeological sources also include inscriptions, pillars, metal plates, coins, seals,
monuments, tools, pottery, toys, pictures etc. Works of art like paintings,
sculptures, architecture, etc. tell us about the culture of particular periods. Look
around your city or town for a museum or visit somebody’s house which has a
collection of some of these items. Make a list and then try and find out which period
they belong to. For this you can search on the internet or visit a library to know
more about them. Today, a lot of information can be got from books, magazines and
Notes newspaper.

The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), under the Ministry of Culture, is the
premier organization for the archaeological researches and protection of the
cultural heritage of the nation. Maintenance of ancient monuments and archaeological
sites and remains of national importance is the prime concern of the ASI. For
the maintenance of ancient monuments and archaeological sites the entire country
is divided into 24 Circles. The organization has a large work force of trained
archaeologists, conservators, epigraphists, architects and scientists for conducting
archaeological activities and researches. Explore more about it on the website
of the organization i.e. www.asi.nic.in

INTEXT QUESTIONS 0.1

1. List the main subjects that build up the knowledge area of Social Science.
2. Do you think studying History is necessary and important? Give two reasons for
your stance.
3. Give one difference between History and Archaeology.
4. List five sources which can help us to study our past.
5. Find out at least four archaeological sites in India other than those mentioned
in the text.

0.2.2 Geography
The study of History and Archaeology remains incomplete without knowing
something about the Geography of the area being studied. Geography is the study
of the earth’s landscapes, people, places and environment. In simple terms, it is
knowing about the world in which we live. Geography is unique in bridging the social
sciences (human geography) with the natural sciences (physical geography).

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Geography plays an important role in shaping the life and history of any society. It through the Ages
helps us to recognise the differences in cultures, political systems, economies,
landscapes and environments across the world. It also helps us to establish links
among them. Geography provides an ideal framework for relating to other fields of
knowledge, too. If we know the geography of a country, we can understand what
happened in history. In this lesson, you will read that early humans made bows,
arrows and other small tools. It is from studying Geography that you get to know
why. After ice age, changes in environment must have taken place. As a result, many Notes
dense forests might have become grasslands. Can you imagine what must have
happened? Yes, it led to a growing population of grass eating animals like the deer,
goat, sheep and the antelope. You also know that these animals can run fast. So
hunting them was not easy with heavy weapons. These light stone weapons, which
the early humans had invented, helped them in their survival.
Do you know that the Indo-Ganga Plain is the most fertile land in India? This is
because big rivers like the Ganga brings an abundant supply of fresh water for drinking
and irrigation. That is why this land became the place for establishing big empires
like those of the Mauryas, the Guptas and the Mughals. Availability of iron in
abundance further helped in expansion of these empires. Can you guess why? You
will learn more about this in lesson-4.

ACTIVITY 0.1
Major cities such as Agra, Nasik, Patna and Kolkata are developed on the banks
of big rivers. You will be surprised to find that history has been virtually created on
them. Provide three reasons for the growth of these cities as major centres of trade
and administration

0.2.3 Political Science

Government is a word with which you are familiar. You often hear or read about
it in the newspapers or on the television. Have you ever thought about what a
government is? Do you know the role it plays in our lives and the important things
it does for the people. The government of a country makes laws and everyone living
in the country has to obey these laws. In democracy, it is the people who give power
to the government when they elect them. In this way people help the Parliament of
that country to make laws. While in a monarchy, it is the monarch or king/queen
who has the powers to take decisions and enforce them. Social Science also deals
with how we are governed. It also helps us to understand the role of people like
us in the running of nations and governments. This discipline is called Political
Science.

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through the Ages Political Science is a social science concerned with the theory and practice
of politics and the analysis of political systems and political behavior. It tells us how
the government is elected. Political scientists study the relationship between the
political events and the conditions. They try to understand general principles about
the way the world of politics works. It includes studies on governments, public
policies, political processes, systems and political behaviour. If you decide to study
Political Science in senior secondary you will learn more about political theory,
Notes
political philosophy and political economy, which are the important branches of this
subject.

0.2.4 Sociology
Sociology is yet another very important part of Social Science. It is the study of human
behavior in societal context. Sociology focuses on the study of human groups.
Sociology comes from the Latin word ‘sociologie’. It literally means the study of
companion. Sociology seeks to understand the structure of a society and how it
works. It also seeks to define and understand the different factors that have shaped
our society. This includes race, class, gender, culture, religion, belief systems and
government. Sociology also studies the way individual and group behaviours impact
on the running of our society.

0.2.5 Economics
Living in a society also means that we must know how to organize our lives. We
must know how to economise our income, time and resources because all of them
are limited. You must also learn to organise your time in such a way so that you can
manage to do things you want. Similarly, when we make a budget for our home,
we make the best use of the resources which are available to us. We can avoid many
problems in this way. We call this study Economics. It is much more than making
a budget. It is the scientific study of the ways in which humans make choices about
production, consumption and wealth. This becomes very important when we are
faced with limited means. It is the social science of striking a balance between needs
and available resources. Studying this subject will be more interesting if you apply
the learning to real life situations. One such activity could be to make your household
budget or time table.

All these subjects help us to understand how the entire process of human progress
and development takes place. For this let us go back into our past. Step by step
we will get to know about the evolution of human beings on this earth. Do you know
that we study about evolution in Science, too? But over there we learn how evolution
took place in nature. How plants and animals evolved. It is an interesting story of
how the most highly evolved species, i.e. human beings, developed from less evolved

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animals. Do you know that the biological name of our species (human beings) is homo through the Ages
sapiens. We are going to read more about these homo sapiens in the next
section.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 0.2

Notes
1. Can you explain how geography contributes to the understanding of History?
2. List the main components of Political Science.
3. What does Sociology as a subject focus on?
4. What does the study of economics deal with?
5. How do you think subjects like Political Science, Sociology and Economics help
you to understand the functions of the society better?

0.3 EVOLUTION OF HUMAN BEINGS

The first human-like beings are believed to have emerged about two million years
ago. They resembled apes. Biologists called them Homo sapiens (wise human beings
in Latin). They did not know how to cultivate land and grow food. Nor did they
know how to build a house for shelter. They lived in caves or on tree tops. Do you
know that human beings had started living on earth much earlier than they learnt to
write? The invention of writing was an important landmark, as written records became
the main source of our knowledge of the past. Do you know what is not recorded
in writing is called Prehistory? You will be surprised to know that the period of
prehistory is much longer than the recorded time, which we term as history. So to
re-construct the life of prehistoric humans, historians and anthropologists study tools,
weapons, ornaments, cave dwellings and cave paintings made by our ancestors.
History refers to that period of human evolution for which written records are
available. Such writings are found on rocks, pillars, copper plates and more recently
paper.

0.3.1 Nomadic Life: The Stone Age

The primitive human beings were nomads. They kept moving from one place to
another in search of food from the environment. They moved in groups to ensure
safety from wild animals, for social security and for companionship. They also started
making tools with stones. So we call that period in human evolution as the Stone
Age. In each stage human beings used stones as implements which were better than
the earlier ones. This helped them to progress to a better and safer life. It had the
following main stages:

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through the Ages (i) The Old Stone Age - Paleolithic Age (500,000 B.C. -10,000 B.C.)
During the old stone ages, (Paleolithic Age) human beings lived in the foothills of the
mountains preferably near a river. Rivers provided them with drinking water as well
as food in the form of animals that came there to quench their thirst. They could find
caves for shelter on the foothills. So, their basic needs of food, water and shelter
were satisfied easily at such spots. Do you know that early humans had to push out
Notes wild animals, specially the giant bears, from the caves in order to make a home for
themselves? Just imagine how difficult and dangerous life the primitive people lived.
To cover and protect their bodies from heat and cold, these primitive humans wore
bark from the trees and the skin of animals, which they dried under the sun. You
must appreciate the role environment plays in sustaining the human beings even today.
There are some places in India like the Andaman and Nicobar Island where certain
tribals live like the early humans even today.
Early humans lived in caves and made paintings depicting hunting scenes on the walls
of these caves. Paintings of animal-chase, especially big animals like bison and
reindeer can still be seen in the Bhimbetka caves in Madhya Pradesh. It is quite
possible that this practice of drawing on the walls was some kind of a ritual that
ensured that they would be successful in their hunting expeditions. It is also possible
that it was a creative expression to make their surroundings beautiful by making an
artistic expression of their hunts.

Figure 0.1 Bimbetka Cave Paintings

Bhimbetka is an archaeological World Heritage site located in Raisen

District in Madhya Pradesh. The Bhimbetka shelters exhibit the earliest traces of
human life in India which is of prehistoric times. A number of analyses suggest
that at least some of these shelters were inhabited by man for in excess of 100,000
years. Some of the Stone Age rock paintings found among the Bhimbetka rock
shelters are approximately 30,000 years old.

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The Paleolithic humans also developed certain practices which we think must be their through the Ages
religious beliefs. They worshipped their ancestors after their death and buried them
with tools and eatables for a comfortable journey to the next world. They were afraid
of natural phenomena like lightning and thunder. They could not understand facts like
the rising and setting of the sun. But they knew that when the sun rose in the east,
it gave heat during the day time, whereas the moon gave peace and coolness at
night. To them it was something supernatural, because they could not understand the
cause. So they worshipped the Sun, the Moon, Thunder and Lightning. Moreover, Notes
they were wise enough not to destroy nature and its balance. They took from nature
only as much as they needed and preferred to live in harmony with it. Don’t you
think that the world would be a nice place to live in if people followed what the early
humans did? The Old Stone Age was followed by the Middle Stone Age or the
Mesolithic age. The Mesolithic age was regarded as the transitional age between the
Paleolithic age and the Neolithic age.
(ii) The Middle Stone Age – Mesolithic Age (10,000 B.C. – 8,000 B.C.)
Let us see how the humans during the Mesolithic age discovered the use of fire.
It is quite possible that when two pieces of flint stone were struck together they
produced a spark. This spark may have fallen on some dry leaves and caused a
fire. This could have frightened or surprised the early humans. The intelligent humans
learnt to use this discovery to their advantage. They found that fire frightened the
animals and so could provide them safety if kept burning near the caves. It also
provided light during the night. Even the food became softer and tastier when cooked
on fire. It also warmed up the cold caves by providing heat. Even today, people
warm themselves sitting near a fire on a cold winter night. This must have been really
a great event in the life of early humans. Can you imagine how the progress of early
humans from living on the treetops to the discovery of fire took place? It could not
have happened overnight. Obviously, it took several thousand years. No wonder that
fire became an object of wonder as well as worship.

ACTIVITY 0.2
Imagine that you are visiting a place where there is no electricity. It is a cold winter
night and you are scared. Recall what the early humans must have done to keep
themselves warm. Now write three different ways in which you could keep yourself
warm.
Just like fire the use of tools was another important discovery for the early humans.
The tools found in this period were called ‘Microliths’. They were sharper and more
effective. Bones of animals were also used to make tools and weapons like borers,
scrapers, arrows, hooks, arrowheads and hammers. They made hammers, choppers

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through the Ages and hand axes with which they cut down small trees. They used it to kill animals
for food or build small huts for themselves. They clipped smaller stones to make them
as sharp as a knife. By attaching them to bows and spears, they made these tools
more effective. Now they were able to hunt animals from a safer distance. Some
of these stone implements have been found in Punjab, Kashmir Valley in the foothills
of the Himalayas and in the Narmada Valley among other places. If you can visit
the library and refer to some books or search the internet, you will be able to locate
Notes some other sites where these tools can be found across the world.

Figure 0.2 Mesolithic flint weapons

(iii) The New Stone Age – Neolithic Age (8,000 B.C. – 4,000 B.C.)

In the beginning, human beings were mere hunters and food gatherers. It took them
hundreds of thousands of years before they could become food producers. This was
the beginning of the Neolithic Age. Humans could grow their own food and they no
longer depended on the uncertainty of hunting or searching and gathering more food.
How do you think this happened? It is quite possible like the discovery of fire this
could also have been an accident. May be some seeds fell on the ground and plants
came out. These plants soon became a regular supply of food. They started sowing
these seeds and harvesting them. Now, they had to look after the plants they had
sown. This was because there was a gap of at least six months between sowing and
harvesting the grains. This was the beginning of agriculture. It led to a settled life
for humans for now they had a regular source of abundant food. They also had a
better chance of survival as they no longer had to go hunting for food. Agriculture
brought many advantages and changes in the lives of the human beings. They built
huts for themselves which were probably protected by a wall. Their fields lay outside
the walls. Now they had a regular place to live which soon took the form of a village.
This village consisted of many families which provided protection to each other.

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Around the same time the early humans realized that they could keep some animals through the Ages
with them. This was possible because of agriculture. Now they kept grain for
themselves and the husk was kept for animals. They had learnt to domesticate
animals. Do you know that the dog was the first animal to be domesticated? Later,
early humans started keeping goats, cattle and sheep for various uses especially for
meat and milk. They used wool and skin from animals for clothing. This was the
beginning of mixed farming. Agriculture provided plant - food while domesticated
animals gave meat, milk and also wool. Notes
The early humans had seen plants coming out of seeds and giving food like the mother
who feeds and sustains the life of her children. They started worshipping Earth as
a symbol of mother. The Neolithic Age human beings continued to remain in awe
of the forces of nature like the Paleolithic Age people.
Gradually as the knowledge of their environment increased, a desire for a comfortable
life also developed. The early humans realized that it was important to have better
tools and implements. So they made them sharper. The axe was used for cutting and
felling trees. It was made of hard stone, chipped and ground to an edge, after which
it was nailed to a wooden stick. Similarly, a sickle was used for harvesting the grain.
These tools were also polished to make them last longer. These polished tools helped
them to clear the land for agriculture and for cutting and gathering crops. Do you
know that such tools are used for gardening and farming by small farmers even today?
Another important discovery of this period was the wheel. Nobody could have
believed the innumerable ways it could affect and change human life. Wheel was used
for drawing water from the well in the form of pulley; for spinning of thread and
making clothes in the form of spinning wheel or the charkha; to make pottery in
the form of the potter’s wheel. The invention of the potter’s wheel helped them to
make cooked food. The pots were made with twig baskets, which were plastered
with clay. These pots were of different sizes and had beautiful patterns on the outside.
The greatest use of the wheel was in the cart for transportation. This enabled human
beings to carry themselves and their goods from one place to another. Even today,
the wheel is used for many important activities.

Figure 0.3 Neolithic Age Pottery

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through the Ages

ACTIVITY 0.3
As you read along you must have realized how human beings progressed steadily
from the Paleolithic to the Neolithic Age. Compare the situation of the Early Humans
of the past with your situation today. Use the given clues:

Notes Fire, tools, agriculture, mixed farming, wheel, religion, harmony with nature.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 0.3a

1. Why were the early humans called nomads?
2. Write two differences between the tools of Old Stone Age and New Stone Age.
3. Mention two important discoveries of the Neolithic Age.
4. Describe three ways in which the discovery of wheel was significant for human
civilization.

0.3.2 Use of Metals: Chalcolithic Age

Humans had come a long way from their food gathering and stone implement days.
Yet they were not satisfied. Soon they discovered a metal called copper. This period
now came to be called the Chalcolithic Age. In this age people began to use copper
for making implements. Do you remember reading that in order to make clay pottery,
the early humans used fire? It is used till today in the form of furnaces. Copper was
the first metal to be melted by heat in order to make implements.

Figure 0.4 Chalcolithic Age Metal Weapons

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As the early humans started discovering new materials they started experimenting through the Ages
with them. Copper was mixed with other metals like zinc, tin and lead to produce
bronze. The age in which people started using bronze came to be called the Bronze
Age. The tools made of metal proved to be much more effective than the earlier
stone implements. Metallic knives and axes were helpful in cutting down trees and
more land was cleared for agriculture. The period when humans used both metals
and small pieces of stone, is called the Chalcolithic age. Implements of this age
have been found at Brahmagiri in Mysore, Nawab Toli near Narmada River as Notes
well as in the Chhota Nagpur Plateau. If you happen to be anywhere near this area,
try to see the excavated sites and make notes. Compare this information with any
other sites which you might have seen or read.

0.3.3 Beginning of Community Life

Agriculture, mixed farming, development of tools and discovery of wheel all led to
a settled life which we may call the beginning of a village life. By now, the groups
of human beings that had settled together had become larger. And a large group
needed someone who could maintain law, order and some discipline. So, it was
natural that they those one such person amongst themselves who could lead them.
Various groups decided their own method of choosing a leader. The leader was more
often the oldest person in the group and sometimes it could be the strongest person
in the community. The leader looked after the law and order of the settlement. If
a dispute arose between any two members of the group, the leader would act as
the mediator. Gradually, these settlements became even larger. Towns and cities
started coming up. Do you know that the area around the rivers Saraswati and Indus
were the places where the first Indian cities came up around 2500 B.C.? It was
the Indus Valley Civilization (called Indus-Saraswati Civilization by some historians
after the discovery of sites in Harappa).
Religion: Human beings all over the world have fear of the unknown. Any event,
which was not understood by them, was held in awe and soon became sacred. The
same happened with the early humans. The earth assumed the status of a mother
figure, which provided food for all living beings – her children. The sun gave life and
warmth. It was also reassuring after the dark night. It was the same for the moon,
stars, rains etc. People started worshipping them. They started sacrificial rites and
sang songs in praise of these natural objects. There were magic practitioners, who
claimed they could prevent people from coming to harm by them. Some individuals
decided to perform sacrificial rites and pray for the community. Such persons came
to be known as priests.
People had realized that death was a journey from which people never returned. So
they began to follow the practice of making graves for burying their dead. They
covered the graves with large stones called megaliths. Sometimes, various articles

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through the Ages of everyday use were also placed, keeping in mind the requirement of the dead on
their last journey.
Does it strike you that this reverence for the departed souls persists even today?
In fact, you will be surprised to see how many things we have in common with our
ancestors.

Notes 0.3.4 Iron Age and beyond

As you have learnt, human culture and civilization has undergone several phases of
development. The earliest human beings started making tools with stone. Later, human
beings discovered metals, which proved to be more useful for making tools. Copper,
Bronze and Iron were discovered in that very chronological order.
The discovery of iron was a very important landmark in human civilization. It helped
in making tools that were more lasting and durable. Later, other materials came to
be used. People learned to make alloys, which are made up of two or more metals
in fixed ratios. Brass is an example of an alloy. Then, we learnt how to make steel
by adding Carbon to Iron. And much later, modern science gave us a very useful
material called plastic. Plastic is still used for making all kinds of tools and objects
of everyday use. It has many advantages over other materials. However, lately, it
has been found to have a negative impact on our environment. Therefore, its use
is being restricted. I am sure you have heard about the ban on plastic bags. The
scientists are now trying to discover biodegradable plastic. So, you must realize that
every age of human development presents its own set of challenges. These have to
be addressed as humans evolve to the next stage. Let us now study the various stages
of human development.

ACTIVITY 0.4
Make a list of some religious rituals that we perform. Discuss these rituals with your
family and friends. Based on these discussion write a letter to your friend living in
another city about the new things about the rituals that you have learnt. Identify also
the relevance of these rituals in today’s life.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 0.3b

1. Why do we say that the tools made during the Chalcolithic age were better than
the tools of the Stone Age?
2. Enlist the basic factors which led to settled life of early age humans. What is the
importance of those factors today?

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3. How did community life and religion shape the functioning of society in the early through the Ages
age?
4. List the changes in the life of early humans brought by the discovery of iron.

0.4 DIFFERENT STAGES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

Now, based on the above narrative, we can trace the development of human
civilization in different stages that are common for people all over the world in all Notes
the countries. We will also find the certain discoveries from the past are still relevant
today, e.g. the use of wheel.
(a) Hunting Stage: Many clues that have been provided to us by archaeology have
helped us to reconstruct our prehistory. This type of life was called primitive
because people depended on nature for their livelihood. These early human
beings began life as hunters preying upon beasts, birds, fish and insects for food,
just as wild animals in the jungle do. They lived only as hunters for hundreds
of thousands of years. This stage in history was called the Stone Age. This period
was also marked by tending of domesticated animals. This gave people an
assured food supply and also some new food items like milk, butter and cheese.
For the people, life was much more secure now than it had been when they
were hunters. Besides tending of animals was a much lighter work than hunting.
People had leisure to think about other matters. But they still had to live like
nomads, moving from one place to another in search of food. They had to look
for new pastures for their cattle when the previous ones became bare, eaten
up by the animals.
(b) Village Life (Rural): With the advent of agriculture came the opportunity for
settled life. People discovered that they could sow seeds in the soil and make
them grow into plants. This technique enabled them to grow their own food
at one place. Now they could have permanent settlements, which later took
the shape of villages where civilization, in the modern sense, was born. This
can also be termed as the rural stage.
(c) Town Life (Urban): From rural life in villages and agriculture, human beings
moved towards urbanization. At this stage, there was an immense growth in the
population. Human beings were no longer food gatherers. They were now food
producers. The groups of families became larger and societies were formed.
Now there was no need for every family to work in the fields and produce their
own food. Those who were weavers, potters or carpenters exchanged their
products for food. There was a great improvement in their lives. Discovery of
metals had led to specialization in preparing crafts. Some artisans had better
skills than the others did. This led to the society’s stratification into skilled and
semi-skilled craftsmen depending on the skills they possessed. By this time,
metals like copper and bronze had been discovered. These were being used
in producing articles essential for a comfortable life. Human beings used these

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through the Ages skills in making crafts like Pottery, leather-work and masonry. People would
get together at a convenient place to exchange their products. Even the farmers
would come to sell their surplus grains and buy other necessities. These activities
happened at a central place. At this stage of civilization, people looked for more
than just satisfying their need for food and engaged in other activities such as
weaving, pottery and metal works. It was also the stage when iron was being
discovered. Now there arose a need for structure and categorization into smaller
Notes and specialized groups. Division of labour took place on the basis of the work
performed by them. Humans were now ready to move to the next stage of their
existence and development. The invention of writing was a great step forward.
Knowledge could now be passed forward from one generation to another.
Writing was also needed for keeping records by the traders as also by the people
who were looking after law and order in the villages, towns and cities.

Figure 0.5 Harappan Inscriptions

(d) City Life: Later, people started growing surplus grain and storing it for the
future. This resulted in a lot of leisure time, which led to the progress of
civilization and culture. Arts like painting, music, sculpture and architecture
developed. More decorative crafts like metalwork and ornament making
were introduced. Now that people had security and their basic needs were
fulfilled, they could cater to their higher social and aesthetic needs. It was also
the beginning of the concepts of caste and class. From towns developed more
advanced and urbanized cities. The earliest cities to be discovered were
Harappa and Mohenjo-daro which are now in Pakistan. In India some
important sites for these cities were at Ropar near Chandigarh, at Lothal near
Ahmedabad, and a third at Kalibangam in Rajasthan. These cities were well
planned and had all facilities that were available at that time such as roads that
cut each other at right angles, drainage system and use of burnt bricks.

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Notes

Figure 0.6 Ruins of Indus Civilization at Lothal, Gujarat

With the advancement in science and technology, progress in material sphere was
accelerated manifold. Life became more comfortable and later luxurious, at least for
some people. Soon cities gained importance too. Some of them came to be called
metropolitan cities in which we find high rise buildings, important offices, big business
houses and factories. Life has changed for the better for some of us. We have made
many discoveries, inventions and innovations to make our lives not only comfortable
but also meaningful. But there are many of us who do not have access to clean
drinking water, electricity and basic facilities like education and health. This in turn
has created many problems for which we have to find solutions. We shall read more
about them in this lesson.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 0.4

1. Identify two features from every stage of human development.
2. How was the hunting for animals for food by the humans different from the hunting
practices of human today?
3. What factors were responsible for the formation of towns?
4. How did writing help to contribute towards human progress?

0.5 SOCIAL SCIENCE AND PROBLEMS OF PRESENT

DAY SOCIETY
It has been a long journey from the times when we were hunters in forests to the
modern times when we explore other planets and send out satellites into outer space.
Information can now be stored and communicated with the help of computers and
robots. We have stepped into the age of information and communication technology.
Cities have given way to the metropolis. But we are still changing, developing,
evolving and progressing.
You may have by now understood how humans have evolved from hunting and food
gathering stage to the present day modern society. It has been a very long journey

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through the Ages with many new discoveries and challenges and opportunities. The relationship of
humans with self, society, and nature should inspire us to create a society in which
all of us rather than only a few could lead a gainful life.
Even though we have made good progress, we still need to overcome several
challenges. You will read about many of these issues in the Modules and Units that
follow in this course. We will go through them and see what possible solutions we
Notes can have for the following:
(a) Poverty and Hunger
(b) Inequitable distribution of wealth
(c) Unemployment and underemployment
(d) Parallel economy, tax evasion & Black money
(e) Corruption in public life
(f) Pollution and environmental degradation
(g) Lack of nationalism and love for the country
(h) Gender based problems: discrimination against women, crime against women,
dowry system, infanticide and foeticide, human trafficking, prostitution.
(i) Violence: Terrorism, Naxalism
(j) Hurdles to National Integration – Linguism, Regionalism, Casteism, Communalism

INTEXT QUESTIONS 0.5

1. Make a list of some problems which you face in your society which are not listed
in this lesson.
2. Discuss how subjects in Social Science can help you in finding solutions to your
problems.
3. “With the progress of human civilization, the problems also increased” Can you
identify some problems which have arisen with urbanization and industrialization.

WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT

 Understand the importance of studying Social Science and how it helps us to
acquire a capacity to make inter connections between various subjects.
 History relates the story of human life in their quest for a better life for themselves.
 Archaeologists study material remains – the artifacts, burials, ruined buildings,
monuments, while Geography is the study of the earth’s landscapes, peoples,
places and environments.

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 Political Science analyses political systems and political behavior. through the Ages

 Sociology deals with the structure of a society and how it works while Economics
is the scientific study of the way in which humans make choices about production,
consumption and wealth.
 We learn that in the various Stone ages, humans discovered the use of fire. They
made hammers, choppers and hand axes with which they– cut down small
trees, killed animals and hunted for survival. They worshipped their ancestors
Notes
after their death and buried them with tools and eatables for a comfortable journey
to the next world. Later they made their tools sharper and more effective.
 In the Neolithic Age they made their life more comfortable. Invention of wheel
and its advantages were known to them. Agriculture led to mixed farming and
a settled life. It became the foundation for a community life. Soon villages were
formed followed by towns and cities.

TERMINAL EXERCISES
1. How are different disciplines under social science interlinked with each other?
Discuss with the help of examples.
2. Do you think studying History is necessary and important? Give reasons for your
stand.
3. What is the relationship between Archaeology and History?
4. How do other sub-disciplines of social science contribute in the understanding
of human civilisation?
5. Write a short note on the factors that led to the rise of community and social
life during Chalcolithic and Bronze Age.
6. What was the importance of the discovery of fire?
7. Explain briefly the subject matter of economics.
8. Economists are very important for a country. Do you agree? Why?
9. Find out why plastic bags need to be banned. Prepare a Project bringing out
the advantages and disadvantages of metal and plastic.

ANSWER TO INTEXT QUESTIONS

0.1
1. Economics, History and Archaeology, Geography, Political Science and Sociology.
2. The study of history helps us to know our roots, strengths and achievements and
gives us a sense of direction.

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through the Ages 3. History is the story of human beings and of what happened in the past while
archaeology helps us to understand our past through scientific study of the
material remains.
4. Inscriptions, coins, monuments, seals and excavated sites.
5. Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, Rakhigarhi, Dwarka and Nalanda.

Notes 0.2
1. Geographical characteristics of a region are very important for its historical
development such as Indus river valley for the Indus civilization.
2. Political Science is a social science concerned with the theory and practice
of politics and the analysis of political systems and political behavior.
3. Sociology focuses on the study of human groups.
4. Economics is the scientific study of the way in which humans make choices about
production, consumption and wealth.
5. They are inter-related to each other and together they give a holistic understanding
of Social processes.

0.3a
1. Because they kept moving from one place to another in search of food.
2. The tools of the New Stone Age were sharper and polished to make them last
longer which was not the case with the Old Stone Age.
3. Discovery of wheel and mixed farming.
4. For transportation and potter’s wheel.

0.3b
1. The tools made of metal proved to be much more effective than the earlier stone
implements. Metallic knives and axes were helpful in cutting down trees and more
land was cleared for agriculture.
2. Discovery of fire, wheel and metal, Practice of agriculture led to settled life. They
more relevant for advanced human progress in Industrial society.
3. They led to the formation of family life, creation of common beliefs and
interactivities and interdependency like trade, politics, security etc.
4. Equipment became stronger and long lasting. Work efficiency increased.

0.4
1. Refer section 1.3 and 1.4
2. Relate with hunting for survival of life and hunting for sole pleasure.

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3. Central place for trade and commerce as well as administration through the Ages

4. To communicate for long distance, to take account and keep records, etc.

0.5
1. Education of the girl child, Violence against the weaker sections of the society
etc.
2. They add to the body of knowledge which we need to solve our problems. They Notes
help to analyze the problems which we face in our day to day life. They help
us to locate these facilities as well as how to use them for ourselves.
3. Write the answer with analyzing the advantages and disadvantages of progress.

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Notes
ANCIENT WORLD

Go to the market or to the railway station, sit in your home or stand on the road
and look around you. You will find many things where metal is being used. This metal
could be copper, bronze, iron or any other may be steel. Steel is a refined form of
iron only. Discovery of metals brought profound and dramatic changes in the lives
of people.
You have read about pre-history in the introductory lesson. You have learnt that during
the Stone Age human learnt to make tools and weapons of stone, bone and wood.
They lived in caves and found food by hunting and food-gathering. Later, they learnt
about agriculture, domestication of animals and led a settled life. The Stone Age was
followed by the Metal Ages – Bronze Age and Iron Age. It was with the discovery
of metal that human civilisation became highly evolved. During the Bronze Age,
advanced civilisations came up in Mesopotamia, China, Egypt and India. We will
read about these civilisations in some detail in this lesson. We will also read about
the Iron Age Civilisations in Greece, Rome and Persia, as well as India.
Isn’t it surprising that the use of iron started so long back. We still use iron in some
way or the other, don’t we? Look around you and you will find many things made
of iron and steel. We all have steel utensils in our homes. Steel is a refined form of
iron.
Further, we will read in detail about Ancient India, about the emperors and dynasties
that ruled India during that period. You will realize that India’s contribution to human
civilisation is immense. Isn’t it interesting and exciting to know about our glorious
past? Let us start the journey into our past and know how we humans have travelled
through the ages and evolved into sophisticated, advanced and highly civilised people.

OBJECTIVES
After reading this lesson, you will be able to:

 describe the contributions of ancient Bronze Age Civilisations – Mesopotamian,

Chinese, Egyptian and Indus Valley;

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 recognize the contributions of the Iron Age Civilisations – Greek, Roman and through the Ages
Persian;
 explain the important developments in Indian history from the Vedic Age down
to the time of Harsha;
 examine the different aspects of India’s contribution to world civilisation;

Notes
1.1 THE BRONZE AGE
Towards the end of the New Stone Age, began the use of metal. Copper was the
first metal used by them. The cultures based on the use of both stone and copper
are called Chalcolithic Cultures. This is also called Bronze Age because of the
invention of bronze in this period which is an alloy of copper and tin. Gradually copper
and bronze replaced stone, wood, and bones to some extent for making weapons
and implements. People learnt how to make bricks and use them in construction.
These bricks were baked and sun dried. Town-based civilisations came up for the
first time in different river valleys. These towns became centers of trade, commerce
and administration. The Bronze Age people had built up great civilisations and made
significant contributions. In this section, we will read about four major Bronze Age
Civilisations of the world, that is, Mesopotamia, Egypt, India and China.

1.1.1 Mesopotamian Civilisation

Mesopotamia was the land lying between two rivers, Tigris and Euphrates, which
lie in modern day Iraq. These rivers were often in flood and in this process they
deposited a lot of silt which made the land around them very fertile. This resulted
in increased food production. The abundant agricultural produce enabled the growth
of a number of crafts persons like smiths, potters masons, weavers and carpenters.
They sold their products and got their necessities from others in exchange. They
carried on trade with far-off places like India. Carts, wagons, boats and ships were
used for transport and communication. They also developed the art of writing. Their
script was a collection of symbols and pictures. They drew wedge-like lines and so
this script came to be known as Cuneiform script.

The earliest cities of Mesopotamia were like small states, each with its own
administration. The ruling class consisted of priests, kings and aristocrats. Besides
them there were merchants, ordinary people and the slaves. The people of
Mesopotamia worshipped many gods and goddesses like sky, sun, moon, fertility,
etc. Each city had its own patron god or goddess.

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Notes

Figure 1.1 Cuneiform Script

1.1.2 Egyptian Civilisation

Another civilisation arose in Egypt, along the River Nile, which made the land very
fertile. The Egyptian kings were called Pharaohs. They had ministers and officers in
their service that administered the land and collected taxes for them. The priests
enjoyed a very high and honorable position in society. Temples were dedicated to
a particular god in each town or city. The ancient Egyptian script was called
Hieroglyphics. Traders and merchants carried on their business both on land and
water. There were skilled workers like stone-cutters and carpenters. Egyptians had
considerable knowledge of weights and measures.
The Pharaohs built the great monuments of the ancient world – the Pyramids. Since
the Egyptians believed in afterlife, they preserved the dead bodies. These were called
mummies. The pyramids were built as tombs to keep the mummified bodies of the
dead kings.

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Notes

Figure 1.2 Hieroglyphics Script

1.1.3 Chinese Civilisation

The Chinese civilisation grew up in the Hwang Ho valley in North China. The first
rulers known were the Shangs (1523 BC to 1122 BC), who built China’s first cities.
They also contributed to art and culture. The Chinese writing system was developed
during this period. Craftspersons of this period, especially the bronze workers were
great experts in their fields.
The Shang dynasty was overthrown by the Zhous, who built strong forts and walled
towns to defend themselves from invaders. It was during the later phase of the Zhou
rule that iron was introduced, thus ending the Bronze Age in China.
In 221 BC, the Chin rulers came to power in China. They ordered the use of common
language, common laws and common weights and measures throughout their empire.
Do you know that they were the rulers who built the famous Great Wall of China?
After the Chins, the Han dynasty came to power, who ruled till AD 220. It was during
this period that Chinese traders had contact with the West through the famous Silk
Route, crossing Central Asia and Persia.
The people of China worshipped a number of deities. Worship of ancestors, nature
and spirits were very common. In China a famous religious preacher named Confucius
advocated a system of right behavior, which greatly influenced Chinese society and
government. He laid emphasis on good moral character, respect to elders and loyalty
to the family and obedience to the laws of the State.

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ACTIVITY 1.1
Did you notice that all the major civilisations arose on the banks of rivers? Identify
some important towns which rose on the banks of some rivers. Can you think of
at least two reasons what made these towns more successful than those which were
not on any river bank?
Notes
1.2 INDIA: INDUS VALLEY CIVILISATION
Do you know that India was also part of the Bronze Age Civilisations, which
flourished in the valley of river Indus and neighboring regions? This ancient civilisation
was discovered when archaeologists began excavating the sites connected with it in
the 1920s. The first sites to be excavated were Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro. That
is why it is also called Harappa Civilisation. At present, hundreds of sites of this culture
are known. The most important cities were Harappa (Western Punjab), Mohenjo-
Daro (Sindh), Lothal (Gujarat), Kalibangan (Rajasthan), Ropar (Punjab), Banawali
and Rakhigarhi (Haryana), and Dholavira (Gujarat).

1.2.1 Town Planning

One of the most interesting features of this civilisation was the emergence of the first
urban societies in South Asia. The most remarkable aspect was the high level of
sophistication in town planning, crafts and culture. The people lived in well-planned
cities. A general feature of the cities was the presence of a fortified citadel which
housed public buildings. The cities had wide roads, which cut each other at right
angles. The houses were brick – built and most of these were two-storied. There
were wells, baths, drains and sewage in each house. Paved roads and street lightings
were also known. Apart from the living houses in the lower town, big multi–pillared
halls have also been discovered at the citadel area in Mohenjo-Daro. Here, the most
striking feature was the Great Bath (180 ft long and 108 ft long and 108 ft wide).
The bathing pool in it was 39 feet long, 23 feet wide and 8 feet deep. The Great
Granary of Harappa was another important building. The surplus produced by the
peasants was stored here.

1.2.2 Society and Economy

The people practiced agriculture, animal husbandry, art and crafts, trade and
commerce. Main crops were wheat, barley, rye, sesame and pea. Evidence of rice
has been found at Lothal and Rangpur. Furrow marks found at Kalibangan show
that ploughing was known to them. Sickles were used for harvesting. Various forms
of irrigation were practiced. Cotton was a known product. Animals like cows, goats,
sheep, humped bulls, dogs, cats, camels and donkeys were domesticated. The people

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consumed cereals, fish, meat, milk, egg and fruit. Tools and weapons made from through the Ages
copper and bronze were mostly used. Ornaments were made of gold, silver, precious
and semi-precious stones, conch and ivory. Iron was not known to them. Among
artisans and craftsperson, there were potters, weavers, masons, carpenters, smiths,
jewelers, sculptors, stone cutters, brick-makers and terracotta manufacturers. Trade
and commerce were also very important economic activities. Both inter-regional trade
and external trade were carried out. Several evidences point to Harappa trade with
Notes
Mesopotamia. Main imports consisted of metals like gold, tin, copper and various
kinds of precious and semi-precious stones. Among the exports were agricultural
products, cotton goods, potteries, jewelleries, ivory products and other crafts.
Harappa seals were probably used for commercial purposes. The society was
divided into classes.

1.2.3 Religion and Culture

The cult of Mother Goddess seems to have been very popular among them. Many
figurines of Mother Goddess have been found. One male deity has also been found
at Mohenjo-Daro which has been called the prototype of Lord Shiva (Pashupati).
This deity is represented in a seal, sitting in a yogic posture and surrounded by animals.

Lingam worship and nature worship of trees were prevalent. Can you see the
similarities in the religious practices among the Hindus in India even today? When
you visit a Shiva temple, you can see that Shiva lingam is worshipped. You must be
aware that Hindus also worship trees like Peepal.

1.2.4 Technical Skills

They had also acquired high levels of technical skill. They had knowledge of urban
engineering, weights and measures, health and hygiene. They also knew how to write.
They used a script which has not yet been deciphered.

1.2.5 Decline
It is difficult to say what actually caused the ultimate decline of this civilisation. Natural
calamities seem to be the most important cause of the decline of this civilisation.
Recurring floods, drying up of rivers, decreasing soil fertility, deforestation due to
constant consumption of wood, earthquakes, scanty rainfall, extension of desert seem
to have played havoc with this civilisation. According to some scholars, the decline
of overseas trade with Mesopotamia may have contributed to the decline of this
civilisation. With its decline, literacy and urban life disappeared in India for more than
a thousand years.

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INTEXT QUESTIONS 1.1

1. Fill in the blanks:
(a) Society in Bronze Age civilisation was divided into .....................
(b) ..................... seems to be the most important cause of the decline of
Notes Harappa Civilisation.
(c) The Harappa people had overseas trade with .....................
2. Which was the first metal used by human beings?
3. Name the rivers between which the Mesopotamian Civilisation was founded.
4. Name the ancient Egyptian script.
5. Name at least four sites of the Harappa Civilisation situated in India.

1.3 IRON AGE CIVILISATION

Iron Age began about 3000 years ago when it came to be produced on a large scale
and its use became common. It was much cheaper and stronger than copper and
bronze. So, the use of iron tools and implements enabled our forefathers to clear
forests and to reclaim lands for the extension of cultivation. Agricultural production
thus increased considerably. This brought radical changes in the social and economic
life of the people.
The use of iron had a great impact on transport and communication. Iron rims and
spokes were used in wheels to make them stronger. Iron nails and sheets were widely
used for making boats and ships. Trade and commerce flourished. This trade brought
prosperity. New weapons of war like the use of long, heavy sword, sabre/saber,
iron-shield, spear and lance changed the methods of warfare.
The Iron Age was also a period of intellectual progress. The most important
development was the beginning of alphabets. This replaced the old pictographic style
of writing about which you have already read in the Bronze Age Civilisations of Egypt,
Mesopotamia and China. The Civilisations that flourished during the Iron Age were
Greece, Rome, Persia and India. They were much more advanced than the earlier
civilisations. Let us now read about them in some detail in this section.

1.3.1 Greek Civilisation

Greek Civilisation flourished in Greece more than 2000 years ago. There arose many
independent city-states, which developed a remarkable system of government. The
development of city-state was a unique feature of Greek civilisation. Each city was
enclosed by a wall for protection. Inside the city, there was a fort called Acropolis
which was situated on a hill top.

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Among the Greek city-states, the most famous were Athens and Sparta. Athens was through the Ages
rich and cultured. Athenian citizens included writers, philosophers, artists and thinkers.
The society was based on slave labor, but the citizens enjoyed a democratic form
of government. You will read about Democracy in detail the later lessons. Sparta
was almost like an army camp, where everyone was expected to obey the superiors.
Sparta had the best army in Greece. Training in warfare was considered to be the
most important thing here.
Notes
There was considerable rivalry between Athens and Sparta. But they fought side by
side to drive off the mighty Persian army of Darius I and Xerxes, who tried to conquer
Greece. Under Pericles, Athens enjoyed a ‘Golden Age’. But a long war between
Athens and Sparta, called the Peloponnesian War, which lasted for 27 years resulted
in the defeat of Athens.
Do you know that Ancient Greece had the distinction of being called the birth place
of Western Civilisation? They were pioneers in art and learning, science, literature
and sculpture. Socrates, Plato and Aristotle were great philosophers whose works
are studied even today. Herodotus and Thucydides were famous historians.
Archimedes, Aristarchus and Democritus were great scientists. Aeschylus, Sophocles
and Aristophanes were great dramatists. Homer was the author of the famous epics
- Iliad and Odyssey.
The Greeks also had great knowledge of architecture. They built many beautiful
temples and palaces. The Greeks believed in many gods. Each city had its own
protector god or goddess. The gods were believed to live on Mount Olympus. The
Olympic Games, first recorded in 776 BC was held every four years at a place called
Olympia. Sports and athletic events were held to honor Zeus, the king of gods.
The Greek towns were the centers of administration as well as cultural and economic
activities. The farmers mainly grew grapes, olives and grain. Wine and olive oil were
important products. The Greeks, at one time, also established vast empires.
Alexander of Macedonia, better known to history as Alexander the Great, led his
army out of Europe and conquered Syria, Mesopotamia, Egypt, Afghanistan and even
parts of Central Asia and North-Western India. This led to the spread of Greek ideas
and learning. Alexander died at an age of thirty-three only. After his death, his empire
broke up into smaller kingdoms. Later, Greece was conquered by the Romans.

1.3.2 Roman Civilisation

In 510 BC, the Romans set up a Republic on the city of Rome which is on river
Tiber in Central Italy. The Roman Republic was ruled by the senate, which consisted
of a group of elders called senators. They elected two Consuls each year to lead
them. By 200 BC, Rome became the leading power of Italy. It was able to defeat
rivals like Carthage for the control of the Mediterranean world.

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through the Ages In the early Roman society, there were three classes of people – the patricians
(aristocrats), the plebeians (commoners) and the slaves. Roman economy was based
on slave labor. Rich Romans owned slaves. These slaves were often trained for the
gladiators’ fight, which was a fight between the slaves and wild animals. There
were also frequent slave revolts in Rome. One such revolt was led by Spartacus
in 74 BC.

Notes Although Rome was a Republic, strong and influential leaders fought for power. Julius
Caesar was one such leader who got enormous power and became a dictator. In
44 BC, Caesar was murdered and a civil war broke out. After the war, Augustus
Caesar became the first emperor of Rome. The Roman Empire spread to three
continents – Europe, Asia and Africa. Do you know that it was during the rule of
Augustus, the great prophet, Jesus Christ appeared? He was the founder of
Christianity. He was born in Bethlehem. According to him, all men and women are
the children of God. He taught people to love each other. After his death, the followers
of Christ spread his teachings among the people. At its peak, the Roman Empire
stretched from Mesopotamia in the east to Gaul and Britain in the west. People
throughout the Empire adopted Roman way of living. Towns with baths, temples,
palaces and theatres were built. In the countryside, the Romans built huge,
comfortable farmhouses called villas. Roman rulers used to preside over victory
parades, religious ceremonies and games in the arenas and amphitheatres. Gladiator’s
fight, chariot racing, and theatre were some of the common amusements.

Figure 1.4 Roman Colosseum/Amphitheatre

The Roman Empire was divided into several provinces, each ruled by a governor.
He had a number of officers under him who looked after different affairs of

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administration. The main fighting forces of the Roman army were the legions. Each through the Ages
legion had 5000 soldiers headed by a commander. The Roman Empire was governed
by the personal will of the emperor. But his power depended on the army. Weak
emperors were often overthrown by the army generals.
By 395 AD, the huge Roman Empire was divided into two halves for better
governance. The Eastern part with capital at Byzantium survived even after the fall
of the Western Roman Empire in the face of barbarian invasion in 476 AD. Emperor Notes
Constance gave Byzantium a new name – Constantinople. It became the home of
Eastern Orthodox Christian faith and the capital city of the Byzantine emperors.

ACTIVITY 1.2
You have read about the famous gladiators’ fight in this lesson. You must have also
watched some of them on television or in the movies. Did you feel good watching
them? Do you think it is a human practice to watch people suffer and find amusement
from it? What would your thoughts be on the same? Write in about 50 words.

1.3.3 Persian Civilisation

In the Iron Age, Persia (Modern Iran) was inhabited by the Aryan communities. One
branch of them, known as the Medes, settled in the western part of the country.
Another branch occupied the southern and eastern parts and was called the Persians.
The Medes built up a powerful kingdom covering a vast area of Iran. At first, the
Persians also had to acknowledge the supremacy of the Medes. One of the Persian
kings, Cyrus, united the Persians in 550 BC. He built a powerful army and
successfully conquered Babylon, Assyria and Asia Minor. Darius I was the greatest
emperor of Persia. He belonged to the Achaemenian dynasty. His empire stretched
from River Indus to the Eastern shores of Mediterranean Sea. He made Persepolis
his capital in 518 BC. During his reign, Persian art, architecture and sculpture
flourished. He also built a powerful navy.
The Persian emperors were able administrators. They divided their empire into
provinces, each governed by a Satrap or Governor. The Persians were good soldiers
with strong cavalry, navy and had iron weapons. Though the Persians were defeated
by Alexander the Great in 331 BC, their civilisation did not come to an end. Their
culture and civilisation continued to flourish under the Parthian and Sassanian
emperors. But ultimately they were conquered by the Arabs in 7th century AD.
Like the Indo-Aryans, the early Persians worshipped the forces of nature. They
believed in the sun god, sky god and other gods. They considered fire to be a symbol
of holiness. They also performed fire rites and practiced animal sacrifices. Later, a

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through the Ages religious preacher Zoroaster found the religion called Zoroastrianism. He taught them
about Ahura-Mazda, the Lord of Heaven and Light, who gives men strength and
energy. According to Zoroaster, life was a constant struggle between good (light)
and evil (darkness). The holy scripture of the Persians is called Zend – Avesta.

Notes INTEXT QUESTION 1.2

1. Name the three spheres where the impact of iron implements were felt the most.
2. Name two important city states in Greece.
3. Name the river on which the city of Rome is situated.
4. Complete the sentences below:
a) Constantinople was the capital of the .....................
b) The Persian king who united the Persians was .....................
c) The Indo-Aryans and the early Persians worshipped the .....................

1.4 INDIA: THE VEDIC AGE

The Vedic Age marks a new phase in ancient Indian History which began with the
arrival of the Aryans in India around 1500 BC. It lasted for almost a thousand years,
in the course of which a number of economic, social, political and religious
developments took place. The Vedic Age is accordingly divided into two periods
of about equal duration - Early Vedic Period and Later Vedic Period.
Have you heard of the Vedas? They are the most important source of information
on the Vedic Age. The Early Vedic period is known mainly from the Rig Veda, which
was the first Veda to be composed. For this period, when the Vedic tribes lived in
northwest part of the subcontinent including Punjab and Afghanistan, we do not have
much archaeological evidence. This was probably because the Early Vedic people
generally led a nomadic life and did not stay for long at any place. Their economy
was mainly pastoral. Cattle-rearing was the chief means of livelihood. Horses, goats
and sheep were also important. A little agriculture was also practiced. Family, clan
and tribes (called Janas) were the social units, and there were no castes. The chief
of the tribe was called Raja. Popular assemblies of all members of the Janas, called
Sabhas and Samitis, had an important say in public affairs. A number of deities were
worshipped, Indra being the most important of them.
The Later Vedic period is known in much greater detail from the vast corpus of Later
Vedic literature as well as from archeological material. The Later Vedic literature
comprised of the following books, that is, the three Vedas – Sama Veda, Yajur Veda
and Atharva Veda. There were also commentaries on all the four Vedas called
Brahmanas, Aranyakas and Upanishads.

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A large number of sites belonging to this period have also been excavated. They are through the Ages
all marked by a typical pottery called Painted Grey Ware (PGW), and so are known
as PGW sites.
During the Later Vedic period, there was a large scale eastward movement of the
Aryan communities to Indo-Gangetic Doab and Upper Ganga plains. Towards the
end of the period, three important kingdoms came up further East: Kashi, Koshala
and Videha. Agriculture was now the main occupation, and number of crops including Notes
rice, wheat and sugarcane were grown. Crafts also multiplied, iron weapons and tools
were introduced. People now led a settled life in villages. Castes began to emerge
and crystallise in the form of four Varnas - Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and
Shudras. The powers of the king and his men increased, and those of the assembly
were proportionately undermined. Sacrifices now became very elaborate. The
importance of the god Indra receded; new gods such as Prajapati figured prominently.
Towards the end of this period, a reaction to the sacrificial ritual could also be
observed which we find mentioned in the Upanishads.

ACTIVITY 1.3
Read the passage given below and answer the questions that follow:
The Various Means of Livelihood (Extract from Rig Veda, IX, 112)
We all have various thoughts and plan, and diverse are the ways of men.
The Brahman seeks the worshipper; the carpenter/takshan looks for the cracked
(wood, to repair); the physician/bhishaj, the injured (to treat).
The smith/karmara with ripe and seasoned plants, and with birds’ feathers,
With stones and with enkindled fire, seeks one who has a store of gold.
I am a poet/karu, my father’s a physician, and my mother grinds grain upon the stone.
1. List the various occupations mentioned in the passage.
2. What kind of society does it depict?
3. Are the occupation hereditary based? Why or why not?
4. What kind of work did the women folk engaged in?

1.4.1 The Post-Vedic Age

In the 6th century BC there came up large territorial states in northern and eastern
India known as the Mahajanapadas. There were sixteen such states namely Anga,
Magadha, Vajji, Kashi, Koshala, Malla, Kuru, Panchala, Vatsa, Avanti, Kamboja,

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through the Ages Gandhara, Assaka, Chedi, Matsya, and Shurasena. Among them Magadha, Kosala
and Avanti were the most powerful. The extension of agriculture, growth of trade
and industries, rise of territorial states and beginning of urbanization gave rise to new
forces in the society. Thus the 6th century BC was also a period of socio- religious
transformation. People expressed their dissatisfaction against the ritualistic Brahmanism
and Vedic sacrifices. There emerged numerous sects and reformatory movements.
This period called the Ancient Period in History saw the rise of two important religions
Notes called Jainism and Buddhism.

1.4.2 Buddhism
Gautama Buddha, the founder of Buddhism, was born in 563 BC at Lumbini which
is situated near the Indo-Nepal Border. He was the son of Shuddhodhana, the chief
of Shakya of Kapilavastu. At the age of 29, Gautama left home and attained Bodhi
(enlightenment) at Bodhgaya under a pipal tree. He delivered his first sermon at
Sarnath near Varanasi. His teachings included four Noble Truths (Arya Satya) and
Eightfold Path (Ashtangika Marga).
According to Buddha:
(i) the world is full of misery (dukkha);
(ii) desire (trishna) is the cause of this misery;
(iii) if desire is conquered, then all sorrows can be removed;
(iv) this can be done by following the Eight fold Path; which included:
(a) right memory (b) right aim (c) right speech
(d) right action (e) right livelihood (f) right efforts
(g) right memory and (h) right meditation
Buddha suggested a ‘Middle Path’ - away from both extreme luxury as well as
extreme austerity. He also laid down a code of conduct such as non-killing and non-
stealing for his followers. He died at the age of 80 (483 BC) at Kushinagar in Uttar
Pradesh.

1.4.3 Jainism
Rishabhanath, the first Tirthankara, is known to be the founder of Jainism.
Vardhamana Mahavira was the 24th Tirthankara of this sect, Parshvanath being the
23rd one. Mahavira was born in 540 BC at Kundagram near Vaishali (Bihar). His
father was the Chief of Jhatrika Kshatriya clan. Mahavira became an ascetic at the
age of 30 years and died at Pawapuri in 468 BC near Rajagriha. His followers came
to be known as ‘Jainas’.
Jainism had no place for a supreme creator. It recognized the existence of gods, but
placed them lower than the Jaina teachers. The main aim of Jainism is the attainment
of freedom from worldly bonds. Like Buddhism, Jainism opposed the ritualistic

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practices and evils of Vedic Brahmanism. It also opposed the caste system and through the Ages
accepted the doctrine of Karma and rebirth. Jainism has five cardinal principles:
(i) Ahimsa or non-violence, (ii) Truthfulness,
(iii) Abstention from stealing, (iv) Non-attachment, and
(v) Celibacy or Brahmacharya.
The three jewels (Triratna) of Jainism are:
(a) Right vision (Samyak Darshana), Notes
(b) Right knowledge (Samyak Jnana), and
(c) Right Conduct (Samyak Charita)

ACTIVITY 1.4
Reflect on the teachings of Lord Buddha and Lord Mahavira. Think of at least three
teachings which you find to be relevant and can be practiced in your daily life. Share
your thoughts and experiences with your family and friends.

1.5 THE MAURYAN AGE (322 BC-184 BC)

Out of the sixteen Mahajanapadas, it was Magadha that expanded considerably
under powerful rulers like Bimbisara, Ajatashatru and Mahapadmananda. The last
king of the Nanda dynasty was defeated by Chandragupta Maurya in 322 BC He
established the Maurya Empire uprooting Greeks from the Punjab and Nandas from
the Gangetic Plains. By a continuous process of conquest and annexation he was
able to unify almost the whole of India. Chandragupta ruled from 322 BC to 297
BC. He embraced Jainism under the influence of Bhadrabahu. He died at
Sravanabelgola near Mysore.
Bindusara (297 BC-272 BC), the son and successor of Chandragupta Maurya, was
also known as Mitraghata (slayer of enemies). He is said to have conquered Deccan,
extending Mauryan control as far as Mysore. He also had contacts with Antiochus
I, the Greek ruler of West Asia. It appears from the Buddhist literature that after
the death of Bindusara, there was a struggle for the throne among his sons.
Ashoka (272 BC-236 BC) emerged victorious in this fratricidal war of succession
and ascended the throne of Magadha. An important event of his reign was the famous
Kalinga War in 260 BC mentioned in his Rock Edict XIII. Later, Ashoka, embraced
Buddhism, and gave up war. He was a benevolent ruler and did many things for the
welfare of his subjects. His policy of ‘dhamma’ was based on religious toleration,
respect to elders, care for the old, kindness, truthfulness and purity. It was through
his efforts that Buddhism spread beyond the boundaries of India. The rock edicts
and pillar edicts inscribed by him give a detailed account of his reign.

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through the Ages After Ashoka’s death, his empire disintegrated into pieces. There was also the danger
of foreign invasion. The economic condition of the country deteriorated. The last king
of the Maurya dynasty was Brihadratha.

Notes

Figure 1.4 Locations of the Various Edicts of Ashoka

1.6 THE SANGAM AGE (300 BC-200 AD)

With the Sangam Age, the historical period began in South India. The word ‘Sangam’
means an assembly of scholars of literacy figures, held under the royal patronage
of Pandyan kings of Madurai. Early Tamil literature comprised works such as
Tolkappiyam, the Eight Anthologies (Ettutogai) the ‘ten Idylls’ (pattupattu), the
‘Eighteen Minor Works’ and the three Epics (Shilappadikaram, Manimekalai and
Sivaga Sindamani). The Sangam Age extends roughly between 300 BC to 200 A.D.
Sangam literature refers primarily to Pandyan Kingdom. But it also contains valuable
information about the Chola and Chera kingdoms. The Pandyas ruled over an area

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comprising southern Tamil Nadu. Madurai was their capital. The Cheras ruled over through the Ages
Kerala and the Cholas occupied Northern Tamil Nadu and Southern Andhra
Pradesh.

1.7 THE KUSHANA AGE

After the fall of the Mauryan Empire, a number of foreign powers like the Bactrian
Greeks, the Shakas, the Parthians and the Kushanas invaded India. They ruled in Notes
the western and north-western parts of India. The Kushanas were a branch of the
Yue-Chi tribe of Central Asia. The first ruler of the Kushanas was Kujula Kadphises.
He was succeeded by Vima Kadphises.
The greatest ruler of the Kushana dynasty was Kanishka, who became king after
Vima. Kushana conquered Kashmir and established his supremacy over the Indo-
Gangetic plains. He occupied Kashgar, Yarkhand and Khotan in Central Asia. Punjab
and Afghanistan were also parts of the empire. Kanishka was a devoted Buddhist.
Through his efforts Buddhism spread to China, Central Asia and other countries. He
was also a great patron of art and learning. Purushapura (Peshawar) was his capital.
Kanishka’s successors were Vashishka, Huvishka, Kanishka II and Vasudeva.
Vasudeva was the last great ruler of the Kushanas. After his death the mighty Kushana
Empire quickly disintegrated. The fall of Kushana Empire marked the beginning of
political uncertainty in north India which continued for about a century.

1.8 THE GUPTA AGE (319AD-550 AD)

The rise of Gupta Power in the 4th century AD marked the beginning of a new era
in Indian history. Confusion and political disunity were replaced by integrity. Under
the leadership and patronage of the powerful Gupta monarchs, considerable progress
was made in different aspects of Indian life. There was also a high material prosperity,
as mentioned by Fa-hien, the Chinese traveler (4th–5th century AD).
Maharaja Shri Gupta is said to be the founder of the Gupta dynasty. He was
succeeded by Ghatotkacha Gupta. But Chandragupta I (319-355 AD), who
assumed the title of Maharajadhiraja, was the first important Gupta Monarch. Another
important Gupta emperor was Samudragupta. The eulogy, composed by his court
poet Harisena, which is available as Allahabad Pillar Inscription, gives a vivid account
of Samudragupta’s military exploits. Besides being a great conqueror and ruler, he
was also a poet of high order, patron of art and learning and a musician. He also
performed ‘Ashwamedha yajna’ – a symbol of imperial authority.
Samudragupta was succeeded by Chandragupta II (380-415 AD) who assumed the
title of Vikramaditya after his victory over the Shaka rulers of western India. In order
to consolidate his power, Samudragupta made important matrimonial alliances. His
daughter Prabhavati was married to the Vakataka ruler Rudrasena II. The son and
successor of Chandragupta II was Kumaragupta I (415-455 AD), whose reign was
marked with peace and prosperity. He was succeeded by his son Skandagupta

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through the Ages (455-467 AD), who repulsed the Hun invasion several times. The successors of
Skandagupta (Purugupta, Budhagupta, Narasimhagupta) were not so powerful and
competent. This gradually led to the decline and fall of the Gupta Empire.
Monarchy was the prevailing system of government during the Gupta Age. The king
was assisted by a Council of Ministers and other officials in day to day administration.
The Guptas had a powerful army. The provinces were ruled by governors. The
Notes Governors had under them a number of officers who administered the districts and
towns. Village administration under the village headman (Gramika) enjoyed considerable
autonomy. The Guptas also developed an efficient system of judicial and revenue
administration.

1.8.1 Post Gupta Age (550AD-750 AD)

The period between the downfall of the Gupta Empire and the rise of Maharaja
Harshavardhana of Thaneshwar is considered to be a period of confusion and
disintegration. During this time India was broken into several small independent states.
Besides the Huna power, there were four other kingdoms in Northern India. These
were the later Guptas of Magadha, the Maukharis of Kanauj, the Pushyabhutis of
Thaneshwar and the Mitrakas of Vallabhi (Gujarat). Among the important South
Indian Dynasties were the Chalukyas of Badami and the Pallavas of Kanchi.
Pulakesin II (609-64 AD) and Narasimhavarman I (630-668 AD) are considered
to be the greatest of the Chalukya and the Pallava rulers respectively.

It was Harshavardhana who again made an attempt to raise an empire. He was called
Sakalottarapathanatha because he had established his hold practically over the whole
of North India. During this time, the political unity of India was, to some extent,
restored. Harsha patronised Banabhatta, the author of Kadambari and Harshacharita.
Hiuen Tsang, the Chinese scholar-traveler, visited India during Harsha’s reign.
Shashanka, the king of Bengal, was a contemporary of Harsha.

This period of history witnessed the consolidation of Hinduism. Hiuen Tsang writes
about the existence of caste system in Indian society. There was the rise of several
mixed and sub-castes. Hiuen Tsang also mentions the existence of untouchables and
outcastes. The position of women had also declined considerably during this period.
In the religious field, the ascendancy of Brahmanism brought about the decline of
Buddhism. Vaishnavism, Shaivism and Jainism were also practiced.

1.9 INDIAN CIVILISATION: AN OVERVIEW

Indian civilisation has a very important place in world history. As in Early Greece
and Rome, in India also some kind of democratic and republican form of government

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existed in ancient times. We also made tremendous progress in philosophy and through the Ages
various branches of science. Indian contribution to the fields of Mathematics,
Astronomy, Chemistry, Metallurgy and Medicine is worth mentioning. Aryabhatta and
Varahamihira were famous mathematicians-astronomers. Charaka and Sushruta were
great physicians. Nagarjuna was a famous chemist as well as pharmacist. The concept
of zero and the decimal system first evolved in India.

The ancient Indians also showed great skill in art, architecture, painting and sculpture. Notes
Ashokan Pillars, Caves of Ajanta and Ellora, South Indian Temples, the famous Stupa
at Sanchi, Buddha’s images of Mathura are only a few examples from the vast ocean
of Indian art. Many great centres of learning were developed in Ancient India, like
Taxila, Nalanda, Vikramshila, Vallabhi, Kashi and Kanchi which imparted education
to both Indian and foreign students. Famous scholars and teachers taught in such
centre. Indian learning and scholarship was highly appreciated abroad by the Arab
Muslims.

Figure 1.5 Sanchi Stupa

Many great works of literature were produced in ancient India. Rig Veda is the earliest
specimen of Indo-European literature. The four Vedas, Sutras, the two Epics-
Ramayana and Mahabharata, Smritis, Puranas, Tripitakas, Jaina Agamas and other
religious texts are the products of ancient India. Moreover, there are a number of
drama, prose and poetic works. Great literacy figures like Kalidasa, Banabhatta,
Harisena, Vishakhadatta, Bhasa, Bhairavi, Shudraka and many others belonged to
this period. Sanskrit, Pali and Prakrit literature made great progress in ancient India.

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through the Ages

INTEXT QUESTION 1.3

1. What were the main occupations of people in the Later Vedic Period?
2. Which religion did Ashoka embrace after the Kalinga war?
3. Name at least four great centers of learning in Ancient India.
Notes
4. Name two great physicians of Ancient India.
5. Fill in the blanks:
(a) The Tamil work Tolkappiyam belonged to the .....................
(b) ..................... was the capital of the Pandyas.
(c) Kanishka belonged to the ..................... Dynasty.

WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT

 Human civilisation has evolved through various phases - each phase contributing
something unique.

 The Stone Ages was followed by the Metal Ages – Copper, Bronze and Iron.

 Town based civilisations came in the Bronze Age.

 The art of writing was developed during the Bronze Age Civilisations.

 The Indus Valley Civilisation was known for its town planning, crafts and culture.

 The Iron Age brought radical changes in the social and economic life of the people
in different countries at different times.

 Significant contributions were made in various fields such as polity, philosophy,

art, architecture and sculpture by the Greeks, Romans, Persians and Indians.

 Buddhism and Jainism were the first reformatory movements in 6th century BC
India.

 Indian Civilisation in its long course went through a number of significant

developments. It did not remain one and the same throughout.

 India has made tremendous contributions in the fields of Mathematics, Astronomy,

Chemistry, Metallurgy, Medicines, Art, Architecture, Literature and Learning.

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through the Ages

TERMINAL EXERCISES
1. How did the Bronze Age mark a shift from the New Stone Age?
2. What were the important features of the Harappa Civilisation?
3. Discuss how did the discovery of iron bring in radical changes in the lives of the
people? Notes
4. Describe the Roman society and economy during 5th century BC
5. Describe the social, religious and economic life of the Early Vedic people.
6. What is ‘dhamma’ according to Ashoka?
7. Write a short note on India’s contribution to World Civilisation.
8. On the given outline map of the world mark the following:
(i) Rivers - Tigris, Euphrates, Nile, Hwang Ho, Indus.
(ii) Places - Egypt, Greece, Rome, Iran, Nalanda.

ANSWER TO INTEXT QUESTIONS

1.1
1. (a) classes
(b) Natural calamities
(c) Mesopotamia

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through the Ages 2. Copper
3. Tigris and Euphrates
4. Hieroglyphics
5. Lothal (Gujarat), Kalibangan (Rajasthan), Banawali (Haryana), Dholavira (Gujarat),
Ropar (Punjab)

Notes 1.2
1. Agriculture, Transport and Warfare
2. Athens and Sparta
3. Tiber
4. (a) Byzantine Empire
(b) Cyrus
(c) forces of nature

1.3
1. Agriculture and Crafts
2. Buddhism
3. Taxila, Nalanda, Kashi, Vikramshila, Vallabhi
4. Charaka and Sushruta
5. (a) Sangam Age
(b) Madurai
(c) Kushana

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through the Ages

MEDIEVAL WORLD Notes

We have just finished reading about the different civilisations of the ancient world.
Have you wondered what happened to these civilisations when the Ancient Period
came to an end? Did civilisations also come to an end? Or were the ancient
civilisations succeeded by equally significant ones during the Medieval Period? Let
us look for answers to such queries here. In this lesson we shall read about the
transformation of European society after the downfall of the Roman Empire. We shall
also see how the birth of a new religion called Islam led to the founding of a vast
empire that originated in West Asia and spread out over a large part of the world.
We shall also take a look at India’s medieval past to see what happened after the
decline of Harsha’s rule.

OBJECTIVES
After studying this lesson, you will be able to:

 identify the Medieval Period as an important stage in the evolution of human

society;
 describe the changes in political organization that took place after the collapse
of the Roman Empire;
 explain the political, military and socio-economic aspects of Feudalism as it
existed in Western Europe;
 describe the evolution of Islamic religion, society and polity in West Asia;
 recognise the features of political organization during the Medieval Period in India
 describe the main features of Medieval Indian economy; and
 analyse how cultural and religious life during the Medieval Period in India
represented a unique tradition of synthesis.

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through the Ages
2.1 EUROPE IN MEDIEVAL TIMES
The Medieval Period is also called the Middle Ages. As the name suggests, it refers
to the period which succeeded the Ancient Period and came before the Modern
Period. But was it only a ‘Middle’ age caught in between two great ages with no
significance of its own? Not really since the Medieval Period constitutes an important
stage in the evolution of human society that needs to be studied for its own interest.
Notes What is more, the achievements and glories of the Medieval Period were also
important steps towards the Modern Period.
You may find it interesting to know that the term ‘Middle Ages’ was coined by
Europeans in the 17th century because they saw it as a long and dark period of
interruption between the Classical Period of Ancient Greek and Roman Civilisations
and their own Modern Age. However, the Medieval Period was not necessarily a
dark period or an interruption. For the Islamic world, it was a period when a
civilisation flowered and reached the height of its glory. In India, the Medieval Period
was an age of synthesis. It saw a fusion of old and new political, economic and social
systems. Out of this fusion emerged a unique cultural pattern of co-existence and
acceptance that became the hallmark of the Medieval Period of India. Even in
Europe, the picture does not appear as gloomy as it is sometimes thought. In the
early part of the Medieval Period the level of material and cultural accomplishment
was no doubt somewhat low. However, during the later part the Europeans greatly
improved their standard of living. They also developed new institutions of learning
and new modes of thought and reached very high standards in literature and art. In
fact, the new ideas that emerged during this time not only transformed Europe but
also had a deep impact on the rest of the world in the times to come. Let us then
find out what was happening in the different parts of the world during the medieval
ages.

2.1.1 Decline of the Roman Empire

We have read in the previous lesson about the strength and greatness of the Roman
Civilisation. We also read how the Roman Empire had come to be divided into
Western and Eastern territories. The Western provinces had their capital in Rome
while the Eastern provinces had their capital in Constantinople. The Roman Emperor
Constantine had set up the new capital of the Eastern territories in the ancient Greek
city of Byzantine in 330AD. It came to be known as Constantinople after his name.
The Roman Empire continued to exist in the east for almost a thousand years after
it had collapsed in the west. It was known as the Eastern Roman or the Byzantine
Empire. This Eastern Civilisation of Greek speaking people reached very high
standards of economic and cultural life at a time when Western Europe was in a
relatively backward condition. The Roman Empire in the west came to an end
following attacks by various Germanic tribes like the Goths, Vandals, Visigoths and

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Franks. After overthrowing the Roman Emperor in the West in 476 AD, these through the Ages
invaders established separate successor states.
Did all this political upheaval result in a complete change? Did the political and
economic systems built by the Romans disappear? Well, the new Germanic rulers
did not completely replace the earlier systems with their own. In fact, Roman and
Germanic societies came into close contact and merged with each other. As a result
of this and the prevailing political and economic conditions, a new type of society Notes
was born in Europe, with institutions and systems that were quite different from either
Roman or Germanic ones. The most important institution of this new society was
Feudalism. It completely transformed the existing social, political and economic
organizations. Let us see how this system evolved and what its characteristics were.

2.2 FEUDALISM: POLITICAL, MILITARY AND SOCIO-

ECONOMIC ASPECTS
The successor states of the Germanic peoples in the West managed to restore political
stability after the collapse of the Roman Empire. In fact, one of these states managed
to create a sizeable empire under the famous king Charlemagne, which began to
collapse after about mid-9th century under the impact of fresh waves of invasions.
The resulting political chaos led to the emergence of a new kind of political order
called Feudalism. It was a hierarchical or graded organization of political sovereignty.
This hierarchical structure can be understood easily if we visualize a ladder or a flight
of steps. At the top of the ladder stood the King, below him stood the big lords
known as the Dukes and Earls. Below these lords were a number of lesser lords
known as the Barons. Below these were the Knights, who were perhaps the lowest
category of lords. The lords derived their authority from and owned their loyalty to
the lord just above them and were known as the vassals of their lord. This pattern
of relationship between lords and vassals, that is, between bigger lords and lesser
lords was the same from the top of the ladder to the bottom. These lords were all
powerful in their respective local areas. Thus political power was widely dispersed
unlike in the Roman Empire where it was concentrated mainly in the hands of the
king. This was the political aspect of Feudalism.
A unique feature of the new feudal political structure was the personal nature of the
bond that linked a lord and his vassal. An elaborate ceremony would be organized
to establish this bond. In this ceremony, a vassal would take a vow to serve the lord
all his life. Simultaneously, he also accepted the protection of the lord. Protection
was important since these were politically unstable times. In return for the protection
that a vassal received he was bound to perform various services for his lord. This
mainly included military services which meant that the vassal had to provide a certain
number of troops whenever required by the lord. In his turn the lord was expected
to make a grant usually in the form of land for the sustenance of the ‘fief’ or ‘fiefdom’

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through the Ages from which the word Feudalism is derived. The lords used to mobilize armed
supporters in their own areas who had personal loyalty directly to him. With this
armed strength, he would provide military support to the lord whenever required.
With this military power, the lords also became complete masters of their own area
and could not be challenged even by the state.
In a period of political turmoil, just as the lords sought protection, so did the peasant.
Notes These peasants had no land of their own, no implements and could not afford to
buy seeds. For these well as for protection the free peasants now turned to the lords.
These dependent peasants of Medieval Europe, tied to the soil and completely
subject to the authority of the lord were called serfs. A major portion of the wealth
generated during this period was through their exploitation. To understand how this
happened, let us see how agriculture was organised during this period.
The entire landed estate over which a feudal lord had control was known as the
manor. The land surrounding the manor house was divided into three parts - land
for the use of the lord, the arable land granted in parcels to the peasants and the
meadowlands used by everyone as grazing land for livestock. The serfs who occupied
these parcels or holdings were regarded tenants of the lord of the manor. Being
tenants, they had to give something to the lord as rent. This rent was paid by peasants
in the form of labour services to the lord. They also worked on the lands of the lords
for a certain number of days in the week. The serfs had to put in extra labour during
agricultural seasons when plugging, harvesting or threshing was required. Such unpaid
labor services also included other heavy tasks such as construction work, hewing
and cutting of fire wood. In the later phase of Feudalism, these labor services were
gradually substituted by those payable in money.

Figure 2.1 Feudal Manor

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The serfs also had to pay some dues or taxes in kind which came from the share through the Ages
of their own produce. These were often introduced arbitrarily whenever the lord
wanted more resources. The lords also extracted from the peasants in an indirect
manner. The manor was a self-sufficient economic unit. This means that almost all
articles of everyday use were produced and consumed on it. For this there were
various facilities like smithies for turning out iron object, flour mills for grinding wheat
or corn, ovens for baking bread, wine presses for making wine from grapes and
various workshops for making products of everyday use. All of these were owned Notes
by the lord. The peasants were forced to use these facilities and the charges for these
would of course be fixed by the lord according to his own will.

ACTIVITY 2.1
You have already read about the Roman slaves in the previous lesson. Find out the
conditions of present day Indian farmers who don’t own lands and work in other
people fields through newspaper or by speaking to your elders. Now compare the
lives of the feudal serfs with the Roman slaves and the present day Indian farmers.
What conclusions can you draw? Write a brief report about your findings.

2.2.1 Changes in Feudal Economy: Prosperity and Crisis in Medieval Europe

We have just finished reading about the various aspects of the feudal system. But
did this system remain the same throughout the Medieval Period? Not at all! Indeed,
the feudal system was not a static system. It witnessed several changes and the feudal
economy underwent a pattern of prosperity and crisis. Let us trace this pattern from
the beginning.
The few centuries after the collapse of the Roman Empire were marked by a low
level of economic life. As we already know, this was also a period of political change
and turmoil. There was a decline in town life, trade and monetary exchange. Some
cities did survive from Roman days but these were only empty shells which had no
real economic role. Roads deteriorated. Barter widely replaced the use of money.
European economy was based almost entirely on agriculture and very limited local
trade. The main economic unit was the self-sufficient landed estate, or the feudal
manor that we have read about. Technology used in agriculture was backward and
agricultural yields were low. These conditions lasted till about the 10th century AD.
After the 10th century, the feudal system of production underwent significant changes.
There was an increase in agricultural fields as the system became more and more
stable. Another factor that helped in increasing agricultural productivity at this time
was a significant improvement in agricultural techniques. A new plough was introduced
which was heavier, had wheels and was drawn by a team of oxen. This helped in

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through the Ages cultivating the heavy and sticky soil of Northern Europe more effectively. Agriculture
was later replaced by the Three Field System in which 1/3rd of the land was left
fallow; 1/3rd was used for cultivating autumn crop and 1/3rd for a spring crop. By
leaving only a third part of the land fallow, the Three Field System helped greatly
in increasing the cropped area. The new plough, Three Field System and other
innovations in agricultural techniques helped in increasing the agricultural yield by
several times.
Notes
Along with the expansion in agriculture the period from the 10th to the 12th century
also witnessed the revival of trade and the growth of town life. Trade ranged from
the small trade at local markets where peasants sold their excess grain or eggs and
bought long distance trade products like wine or cotton. Improvements in road
building helped road transport. Rives and sea routes were also used for trade. The
revival in trade made necessary new patterns of payment since barter was inadequate
for this purpose. As a result, money economy made a tremendous advance. This
led to agricultural prosperity of the surrounding rural areas. The towns soon began
to specialize in certain enterprises. One of these was cloth making which became
one of the most important industries of these towns. Guilds became important. Both
merchant activities and craft production came to be organized around guilds. These
medieval towns continued to grow in importance and ultimately became an important
factor in the breakdown of feudal relations of the countryside.
The tendency towards growth reached its limits by the end of the 12th century.
Significant changes could be noticed in the feudal system by the 13th century which
witnessed a reversal of the process of growth. The period of economic growth and
prosperity resulted in a rise of population. This meant an increase in the supply of
labour for the landlords. They, therefore, no longer found it necessary to retain their
demesnes. Also due to abundant labor, labor-serving technology found few investors.
As demesne lands were gone, the need to extract labor services from the peasants
also went. The reduction in labor services and technological stagnation in agriculture
together with other factors brought down agricultural yield very sharply. Food
shortage and famines began to occur. Epidemics of plague broke out. All this resulted
in an overall decline in the agricultural economy whereas there was growth of a money
economy, urban centers and trade. However, European society was able to
overcome this crisis more easily than the pre-10th century crisis and by around 1450
the economy started moving towards recovery.

The portion of the entire landed estate of the lord which was managed directly
by him was called the DEMESNE.

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We now have some idea about the conditions in which people in Medieval Europe through the Ages
lived. We have also been able to trace the pattern of change in these conditions over
a period of several centuries. How did these changes in the material conditions affect
the society and culture of medieval Europe? Let us see for ourselves.
Given the relatively low level of economic life in the period before the 10th century,
we should not be surprised to know that it was not a prosperous time for learning
or the arts. During this period learning remained a privilege of the few. The masses Notes
received no formal education. In fact, the language of learning was Latin which was
known only to the priestly class. However, even this little bit of education was of
a very narrow kind. It consisted mostly of memorization, without any reasoning or
questioning. All learning was dominated by blind faith. In such conditions, naturally,
there was hardly any development in the sciences. There was some attempt at a
revival, but even this did not result in any real intellectual creativity. However, the
educated members of the priestly and monastic orders did try to recopy and preserve
some major works of Roman literature. This, at least, served as the basis of a revival
of learning that began in the 11th and 12th centuries. This period saw very little
significant production in the area of literature because of the low level of literacy.
The same is the case with artistic productions in this period. However, a unique style
that developed in this field was that of manuscript illustrations. On the whole it may
be said that in this period cultural attainment was minimal and sparse. European
Civilisation at that time was much backward in comparison with other contemporary
neighboring civilisations like the Byzantine and the Islamic world.
The prosperity and relative peace of the period from the 10th century brought about
a consequent change in the cultural life of the period. This period witnessed rise in
literacy with the spread of primary education and the opening of universities. There
was an attempt at the acquisition of classical knowledge as well as knowledge from
the Arab Civilisation. Thus, this period saw a progress in knowledge and thought
in Europe. It was an important step towards the intellectual flowering that took place
during the Modern Period.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 2.1

1. Describe the bond between the feudal lord and his vassal in about 30 words.
2. Who were the serfs?
3. Justify the following statements giving reasons for the same:
(a) The period from the 10th to the 12th century witnessed a revival of trade
and growth of town life.
............................................................................................................

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through the Ages (b) From the 13th century onwards there was a reversal in the trend of growth
of feudal economy.
............................................................................................................
(c) The cultural life before the 10th century was a prosperous time for learning
and the arts in Europe.
............................................................................................................
Notes

2.3 ARAB CIVILISATION DURING THE MEDIEVAL

PERIOD
Arabia is a peninsula of deserts. Before the founding of Islam, most Arabs were
Bedouins, that is, wandering camel herdsmen. Their main source of livelihood was
pastoralism and the produce of the desert oases such as dates. Craft production was
very limited; trade was sluggish and urban development minimal. In the second half
of the 6th century, the economy picked up some momentum due to a shift in long
distance trade routes. There was an ongoing war between the two dominant
neighboring empires of Arabia, namely the Roman and the Persian. Because of these
wars, Arabia became a safer transit route than others for caravans going between
Africa and Asia. This encouraged the growth of some important towns that took
advantage of this trade. The most prominent of these was Mecca which lay on the
junction of some major trade routes. Mecca’s position also derived from its local
religious importance since the Kabah, a pilgrimage shrine was located here. The
Kabah at that time served as a centre of worship for diverse Arabian clans and tribes.
This shrine was controlled by the Quraysh tribe which played a powerful role in the
economic life of Mecca. A brilliant civilisation arose in Arabia in the Medieval Period
which influenced a large section of the world population. It owed its emergence to
the birth of Islam, which was a significant development in world history.
Prophet Muhammad who spread Islam was born in Mecca into the Quraysh tribe
in 570 AD. He was brought up by his uncle since he was orphaned early in life.
He grew up to be a prosperous trader, entering the service of a rich widow Khadija,
whom he later married. Polytheism or belief in many Gods was replaced by a strict
monotheism or belief in one God which became the basis for this new religion known
as Islam and Muhammad was hailed as a ‘Prophet’. At first, he was not very
successful in gaining many converts amongst the Quraysh, except for a limited few
including his wife Khadija. Meanwhile, representatives of another town in the north
called Yathrib invited Prophet Muhammad to come and resolve their local rivalries.
In 622 AD, Muhammad with his followers migrated to that town. That year of
migration was called Hijrah and the town was renamed as Medina. He continuously
began to organize his converts into a political as well as religious community. In an
attempt to spread his faith to Mecca, he and his followers conducted raids on

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caravans of the Quraysh. He finally succeeded in 630 AD and entered Mecca after through the Ages
defeating the Quraysh. The Quraysh submitted to the new faith and the Kabah
henceforth became the main shrine of Islam. After the defeat of Mecca, other tribes
throughout Arabia accepted the new faith.
Islam has simple doctrines. The word ‘Islam’ means absolute submission to God and
adherence to faith. The followers of this faith are knows as Muslims. Islam teaches
that there is only one God. Prophet Muhammad is believed by Muslims to be the Notes
last and greatest prophet of God. They also recognize the prophets of the Jews and
Christians. Muslims believe in the Day of Judgment when the pious would be granted
eternal life in paradise and the wicked would be damned. Quran is the holy book
of the Muslims which is a compilation of the revelations that Prophet Muhammad
was believed to have received from God. These steps include dedication to a life
of morality and compassion, adherence to some set religious observances like prayer
and fast at stipulated times, charity, pilgrimage to Mecca and frequent recitation from
the Quran. Apart from the Quran, the Sunna or Practices of the Prophet and Hadis
or Sayings of the Prophet also set the norms for desirable behavior among Muslims.
In Islam, there are no intermediaries between the individual and God. Instead of
priests there are only religious scholars who have the authority to comment on the
religion and religious laws. Islam also preaches equality of all. Islam has many
similarities in doctrine and beliefs with Judaism and Christianity.

2.3.1 Society and Culture

Arab Philosophy was based on the study of earlier Greek thought. Greek Philosophy
was cultivated by philosophers who believed in rationality. These philosophers apart
from their philosophical speculation were also distinguished in studying Natural
Sciences. They practiced Astrology and Medicine. Their astrology was based on
accurate astronomical observation. In medicine, they not only studied the medical
writings of the Greeks carefully but went much beyond that. Ibn Sina, known to the
West as Avicenna, discovered the infectious nature of tuberculosis and described
several types of nervous ailments. Al-Razi, known to the West as Rhazes, one of
the greatest clinical physicians of the Medieval World discovered the difference
between measles and smallpox. Other Arabic physicians also diagnosed cancer of
the stomach and prescribed antidotes for cases of poisoning. An interesting feature
about the Arab people is that they excelled over all other medieval cultures in the
organization of hospitals. There seems to have been at least 34 hospitals located in
important cities of Persia, Syria and Egypt organized on remarkably modern lines.
The Arabs also excelled in Optics, Chemistry and Mathematics. Physicists founded
the Science of Optics and drew a number of significant conclusions regarding the
velocity, transmission and refraction of light. In chemistry, these people are credited
with the discovery of various new substances and compounds like carbonate of soda,

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through the Ages alum, saltpeter, nitric and sulphuric acids among other things. There were also the
first to describe the chemical processes of distillation, filtration and sublimation. In
mathematics, the greatest accomplishment of Arabs was to bring together the
Geometry of the Greeks and the Number System of the Indians. In fact, the use
of the Indian Number System spread so widely through the Arabs that the west named
them ‘Arabic Numerals’. With a synthesis of all this existing knowledge, the Arabs
were able to make great progress in Arithmetic, Geometry and Trigonometry. These
Notes Indian numerals are even now used all over the world. They have not now come
to be known as European numerals.

Figure 2.2 Number System

The Arab Civilisation was also noted for its Literature particularly poetry. The
Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam is an example of poetry that is remembered to this day.
Just as in other fields, Arab Art also represented a beautiful synthesis of various styles
like the Byzantine and the Persian. Architecture was the most important of the Arab
arts. Examples of Arab architecture include mosques, palaces and madrasas. Its
principal features were domes, minarets, arches etc.
In short it may be said that at a time when the West was lagging far behind, Arab
Civilisation was at its peak intellectually and artistically. The establishment of a vast
empire brought the Arabs into contact with diverse cultures such as Arab, Persian,
Turkish, Indian and African. With these diverse elements it created a splendid society
leaving behind a legacy of discoveries and achievements.

ACTIVITY 2.2
Recollect and make a list of at least 5 monuments you have visited or seen on books
or magazines which reflects Arab architecture, in India as well as outside India. What
were the distinct features of these monuments? Where were they located? What were
your thoughts on viewing them? Suggest ways to conserve them.

2.4 MEDIEVAL INDIAN CIVILISATION

In the previous lesson we have read about the Gupta Empire. After the reign of King
Harshavardhana, began a prolonged period of political decentralization between the

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8th and 10th centuries during which several kingdoms struggled for supremacy. In through the Ages
Northern India, the three major kingdoms were those of the Palas, the Pratiharas
and the Rashtrakutas. Smaller kingdoms or principalities were established by the
Rajput Dynasties of the Chauhans, Paramaras, Gahadavalas, etc. In the South, it
was the Chola Dynasty that had control over most of the peninsular part of the
country. This situation of fragmentation of political authority was greatly favourable
for an invader like Mahmud of Ghazni. After several successful conquests in Western
and Central Asia, Mahmud turned toward India. His Indian conquests began in 1000 Notes
AD, after which he made repeated invasions over Punjab, as far as Kashmir and
Eastern Rajasthan and then into the fertile area of the Gangetic Plains. However,
Mahmud was not interested in establishing his rule over this country.

2.4.1 Political Events

Mahumud’s invasions were followed by the coming of the Turks. The Turks
established their rule over most of Northern India by the 13th century. The Turkish
rulers were known as Sultans and ruled from their capital at Delhi. Their Empire is
thus called the Delhi Sultanate. Its most powerful dynasties were those of the Khaljis
and the Tughluqs. Most of these rulers had to face the threat of invasions by the
Mongols. Meanwhile in the South, the two powerful kingdoms of Vijayanagar and
Bahmani were constantly competing with each other for political supremacy. The
coming of the Mughals in early 16th century marked a new era in Indian History.
Politically, it saw the consolidation of an all India Empire on a scale that had not
been witnessed in India for a long time. Socially and culturally, this was a period
of fusion of various traditions. Out of this fusion was born a unique tradition which
could be seen in the social life, religious practices and beliefs, and in the various arts.
It was based on mutual acceptance and a harmonious coexistence.
Parallel to these centralized empires such as the Delhi Sultanate and the Mughal
Empire, there flourished several smaller regional and provincial independent ruling
dynasties. Some of these were the Ilyas Shahi and Husain Shahi Dynasties of Bengal,
the Ahoms of Assam, the Gajapati Dynasty of Odisha, the Dynasties of Mewar and
Marwar in Rajasthan and the Sharqi Dynasty of Jaunpur. The reign of these
independent regional dynasties witnessed the growth of strong and flourishing regional
and sub-regional languages, literature and cultures.

2.4.2 Political Institutions

The coming of the Turks and the Mughals brought in new ideas of sovereignty and
governance. In the first place, kingship itself had no clear-cut legitimate place in the
Islamic conception of polity which was based on the notion of a community of equals.
Initially power was shared between the Sultan and the powerful Turkish chiefs or
nobles. But the reign of Balban saw an elevation of the position of the Sultan, so
much so that he assumed absolute power in all matters of state and governance. The

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through the Ages power of the Turkish nobility was considerably downsized. The Mughals established
the power and prestige of the king at an unprecedented level.
The Sultans of Delhi and the Mughal Emperors made some innovations in the
administrative system. The Mughal Emperor came to be regarded as the Emperor
of India. In the Delhi Sultanate, military commanders were assigned territorial units
known as iqtas. These territories were transferable. The assignees of these iqtas
Notes were not given ownership of the land but only control over the revenues collected
from them. This revenue was to be used by the iqtadar, that is, the assignee to
meet his own requirements as well as for the maintenance of his troops. He would
then be expected to provide military support with these troops whenever called upon
by the emperor to do so. However, the pre-existing structure of control over land
and the hierarchy in the landed system of the village continued largely undisturbed.
The Mughal system was more penetrative with control over the revenue and landed
network going much deeper right to the village level. The Mughals appointed
mansabdars who performed military and civil duties. The mansabs were actually
ranks of position which was fixed according to the position of the officers in Mughal
bureaucracy and the military contingents under their command. These mansabdars
were mostly paid through land assignments called jagirs which were frequently
transferable. These were similar to iqtas, with the difference that while iqtas
combined administrative charge, jagirs did not. The Mughal system was crucially
dependent on the smooth functioning of Mansabdari and Jagirdari Systems.

2.4.3 Economy
The Delhi Sultanate as well as the Mughal Empire was based on the surplus of
agricultural produce of the peasants that was extracted in the form of revenue. In
the Mughal Empire, particularly in the reign of Akbar, far reaching changes were made
in the system of revenue collection. Land was measured and land revenue was fixed
according to the exact area of land. Fertility of the land was also taken into account.
The cash value of the state’s share of the produce was then calculated according
to prevailing market prices and the revenue was fixed in cash terms accordingly. The
state encouraged payment of revenue in cash. This was a period of commercialization
of agriculture and the state encouraged cash crop production. The state also took
a lot of interest in the extension of cultivation into zones which were hitherto
uncultivated or forest areas. It gave various incentives to pioneer agriculturists. The
state also advanced to peasants loans as well as revenue relief in times of crop failure.
Trade and commerce which had declined greatly following the period of the Guptas
saw a revival during this time. Urban centers flourished after a considerable period
of decline. Inland trade increased in the 13th and 14th centuries as a result of this
new urbanization. A vast network of road connecting these urban centers came up
which also facilitated trade. Cities like Delhi, Agra, Lahore, Multan, Dhaka,

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Ahmadabad, Surat and Bombay rose in importance. The merchandise from Punjab through the Ages
was sent to markets in West and Central Asia. Political stability and relative peace
established by the Mughals made it possible to travel with considerable ease among
the cities of the empire. Coastal trade also flourished. There were a large number
of trading classes and commercial practices were of high standard and integrity. The
seths, bohras and modis were engaged in long-distance trade, while beoparis and
baniks dealt in local and retail trade, the sarafs or shroffs were money changers
who issued hundis or Bills of Exchange. The hundi was a letter of credit that could Notes
be paid at a later date at the designated place. This facilitated the movement of goods
from one part of the country to another as it made the transaction of money over
long distance remarkably easy.

2.4.4 Cultural and Religious Life

In the sphere of religion and culture, the Medieval Period witnessed a great synthesis
of traditions. The Bhakti Movement and Sufism in the religious sphere are examples
of this. The Bhakti Movement which stressed on oneness with god through personal
devotion came very close to the everyday lives of ordinary people. It stressed on
love, purity and devotion rather than rituals and sacrifices. It questioned the caste
system and the authority of Brahmans. Bhakti saints, like Ramananda, Kabir,
Ravidas, Mira Bai, Guru Nanak, Tukaram and Chaitanya Mahaprabhu had a deep
impact on the minds of the common people and this influence continues even today.
In fact, some of these saints developed large following. For example, Guru Nanak
had deep influence over the people of Punjab. His large following led him to found
a new religion called Sikhism whose followers are called Sikhs.

Figure 2.3 Guru Nanakji

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through the Ages

Kabir ke Dohe:
Dukh mein simran sab kare, Sukh mein kare na koye
Jo sukh mein simran kare, Tau dukh kahe ko hoye
Notes (Translation)
In anguish everyone prays to Him, in joy does none
To One who prays in happiness, how sorrow can come

In a similar manner, the Sufi saints also stressed on devotion and love as the only
way to realize the divine. They preached tolerance and compassion. They lived lives
of austerity and shared the sorrows and anxieties of the common masses. As a result
their influence over the masses, both Hindus and Muslims, was very strong. There
was also a lot of interaction between the Sufi and Bhakti saints and exchange of
philosophical idea took place. Both traditions in fact acted as a bridge between the
two communities.

ACTIVITY 2.3
Try to find out if any Bhakti and Sufi saints lived in your state or your neighborhood.
Try to find more about them. Visit their shrine, if any. What did you see? Write your
experience in about 80-100 words.
Collect pictures of at least 3 Bhakti and Sufi saints each. Find out about them and
their teachings. Do you find similarities and differences in their teachings? Reflect and
write a few lines about each of them. What did you learn? Do you find their teachings
relevant? Share your thoughts with family and friends.
Language, literature, art, architecture, music and dance also bore out this trend of
synthesis between different traditions. In the area of language and literature, classical
languages like Persian and Sanskrit flourished. But, the real remarkable development
was in the growth of regional languages.
Under the Mughals, painting was organized in the royal karkhanas and painters were
on government payroll. The Mughal School of painting represented a complete
assimilation of the Persian and Indian styles. This to some extent was a result of the
fact that the artists of this school brought with them elements of the various traditions
to which they belonged like Rajputana, Gujarat, Malwa, etc. Some famous painters
were Daswant, Basavan, Mukund and Kesav. The supervision of the Persian masters

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like Abdul Samad and Sayyid Ali brought in an element of Persian style as well. through the Ages
Manuscript Illustration was another hallmark of Mughal painting.
Another fascinating aspect of cultural life in Medieval India is visible in its Indo-Islamic
architecture. It is characterized by the adaptation of Indian resources, expertise,
motifs and designs to Persian styles. New features like the arch and the dome were
combined with the use of Hindu motifs like bell, lotus, swastika and kalash/water
pot. The Qutub Minar, the Allai Darwaza and various monuments of the Tulghlaq Notes
Period like the Tomb of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq are fine examples of architecture during
the Delhi Sultanate period. The monuments of the Mughal Period reflect a deeper
sense of fusion and assimilation of Indo-Islamic styles. For example, the monuments
in Fatehpur Sikri, like Panch Mahal, Birbal’s Palace and Ibadat Khana, as well as
the Tomb of Humayun in Delhi, Akabar’s famous Tomb at Sikandra, Itmadudaulah’s
Tomb in Agra and, of course, the Taj Mahal are outstanding examples of Mughal
architecture.

Figure 2.4 Qutub Minar

Music was also patronized by most medieval rulers in India. Indian system of vocal
and instrumental musical interfaced with Arab, Iranian and Central Asian traditions

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through the Ages of music. New ragas came to be composed. The Bhakti and Sufi traditions also
gave an impetus to new devotional styles of music.
The Medieval Period of Indian history, quite distinct in its characteristics of political
economic and cultural life, was thus another important outstanding period after the
Ancient Period.

Notes
INTEXT QUESTIONS 2.2
1. Give reasons why Mecca arose into prominence.
2. Enlist at least 5 fields in which we can see the contribution of Arab Civilisation.
3. Fill in the blanks:
(a) In the South, it was the .................... Dynasty that held way over most
of the Peninsular India.
(b) The Mughal System was based on the smooth functioning of the
.................... and .................... Systems.
(c) The .................... were money changers who issued hundis or Bills of
Exchange.
(d) The Bhakti Movement stressed on oneness with God though ....................

WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT

 The Medieval Period cannot be called a Dark Period since so many important
developments and growth in various spheres of life took place in different parts
of the world.
 The most important institution of the society of Europe in the Medieval Period
was Feudalism.
 The feudal system comprised a hierarchical of graded organization of political
authority.
 An economic aspect Feudalism was characterized by serfdom and the manorial
system of production.
 The feudal system was not a static one. It underwent patterns of prosperity and
crisis.
 The period before the 10th century of Europe was marked by low level of cultural
achievements. Cultural life improved, learning and intellectual development began
to flourish after the 10th century.

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 Islam was a new faith spread by Prophet Muhammad around the 7th century. through the Ages
It has simple doctrines.
 Islam spread to large parts of the world
 Up to about 1500 AD, Islamic culture and society was remarkably cosmopolitan
and dynamic. It witnessed great strides in cultural and scientific development.
 The coming of the Turks and the Mughals brought new ideas of sovereignty and
governance to India. The iqta, jagirdari and mansabdari systems were Notes
important administrative innovations.
 The Medieval Period in India was a period of economic growth.
 The cultural and social life in Medieval India was marked by a unique synthesis
of different traditions.

TERMINAL EXERCISES
1. Explain why the Medieval Period is a significant period that needs to be studied
to understand the evolution of human society?
2. Describe the changes that took place in the political and economic life in Western
Europe after the downfall of the Roman Empire.
3. Examine the main features of Medieval Indian economy.
4. What are the main teachings of Islam? Discuss in about 100 words.
5. ‘Arab Civilisation in the Medieval Period left behind a legacy of sicoveries and
achievements’. Justify this statement.
6. Differentiate between Iqtadars and Mansabs.
7. What were the important teachings of the Bhakti Movement and Sufism? How
did acted as a bridge between the Hindus and the Muslims?
8. Illustrate how Medieval Indian culture represented a harmonious synthesis of
traditions in the fields of arts, architecture and music.

ANSWER TO INTEXT QUESTIONS

2.1
1. The lord and his vassal shared a personal bond which was established through
an elaborate ceremony. The vassal would take a vow to serve the lord while
the lord protects the vassal in return.

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through the Ages 2. Serfs were dependent peasants of Medieval Europe, tied to the soil and
completely under the authority of the lord.
3. (a) Yes. Due to the increase in agricultural yield, people could now sell the
excess produce and buy products of long distance trade.
(b) Yes. The reduction in labor services and technological stagnation led to
lesser agricultural produce.
Notes (c) No. Education was a privilege of the few with the masses given no education,
and learning was dominated by blind faith.

2.2
1. Mecca rose into prominence because it lay on the junction of some major trade
routes and it was a place of an important religious shrine, first with the diverse
Arabian clans and tribes, and later with the spread of Islam.
2. Astrology, Medicine, Natural Sciences, Literature, Mathematics, Architecture.
3. (a) Chola
(b) Mansabdari, Jagirdari
(c) sarafs or shroffs
(d) personal devotion

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through the Ages

MODERN WORLD – I Notes

From the 14th century onwards, Europe witnessed many profound changes in its
cultural and intellectual life that helped to usher in the modern period. This was the
Renaissance, the awakening, that encouraged thinking and reasoning in social and
political fields and affected every aspect of life. A period of rationality and scientific
enquiry had already begun in the Arab world, but the changes that took place during
renaissance in Europe affected the whole world. These changes began with the
disintegration of the feudal system, about which you have read, in detail, in the
previous lesson. In this lesson, we will discuss some of these changes and
developments which transformed medieval society into the modern world. We will
also trace the events that took place in the modern world till the 20th century.

OBJECTIVES
After reading this lesson, you will be able to:
 Discuss the impact of decline of the feudalism;
 explain the meaning and features of Renaissance;
 explain the causes of Reformation and its impact;
 describe the development of science;
 mention the main scientific discoveries of the age and some of the main voyages
of discoveries;
 explain significance of the Industrial Revolution for Europe and the rest of the
world;
 explain the causes and effects of the American Revolution and the French
Revolution;
 discuss the struggle for National Unification in Germany and Italy; and
 examine the growth of socialist ideas and Russian Revolution.

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through the Ages
3.1 IMPACT OF DECLINE OF FEUDALISM
During the Medieval Age, one of the most important institutions was Feudalism. You
have read about it in detail in the previous lesson. Feudalism as an institution flourished
in Europe for many centuries. But with the rise of the middle class, it started to decline.
Rise of powerful kingdoms as well as warfare between the feudal lords further led
to its decline. Emergence of new towns and cities and a revival of trade also led
Notes to the disintegration of the feudal system. These towns were centers of production
and were governed by elected representatives. The atmosphere of the towns was
free from feudal restriction and control as people were free to go anywhere and to
take up any profession. Towns attracted artisans and peasants from rural areas
because they provided better prospects of living and acting as a refuge from feudal
exploitation. These towns and cities encouraged the production of many crops such
as cotton and sugarcane. Peasants were paid in cash for their product. The
manufactured goods were sold in the markets where money was the medium of
exchange. The lords began to accept money from their vassals instead of services
as they also needed money to buy various luxurious commodities. This led to the
rise of a powerful merchant class. They now began to aspire for a higher status in
the social hierarchy. They began to support the powerful monarchs to undermine the
position of the feudal lords which weakened the feudal structure and led to the decline
of the feudal order.
The infusion of new ideas created a new awakening. This gave birth to a new
movement called the Renaissance about which we are going to read now.

3.2 RENAISSANCE
The modern period ushered the end of the Age of Faith and the beginning of the
Age of Reason. It witnessed movements like the Renaissance and the Reformation.
These movements brought many changes in cultural, intellectual, religious, social and
political life of the people all over the world. This period is also characterised by
urbanisation, faster means of transport and communication, democratic systems and
uniform laws based on equality.
The literal meaning of Renaissance is ‘rebirth’. It started in Italy around 14th Century
AD. Italy was divided into small city states at that time. Many of them were built
on the ruins of ancient Roman buildings. The geographical position of Italian cities
made them great trading and intellectual centers. Moreover, the position of Italian
cities such as Venice made them centers of trade and intellectual crossroads. Many
great ideas, along with wealth, were brought by merchants from far corners of the
globe. The new form of political and social organization gave political freedom and
a suitable atmosphere for academic, artistic and cultural advancement. People had
more leisure time for study and other activities.

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This was also a period of great economic expansion. Many commercial and financial through the Ages
techniques were developed for trade practices like book keeping, bills of exchange
and public debt. This enabled Italy to become the centre of Renaissance. The major
developments of this time were the revival of urban life, commerce based on private
capital, banking, formation of nation states, explorations to find new routes and
territories and the development of vernacular literature which was popularized by the
printing press. This new mercantile society was less hierarchical and more concerned
with secular objectives. It was in sharp contrast to the earlier rural, tradition bound Notes
society. The adventures and explorers played a significant role in opening a world
economic system. Many new commodities were brought from America, Asia and
Africa after the discovery of trade routes. These goods enriched the life of Europeans
and inspired them to develop new ways of producing them in large numbers to make
profit. The result was that merchants, entrepreneurs and bankers joined hands and
‘Capital’ came to enjoy an important position in the political life as well as in relations
with other countries.
The new ideas that were generated in this period like humanism, rationalism and the
spirit of inquiry brought a profound change in the thinking pattern of the people. There
was a renewed interest in the cultural achievements of the Classical Greek and Roman
Civilisations. Human beings became the central concern of the new scholars. They
believed in the creative potential of the human beings and their right to seek joy and
pleasures in this world itself. This was contrary to the belief of the Medieval Church
which opposed worldly pleasures. This respect for human beings encouraged interest
in art, history, language, literature, ethics, etc. Do you know that it was at this time
that the disciplines grouped under ‘humanities’ were born?
The spirit of Humanism also found expression in the field of art and literature. The
greatest achievements of Renaissance artists were
in the field of paintings. Painters studied the
anatomy and proportions of the human body.
They wanted the human beings to be painted in
realistic form and proportion. Some of the
outstanding artists were Leonardo da Vinci,
Michelangelo, Raphael, Botticelli and Titian. Even
in the field of sculpture, artists began to make free
standing statues. These sculptures now stood
apart from the building or background and were
separate works of art. The first great Renaissance
sculptor was Donatello who made the statue
‘David’.
The Renaissance spirit also marks the rise of
Figure 3.1 Leonardo da Vinci’s
Nationalism in Europe. People now began to free
Monalisa
themselves of medieval religious restrictions and

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through the Ages bonds. National identities grew stronger and this was reflected in the development
of modern European languages such as Italian, Spanish, French, German, English
etc. as the languages of literature. Now the writers used local languages in poetry,
drama, prose, etc., instead of Latin. The works of Renaissance authors became
accessible to a large number of people due to the use of vernacular languages and
the introduction of printing press. The Bible was printed and read by a large number
of people. Several works that were produced in Modern European languages were
Notes Dante’s Divine Comedy, Erasmus, In Praise of Folly; Machiavelli’s The Prince
and Cervantes’ Don Quixote.
Two major developments took place in the history of Europe towards the later part
of the Renaissance. The first was the Protestant Reformation which resulted in the
split in Christianity. The second development concerned reforms within the Roman
Catholic Church, generally referred to as Catholic Reformation or Counter Reformation.
Reformation was a part of the socio-religious and political movement which led to
the emergence of the modern world.

ACTIVITY 3.1
Rationalism, Humanism, Inquiry, Observation, Experimentation and Reasoning were
some of ideas that come up during the Renaissance period. Find their meanings and
relate their relevance in our lives today.

3.3 REFORMATION
The Medieval Catholic Church came to be associated with superstitions, corruption
and greed for money. Superstitious peasants were convinced by the Church that it
possessed the true Cross. People were used to paying fees for seeing a piece of
wood as the true Cross because it was believed that sacred relics had healing power.
The Church laid more emphasis on blind faith than reason as it was the means to
extract money from the devotees. All this changed with the coming of the Renaissance.
In the new spirit of the Renaissance nothing could be accepted. Do you know that
it was in 1517 AD that a German priest called Martin Luther first challenged the
authority of the Roman Catholic Church? According to him, the Bible was the only
source of religious authority. He believed that salvation could be attained through faith
in Jesus Christ instead of having blind faith on the Church. He protested against some
practices of the Church such as the selling of positions in the church, the issuing of
the letters of indulgence for works of charity or going on crusades, to the highest
bidder. Luther had the protection of the German Princes, primarily because of his
desire to seize church property. But on 3 January 1521, he was excommunicated
by Pope Leo X after he refused to stop writing against the Church.

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Luther’s views started the Protestant through the Ages
Reformation in the West and it divided the
Christian world into two, the Protestants and
the Roman Catholics. According to him,
Christians must win salvation by following
Christ and not by buying letter of indulgence.
Though the Reform Movement in England was
Notes
influenced by Lutheran ideas, the English
Reformation occurred as a direct result of King
Henry VIII’s efforts to divorce his first wife,
Catherine of Aragon. Thomas Cromwell, the
King’s Chief Minister, helped the Parliament to
pass the Act in Restraint of Appeals and the
Act of Supremacy. It gave a royal headship to
the King over the church. The king was Figure 3.2 Martin Luther
allowed to marry Anne Boleyn, a commoner.

The Reformation proved to be a great upheaval for religious revival. A Reform

Movement also took place within the Catholic Church. This is known as the ‘Counter
Reformation’. It aimed to reduce corruption as well as to improve and strengthen
Catholic Church. It began in Spain where Ignatious Loyal founded the ‘Society of
Jesus’ which stressed upon service of God, charity, chastity and missionary work.
The movement started by Martin Luther spread to other countries of Europe through
the efforts of King Henry VIII of England, Huldreich Zwingli and John Calvin.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 3.1

1. Fill in the blanks:
(a) ..................... expressed its belief in the creative potential of human beings.
(b) Ignatius Loyal founded the .....................
2. Define feudalism. Give at least two features of feudalism.
3. What were the main ideas of Renaissance?
4. Enlist at least two teachings of Martin Luther which influenced reforms in the
Church.

3.4 DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENCE

During the Renaissance, extraordinary accomplishments were made in the field of
science. We have already read that the Renaissance thinkers emphasized more on

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through the Ages reason than on blind faith and stressed that knowledge could be gained by observation
and experimentation. They rejected blind faith in tradition and established beliefs. This
resulted in a scientific inquiry that had almost disappeared. Renaissance also brought
about a scientific revolution. Artists like Leonardo da Vinci made observational
drawings of anatomy and nature which were a unique blend of science and art. The
period also saw remarkable achievements in medicine and human anatomy. Michael
Servetus, a Spanish doctor, discovered the circulation of blood. William Harvey, an
Notes
Englishman explained the function of the heart in purifying blood and its circulation
through veins. The beginnings that were made by the Renaissance scientists paved
the way for observation and experimentation in other fields of knowledge.

One of the most remarkable achievements of the Renaissance in science was in the
field of astronomy. Have you heard of Copernicus, Kepler and Galileo? They were
great astronomers who formulated and tried to prove that the Earth revolves around
the Sun. Before the Renaissance, it was believed that the Sun revolved around the
Earth and whoever questioned this was denounced as a heretic. Copernicus in his
book On the Revolution of the Heavenly Sphere argued that the earth and the
planets move around the sun in concentric circles. Even though the theory was
imperfect, it aroused thinking and reasoning. Kepler further developed this theory
and said that the other planets move in elliptical paths around the sun. He also argued
that magnetic attractions between the Sun and the planets kept the heavenly bodies
in an orbital motion. Further on this assumption, Isaac Newton developed his Law
of Universal Gravitation. With his self manufactured telescope, Galileo discovered
the moons of Jupiter, the rings of Saturn and spots in the Sun. He also confirmed
the findings of Copernicus. Renaissance also developed a curiosity in the minds of
Europeans about other lands and other peoples. Let us find out how this happened.

3.5 DISCOVERY OF NEW LANDS

The spirit of inquiry encouraged many adventurers to discover new lands. The new
trade routes that were discovered changed the history of the world. It is said that
‘God, Glory and Gold’ was the main motive behind these discoveries. But the motive
of gold or economic need was the most important. Before the geographical
discoveries, Europeans obtained articles like spices, cotton, precious gems, silk, etc.
from the Eastern part of the world. They travelled through the Arabic and Islamic
territories for the supply of these articles. This was not very convenient and also posed
uncertainties. So a direct sea route to South East Asia was discovered as it had a
potential of a lucrative trade. The explorers also had another motive, which was to
convert the people of the newly found areas to Christianity. It also became a means
for them to serve God. In addition, the adventurers also hoped to acquire fame by
discovering new lands. Some did indeed become very famous. Have you heard about

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Vasco da Gama discovering India and Columbus who set out for India but discovered through the Ages
America? Do you know Ferdinand Magellan was the first explorer to lead an
expedition around the world? Bartholomew
Diaz was another famous explorer.
Why do you think that these great adventures
and voyages were sponsored by kings and
wealthy people? The tremendous increase in Notes
trade and colonization had a great impact on
the enhancement of European wealth. One of
the most famous kings who sponsored the
voyages was the Portuguese King Henry, who
is also known as Henry the Navigator. The
technological base for these discoveries came
from the invention of the compass, astrolabe,
astronomical tables and the art of map making. Figure 3.3 Vasco da Gama
These voyages led to the establishment of
trading outpost and colonial empires in different parts Africa, America and Asia. Now
commercial focus shifted from Mediterranean Sea to the Atlantic Ocean. Many new
commodities were added to trade such as tobacco, molasses, ostrich feathers,
potato, etc. It also started the inhuman slave trade in America. Slaves were captured
from Africa, transported across the Atlantic Ocean and sold to work in plantations
in North America.
These trade practices and new sea routes helped the European merchants to
accumulate huge wealth which they invested in the development of new machines.
This led to the coming of the Industrial Revolution which made them more powerful
and wealthy.

ACTIVITY 3.2
On a world map trace the sea routes taken by Vasco da Gama, Ferdinand Magellan
and Christopher Columbus to reach new destinations.

3.6 INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

The Industrial Revolution began in England from about 1750 AD. This was possible
because English merchants had accumulated huge wealth through overseas trade and
her colonies secured the supply of raw materials. The colonies also acted as potential
markets for finished goods. Moreover, England had huge amount of essential
resources such as coal and iron which were necessary for running the industries. Thus,
the capitalists invested in the development of new machines to speed up the

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through the Ages production with the aim of earning more profits. Now machines began to take over
some of the work of humans and animals for production. Though there was new
development and the coming in of new machineries to improve production, the society
became unequal. It created a division in society with the coming of two groups of
people – the capitalist or the bourgeoisie and the worker or the proletariat – as they
were later called. You will read more about the Industrial Revolution in the next lesson.

Notes

INTEXT QUESTIONS 3.2

1. Choose the correct answer:
(a) Who discovered the sea route to India?
(i) Bartholomew Diaz (ii) Vasco da Gama
(iii) Columbus (iv) None of these
(b) Which of the following was not a result of the voyages of discovery?
(i) Setting up of colonies in Asia and Africa
(ii) Expansion of European commerce
(iii) Rise in the prosperity of the colonies
(iv) Beginning of slave trade
2. Name at least two contributions of the Renaissance in the field of Science.
3. Enlist at least three discoveries which helped the Europeans to find new sea
routes.
4. Identify the significant change in the society due to the Industrial Revolution.

3.7 AGE OF REVOLUTIONS

The European Revolution of 1848 brought a series of political upheavals with their
opposition to the traditional authority. There was a very strong dissatisfaction with
political leadership and people started demanding more participation in the affairs
of the states. Political awareness, ideas like liberty, equality and fraternity were
popularised by the printing press. The revolutions which were most important
occurred in America, France, Germany, Italy and Russia. Britain had already faced
a major change with the Glorious Revolution. The United States of America was born
after the American War of Independence and Russia experienced a workers’
movement which led to the establishment of a socialist government. These upheavals
were accompanied by a feeling of nationalism amongst the population of many states
which had been encouraged by enlightened ideas. Now we are going to read about
these revolutions.

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3.7.1 The Glorious Revolution through the Ages

The Glorious Revolution of 1688 occurred in England much before the Age of
Revolutions and proved a source of inspiration for the world. It was called the
Glorious Revolution because no blood was shed to achieve its success. The Stuart
king James II lost the popular support of his countrymen. This was due to his harsh
attitude towards the people. The creation of an expensive standing army and
increasing employment of Roman Catholics in the government, army and universities
Notes
had angered the people. The Parliament removed King James II from the throne in
favor of his daughter Mary II and her husband William III, Prince of Orange. The
autocratic rule of James II was replaced with a constitutional form of government.
It showed that the Parliament had the power to change the monarch.

3.7.2 American War of Independence

It will be interesting for you to know that some of the political rights that we enjoy
today are the direct outcome of two very important revolutions that occurred in the
later part of the 18th century. They played a crucial role in the shaping of the modern
world. These were the American Revolution and the French Revolution. Through
these revolutions, people asserted their rights and ended exploitation.
Around the 16th century, many Europeans had settled in America because of religious
persecution in England. Some of them were also attracted by economic opportunities.
They had formed 13 colonies which had local assemblies to settle their problems.
These colonies were suffering due to the British economic policy of mercantilism
through which they tried to regulate colonial commerce in the British interest. The
colonies were not permitted to set up industries as it would result in competition with
the British industries like iron and textile. They had to export sugar, tobacco and
cotton only to England, at prices determined by the mother country England. This
provoked opposition from the British American colonies.
By the 18th century, the wars with France and in India were proving very expensive
for Britain. She needed money to fight these wars, and this was done by collecting
taxes from the American colonies. In 1765, the British Parliament passed the Stamp
Act on all business transactions like official documents, deeds, mortgages, newspapers
and pamphlets. The revenue was used to pay the cost of maintaining 10,000 British
troops in America. The Act was opposed by the colonists. Riots broke out in colonial
port cities. The colonial assemblies passed resolutions against the Stamp Act. The
British Parliament had to repeal the Stamp Act in 1766. However, the Parliament
continued the tax on tea. On 16th December, 1773 some Americans disguised as
Native Indians descended upon the three ships of the East India Company and
dumped the tea into the sea. This incident is known as the Boston Tea Party. The
Parliament closed the Port of Boston but the trigger was set for the American War
of Independence.

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through the Ages The representatives of the 13 colonies called the meeting of the first Continental
Congress at Philadelphia in 1774 and appealed to the King of England not to impose
taxes without their consent. The King regarded this as an act of rebellion and declared
war. This led to fights and finally to the ‘Declaration of Independence’ on 4 July,
1776 at a Congress at Philadelphia which proclaimed their independence from Great
Britain and the formation of a cooperative union. It inspired the whole world with
its emphasis on equality, right to life, liberty and pursuit of happiness. The Bill of Rights
Notes granted many freedoms such as freedom of speech, press, religion and justice under
law. The American Revolution was a struggle by which the thirteen American colonies
won independence from Britain and gave birth to the nation that is now called the
United States of America (USA).

ACTIVITY 3.3
Imagine you are a newspaper reporter who was a witness to the Boston Tea Party.
You interviewed the English East India Company officials, the Americans who
participated and passersby who had seen the act. Write a newspaper article on it
bringing out their versions of the story. Also, give your opinion of what must have
taken place.

3.7.3 French Revolution

In the 18th century, French society was still feudal in character with the monarch
exercising complete authority. It was divided into three classes or estates. The First
Estate of Clergy or Church and the Second Estate of Nobility enjoyed all the luxuries
and many privileges over religion and the governance of the country. The Third Estate
of the Commoners such as peasantry, city workers and the middle class were heavily
burdened with taxes.
The internal condition of France made it an ideal stage for a revolution to take place.
Louis XVI and his wife Marie Antoinette’s luxurious lifestyles had emptied the
treasury and made the country bankrupt. Louis XVI was forced to call a meeting
of representatives of the three estates- the clergy, the nobility and the commoners
in 1789. He wanted to gain approval for new tax law. The third estate demanded
equality in taxation and abolition of special privileges enjoyed by the first two estates.
It declared itself a National Assembly and took over the sovereign power from the
Emperor. The historic French document, ‘Declaration of the Rights of Man and
Citizen’ was adopted. It was later embodied as the preamble in the French
Constitution of 1791. This was influenced by the U.S. Declaration of Independence,
asserting the equality of all men, the sovereignty of the people and the rights to liberty,
property, security, right to education, to free speech, to be informed, right of the poor
to public assistance, a ban on torture and slavery, recognition of the right of the people

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to choose their government and the eligibility of all citizens for employment in public through the Ages
offices.
The French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars starting from 1789 and
lasting for about 15 years resulted in the formation of the French Republic. The French
Revolution tore down the medieval structures of Europe and brought in new ideas
of liberalism and nationalism. France witnessed a complete change in the government,
administration, military, society and culture. France became a republic under Notes
Napoleon Bonaparte. The guiding principles of the French Revolution were Liberty,
Fraternity and Equality. The revolutionaries were inspired by the ideas of many
Enlightenment thinkers and philosophers such as Voltaire, Montesquieu and Rousseau.
The American War of Independence and the French Revolution popularizsd the
feeling of nationalism all over the world. The idea of nationalism from America, France
and Britain influenced the Italians. The result was a revolution for a unified kingdom
of Italy in 1861.

ACTIVITY 3.4
Given below are the flags of France and America. What role do you think these flags
played in the French Revolution and the American War of Independence? Find out
what the different colors signify. Do you think the Indian flag played a similar role
in the Freedom Struggle?
Count the number of stars in the American map. What do you think it represents?
Count the number of stars in the present day flag of America.

Figure 3.4 Flag of France during the French Revolution

Figure 3.5 Flag of the American War of Independence

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through the Ages 3.7.4 Unification of Italy
In the 18th century, Italy was a collection of states, each having its own monarch
and traditions. Some of them were Venetia, two Sicilies, Papal States, Sardinia,
Tuscany, etc. During the Middle Ages, the Pope increased their influence in both
religious and political matters. The Pope established their own political rule in what
were called the Papal States. Soon Italy began to grow in importance. They became
centers of political life, banking and foreign trade. During the Renaissance, Italy
Notes became even more important than the other states, about which you have read earlier.
For many years, France and the Holy Roman Empire fought for the control of Italy.
The French Revolution of 1789 played an important role in the history of Italy. The
Italian rulers sensing danger in their own country drew closer to the European kings
who opposed France. After France became a republic, secret clubs favoring an Italian
Republic was formed throughout Italy. From 1796 till 1814, when Napoleon
Bonaparte was defeated by the European powers many Italians had started seeing
the possibility of a united Italy free from foreign control.
Many revolutionaries like Mazzini and Garibaldi along with some secret societies kept
spreading the idea of an independent unified republic among the Italians. From 1849
onwards, the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia which was a monarchy under Victor
Emmanuel took an active role in this unification. It was significant that the Italian
unification was headed by a monarch. Under his leadership, Cavour the Prime
Minister ousted the Austrians form Lombardy, Tuscany, Modena, etc. Garibaldi led
the revolt and liberated Sicily and Naples. He handed over the charge of the two
states to Emmanuel and declared him the King of Italy. Later, Rome and Venetia
joined the federation of Italian states. The process of unification of Italy began with
the Congress of Vienna in 1815 and ended with the Franco-Prussian War in 1871.

3.7.5 Unification of Germany

After Napoleon’s defeat in 1815, many Germans
wanted an independent Germany. Germany was
a confederation of 39 small states, led by Austria
and Prussia. These states were always at war with
one another, deterring the economic progress of
Germany. The King of Prussia, Kaiser William I,
chose a Prime Minister Bismarck to unify Germany
under the rule of Prussia, and excluding Austria
and France completely. Bismarck was fearless
and believed in the urgent need for unification in
Germany. He started with the modernisation of the
army, defying the parliament in collecting taxes.
His policy came to be known as ‘Blood and Iron’
policy and earned him the nickname of the ‘Iron Figure 3.6 Otto Von Bismarck
Chancellor’.

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With this improved army, Bismarck encouraged the German population of Schleswig through the Ages
and Holstein to revolt against their ruler Denmark. In 1864, Bismarck joined hands
with Austria against Denmark. Bismarck’s next target was Austria. Prussia defeated
Austria and formed the North German Confederation. Bismarck promised the
province of Venice to Italy and kept her out of the war. Austria was forced to give
Venice to Italy, ending the Austrian control in Italy. He also promised territorial
compensation to Napoleon III of France and kept it out of the war. He had already
secured Russia’s support by helping them in suppressing a revolt in Russian controlled Notes
Poland.
The only obstacles to Prussian dominance of Germany were four small German states
in Southern Germany and the disapproval of Napoleon III of France. But a
disagreement between the two countries led France to declare a war on Prussia.
The Franco-Prussian War was quite short. Prussia invaded France in 1871 and
defeated the French. Napoleon III abdicated the throne and France was forced to
give up Alsace and Lorraine. The remainder of the German states, except Austria,
were annexed and joined with Germany. The unification of Germany was complete
under Kaiser William I. Soon Germany emerged as the leading power in Europe,
building a colonial empire to further German economic interest and increase German
influence in the world.

3.7.6 Socialist Movement and the Russian Revolution

The Industrial Revolution had led to an unequal society. On the one hand were the
workers who were poor, exploited and without any rights; and on the other were
the capitalists who enjoyed all the privileges. At that time, some people began to
think about the society that should be based on equality in social and economic terms.
Ideas like equality, freedom of speech and democracy gave encouragement in this
regard. The idea of socialism, which tries to establish equal society, began to take
root. The most powerful and influential ideas of socialism was given by Karl Marx
and Friedrich Engels. In the book Das Capital, Marx pointed out that history of
all societies is the history of class struggle. According to him the capitalists always
try to increase their profits by reducing the wages of the workers which leads to
class conflict. He predicted that the struggle will be successful with the end of
capitalism and the coming of socialism. This will result in the control of the ownership
of the means of production in the hands of the state and the birth of an equal society.

The first practical example of this was the Russian revolution which resulted in the
establishment of the first socialist government of the world. Russia was industrially
backward and was based on an agrarian economy. Tsar was an autocratic and
oppressive ruler; hence the workers and the peasants suffered a lot. The Revolution
of 1905 led to the formation of a constitutional monarchy with the formation of the
Duma; the members of whom were representatives of peasants, townsmen and

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through the Ages gentry. Even after the 1905 of Revolution, the civil rights and democratic representation
was limited and hence the unrest continued.
In 1917, occurred another revolution in Russia. It happened because the condition
of the Russian workers and peasants, and non Russians living in Russia had become
quite miserable under the autocratic rule of Tsar Nicholas II. Exploitation along with
inhuman working conditions and huge amount of taxes had made the people rise
Notes against him. People were also denied any political rights. Russia had also entered
World War I for imperialist gains. But she was unequipped to do so. Thousands of
Russian soldiers were killed in World War I as they were ill equipped with no proper
warm uniforms and arms to fight in the cold desert of Siberia. Many skilled workers
were forced to enlist in the army and fight in the battlefields resulting in their deaths.
The nobility were also dissatisfied with Tsar Nicholas II due to his autocratic ways.
Famines further worsened the situation in the country. This resulted in labor riots and
strikes. Striking crowds attacked courts, prisons and office premises. There was
widespread unrest among all sections of society. The army lacked ammunition, the
cities lacked food while the peasants failed to get proper return for their produce.
The government in the meantime had printed millions of Rouble notes leading to
inflation. The situation slipped out of Tsar’s hands.

Figure 3.7 Demonstrations by the People on 18 June 1917 at Petrograd. The banner
says, “Down with the 10 Capitalist Ministers; All Power to the Soviets of Workers’,
Soldiers’, and Peasants’ Deputies; and to the Socialist Ministers, we demand that
Nicholas II be transferred to the Peter-Paul Fortress.”

This situation was further worsened by the writings of Marx and Tolstoy which
influenced the people, especially the workers, and led to their political awakening.
This led to the formation of the Council of Workers called the Soviets. In February
1917, Tsar was deposed and a Provisional Government was established under the

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control of the Menshevik Party. But the Government failed to fulfill the demands of through the Ages
the people. Another Party called the Bolshevik headed by Lenin organised the Soviets
and replaced the Government in October 1917. This October Revolution was the
final stage of the Russian Revolution. It brought to an end the rule of the Tsar and
led to the formation of the USSR and a new world order.
In the next lesson you will read more about Industrialisation, Imperialism and the
World Wars. You will be able to understand how the Industrial Revolution changed Notes
the face of the world and brought about tremendous changes in the life of the people.
You will also read the impact it had on the non-industrialised countries of the world
and how it led to conflicts which are till today considered to be some of the most
horrible wars faced by the world.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 3.3

1. Choose the correct answer:
(a) In how many colonies was America divided?
(i) 13 (ii) 14 (iii) 15 (iv) 16
(b) The Third Estate in France comprised of the:
(i) Nobility (ii) Clergy (iii) Commoners (iv) Monarchy
(c) German Unification was successfully carried out under the leadership of:
(i) Cavour (ii) Mazzini (iii) Bismarck (iv) Garibaldi
2. ‘The Glorious Revolution of 1688 was a source of inspiration for the world’.
Justify this statement within 30 words.
3. Enlist at least two similarities between the American War of Independence and
the French Revolution.
4. The Russian Revolution was inspired by the ideology of socialism. Explain briefly.

WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT

 The feudal order of Medieval Europe broke down as a result of several factors
such as the emergence of towns and cities, the revival of trade, the growth of
commercial agriculture and the aspirations of the rising merchant class.
 The Renaissance or Rebirth that took place in Europe around the middle of the
14th century began with a renewed interest in the cultural achievements of
Classical Greece and Roman Civilisations. It resulted in a profound change in
the thought pattern of the people.

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through the Ages  The idea of humanism stressed on the creative potential of human beings and
the human being became the subject of study of the humanists.
 The Reformation was an attempt to question the abuses that had crept into the
practices of the Church. It was started in Germany by Martin Luther. It soon
led to the division of the Christian World into the Catholics and the Protestants.
 One of the important achievements of the Renaissance was the development of
Notes rationality and scientific attitude and the growth of modern science. Copernicus,
Keplar, Galileo and Newton are remembered for their contributions in this area.
 The Renaissance spirit of inquiry led to the voyages of exploration and the
discovery of new lands. These voyages had far reaching consequences for a large
part of the world.
 The Industrial Revolution began in England from around 1750 A.D. The coming
of the Industrial Revolution increased the rate of industrial production several
times over. It created a class of industrial workers/proletariat who were miserably
exploited by the capitalists/bourgeoisie.
 The American Revolution that took place in 1776 inspired the whole world with
its ideas of equality and freedom and the rights of people.
 The French Revolution was inspired by the ideas of philosophers such as
Montesquieu, Voltaire and Rousseau. It had a deep influence on the modern
world with its ideas of freedom, equality and fraternity.
 The rise of the feeling of nationalism led to the movements for unification of
countries like Germany and Italy.
 The problems and concerns of the new industrial working class led to the rise
of the ideas of socialism. The Russian Revolution was an outcome of the growth
of such consciousness and it led to the establishment of the first socialist
government in the world.

TERMINAL EXERCISES
1. How did the rise of towns and emergence of trade led to the decline of feudalism?
2. Why do you think Renaissance marks a break from earlier patterns of thought
and existence? Write in about 100 words.
3. How did the Reformation impact Europe and the rest of the world?
4. How did the discovery of new lands change the economy and society in the
modern world?
5. Enlist the main ideas given in the Declaration of American Independence.

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6. Which ideas of the French Revolution had an impact on the world order? through the Ages

7. Discuss the strategies used by the German and Italian leaders for their unification.
8. Describe the conditions of the industrial workers which influenced the Russian
Revolution.

Notes
ANSWERS TO INTEXT QUESTIONS

3.1
1. (a) Renaissance scholars
(b) Society of Jesus
2. Feudalism is defined as a system in which people were given land and protection
by lords in return for their labor. Its two features were:
(a) The workers worked and fought for their lords.
(b) The king was the most powerful feudal chief.
3. The spirit of humanism, rationalism and inquiry.
4. (a) Martin Luther advocated for salvation through faith on Jesus Christ and not
through the blind faith on the church.
(b) The Bible was the only source of religious authority.

3.2
1. (a) (ii)
(b) (iii)
2. (a) The emphasis on reason than on blind faith.
(b) Scientific inquiry based on observation and experimentation.
3. Compass, astrolabe and the art of map making.
4. The society became unequal and was divided into two groups of people – the
capitalist or the bourgeoisie and the worker or the proletariat.

3.3
1. (a) (i)
(b) (iii)
(c) (iii)

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through the Ages 2. The Glorious Revolution proved to be a source of inspiration for the world
because the Parliament was able to replace the autocratic rule of James II with
a constitutional form of government without shedding any blood.
3. (a) Both the Revolutions helped assert the rights of the people and spoke against
exploitation.
(b) Both popularised the feeling of nationalism all over the world.
Notes 4. The French and Renaissance ideas like equality, freedom of speech and
democracy, along with the writings of Marx helped in strengthening the idea of
socialism. It advocated the control of the ownership of the means of production
in the hands of the state which would give birth to an equal society. This influenced
people and led to political awakening of the people, especially the workers
resulting in the Russian Revolution.

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through the Ages

MODERN WORLD – II Notes

In the last lesson, you read about the developments during the Renaissance which
brought many changes in the European society. Extraordinary accomplishments were
made in the field of science. People rejected blind faith and tradition and laid more
stress on observation and experiments. The coming of the printing press created
political awareness about new values and ideas like liberty, equality and fraternity.
Political conditions in many countries of Europe led the adventurers to discover new
sea routes to many territories of the world. Missionaries ventured into new domains
to spread Christianity and merchants brought in goods from different parts of the
world. The time was right for technological changes that brought the Industrial
Revolution and revolutionised the life of the working classes especially in England.
Let us now read about the impact of the Industrial Revolution, Imperialism and
Colonialism in Asia and Africa. We will also read about the two World Wars and
about the formation of the United Nation Organisation in this lesson.

OBJECTIVES
After reading this lesson, the learner will be able to:

 describe the Industrial Revolution;

 discuss the innovations and technological changes brought in by the Industrial

Revolution;

 assess the impact of the Industrial Revolution on society;

 identify the factors responsible for the rise of Imperialism and Colonialism;

 discuss the various stages of development of Imperialism in Asia and Africa;

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through the Ages  trace the events which led to the two World Wars; and

 list the objectives of the United Nations Organisation.

4.1 INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

In the 18th century came the Industrial Revolution. It brought social and economic
changes that marked the transition from a stable agricultural and commercial society
Notes
to a modern industrial society. Historically, it refers to the period in British History
from 1750 to 1850. Dramatic changes in the social and the economic structure took
place as inventions and new technology created the factory system of large-scale
machine production and greater economic specialisation. The population which was
employed in agriculture now gathered in urban factories. Do you know why this
happened? Earlier the merchants supplied the family with raw materials and collected
the finished products. This system did not meet the growing demands of the markets
for long. So by the end of the 18th century, rich merchants set up factories. They
installed new machineries, brought raw materials and employed workers on fixed
wages to make machine made goods. Thus the factory system was born.

Figure 4.1 Early Spinning Machine

The Industrial Revolution started in Britain with the use of steam power. This was
made possible with the invention of the Steam Engine by James Watt in 1769. In
1733 John Kay’s invented the Flying Shuttle which simplified the process of weaving
cloth and which increased the output four times. James Hargreaves invented a hand
powered spinning wheel, the Spinning Jenny, to create multiple spools of thread at
once. After the invention of the Spinning Jenny, cotton textiles became the key industry
of this period. The presence of large quantities of coal and iron proved a decisive
factor in Britain’s rapid industrial development. The building of canals and roads, as
well as the advent of the railroad and steamship, widened the market for manufactured
goods. New periods of development came with electricity and the gasoline engine.

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Britain had all the resources that were needed to make her an industrialised power. through the Ages
By 1850, the Revolution had been accomplished with industries becoming a dominant
factor in British life. The effect of the Industrial Revolution was felt worldwide. France
after 1830, Germany after 1850 and U.S. after the Civil War soon started
industrialisation. Let us read further how industrialisation was achieved.

Major inventions and reforms gave a boost to agriculture in England. Important

innovations took place in farming such as Jethro Tull’s Seed Planting Drill which aided Notes
in planting seeds at uniform intervals and depths without any wastage. Between 1760
to1830, the British Parliament passed nearly 1000 Enclosure Acts by which the lands
which had earlier belonged to the community were combined into larger areas.
Though all this helped to increase agricultural production but at the same time
rendered a large number of people landless. Now only a few people were needed
to work on the farms so a large number of people started migrating to cities for
employment. This provided cheap and abundant labour to work in the factories.

The favorable political conditions in England further helped in the growth of the
Industrial Revolution. Acts like the removal of trade barriers and a common market
aided the merchants. England was able to capture the overseas markets primarily
with the development in transportation. Many European countries had by now started
following the Policy of Mercantilism. Under this Policy, governmental control was
exercised over industries and trade. It was based on the theory that national strength
was indicated by more exports and less imports. This theory also believed that wealth
of a nation depends on the possession of gold and silver and the governmental
interference in trade should be very limited.

What factors do you think made it possible for England to be the first country to
be industrialised? England enjoyed a geographical advantage over other countries.
It had a secured island location with an easy proximity to sea. But at the same time
it was isolated from the rest of Europe and hence progressed unhindered. Waterways
like canals, rivers and sea helped England to have the largest free trade area, without
tolls or barriers. These advantages made England a favourable location for the
Industrial Revolution.

4.2 INNOVATIONS AND TECHNOLOGICAL CHANGES

DURING THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
Many innovations, inventions and technological changes took place during this period.
It helped to make the industrialised countries more powerful and efficient. Now
production could be done much faster and in large quantities which made things
cheaper. These inventions had maximum impact on the textile and transport industries
which you are going to read now.

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through the Ages 4.2.1 Textile Industry
Technological advancements in the textile industry started a series of inventions in
iron and steel production. Other countries were inspired to follow the example of
England as manufactured goods from England were flooding the world markets. To
safeguard their interests Britain passed laws to ban textile workers from leaking out
information about industrial technology or to travel to other countries. But in 1789,
Samuel Slater slipped out of England to America. He took the knowledge of British
Notes
textile industry with him which initiated Industrial Revolution in America. Vast new
areas were brought under cotton plantations in America which increased the demand
for slaves. Similar incidents started Industrial Revolution in France and Germany also.
Do you know that Arkright was called ‘The Father of the Factory System’? He
created the first factory that was specially built to house machinery, where the working
hours were fixed and the people were employed rather than kept on contractual basis.
In 1779, Samuel Crompton invented the ‘Spinning Mule’ while Edmond Cartwright
made the first water driven powered loom. The textile industry stimulated other
industries such as dying, bleaching, and printing.

ACTIVITY 4.1
Try to visit a handloom center or a family of weavers near your neighborhood. Find
out about the kind of work they do; whether there is division of labour between the
men and the women. What kind of technology they use? What are the problems
they face? Do they employ children or do their children help them in their work?
Write a report on your findings.
The innovations and technological changes which led to advancement in manufacturing,
transport and communication industries followed closely with chemical, electrical,
petroleum and steel industries. The discovery of trade routes not only gave a boost
to Industrial Revolution but also led to a competition among colonial and imperialist
powers for expanding their empires to fulfill the need of industries for raw materials,
new markets and cheap labour. The imperialist expansions led to struggle for
supremacy and the two World Wars. The colonies were exploited; their traditional
social, economic and political systems were destroyed. They started opposing the
foreign rule and to establish their own nations.

4.2.2. Steam Engine

Another major achievement of the Industrial Revolution was the development and
application of steam power. Even the earlier devices were improved upon and
developed into machines as the number of industries had increased. So, enormous
power was needed for production. In 1705, Thomas Newcomen built an engine for

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pumping water from coal mines. In 1764, James Watt improved upon the design through the Ages
and improved the efficiency of Newcomen’s engine fourfold. He introduced a
chamber with a jet of cold water to condense the steam and cause vacuum. This
was also a period of transfer of one technology to another. Watt used John
Wilkinson’s drill gun to bore the large cylinder for his engine. The steam engine soon
replaced the earlier locomotive coal engines. It increased the demand for railway lines.
The steam engine made the technology portable and was in demand by other
industries. Now there was no need to locate the factories along rivers or lakes any Notes
longer.

4.2.3 Coal and Iron

The steam engine, coal and iron laid the foundation for modern industry. It was
believed that only people with ‘death wish’ worked in mines. Coal was moved along
horizontal tunnels in baskets and then hauled up a vertical shaft to the surface. The
movement of coal from mines was totally dependent on muscle power – animals,
men, women and children. The coal mines had dangerous working conditions.
Unfortunately the children were preferred because of their small size.
The demand for coal went up with the increase in the use of steam power. Great
progress was made in coal mining such as tunnel ventilation, transportation of coal,
use of gunpowder to blast away ridges and the use of safety lamps. But the coal
miners suffered from many hazards and health problems like lung disease.
Significant improvements were made in the iron industry during this time. In 1709,
Abraham Darby produced pig iron smelted with coke. Earlier pig iron was smelted
with charcoal which was derived from wood which resulted in fast depletion of
England’s forests. In 1784, Henry Cort, an ironmaster, developed a process for
producing a less brittle iron. It was called wrought iron. It proved to be a very useful
metal in industrial processes. In 1774, John Wilkinson invented a drilling machine
that could drill holes with great accuracy. Between 1788 and 1806, the production
of iron increased many times and the use of iron spread to farm machinery, hardware,
shipbuilding, etc.
The development in the iron and textile industries made it necessary to invent better
transportation facilities for cheaper and quicker movement of goods. It was urgently
required to fulfill the need of domestic and foreign markets.

4.2.4. Means of Transportation and Communication

The improvement in the means of transport and communication was a great
encouragement to the Industrial Revolution. The raw materials, finished products,
food and people needed a reliable system of transportation. Improvements in bridges
and road construction were made early in the 1700’s. They helped to transport the

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through the Ages raw materials and factory made products to their destinations. In 1814, George
Stephenson built the first steam locomotive engine to run on railway tracks. Soon
the steam engines and railways were transporting goods over tracks throughout
England and supporting the canal transportation.

Notes

Figure 4.2 George Stephenson’s ‘Rocket’, 1829

The first railway line to use locomotive traction and carry passengers as well as
freight was between Stockton to Darlington, in the year 1825.

During the mid-19th century wooden steam powered ships took over sailing ship.
Soon after iron ship was used for travelling across the ocean. If the first phase of
Industrial Revolution depended on steam, then the second phase depended on
electricity. Do you know Michael Faraday had the distinction of inventing the first
electric motor? Electricity now became commercially available and was used to run
the factories. Faster means of transportation and communication speeding up business
transactions, contacts between army units, colonies, countries and even common
people. The invention of telegraph and telephone made it possible to communicate
anywhere in the world instantly.

4.3 IMPACT OF THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

The Industrial Revolution also encouraged the movement of the masses towards cities
which gave birth to an urban society. The workers now lived close to the workshops
or the factories where they were provided employment opportunities. But the working

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conditions in the factories were miserable along with poor housing, hygiene and health through the Ages
conditions. The factory owners had only one motive and that was to make profit.
Hence he forced the workers to work for long hours on low wages – sometimes
12 to 14 hours daily. Women and children were paid very low wages. The factories
were poorly ventilated, noisy, dirty, damp and dark. Do you think this situation
continued for long? Gradually the workers began to realise their strength. The
pressure came from trade unions. A movement began to save the workers from the
injustices of the factory system. Many laws were made to reform the working and Notes
living conditions. You will read more about it the coming section.

ACTIVITY 4.2
Look around you, in your family or neighborhood or shop or market. Do you see
young children, below 14 years, being employed and denied their right to study? What
should be done to educate them? Give it a thought and try to find ways to help them.
There was a tremendous increase in production which resulted in lower cost of goods.
Human labour was replaced with the machines and the domestic system of production
came to an end. Increase in agriculture production decreased the food prices. A new
source of wealth rose from the ownership of factories and machinery. This new group
of people was known as the capitalists. They also organised the banking system to
distribute capital from surplus income areas to those areas where it was needed. In
early 1700’s the first private banks were opened by goldsmith, merchant and
manufacturers.
Very soon Industrial Revolution spread to other countries. The discovery of trade
routes encouraged competition amongst colonial and imperialist powers for expanding
their empires to fulfill the need of raw materials, new markets and cheap labour. It
started a race for colonies among the European countries, rivalry particularly between
England and France. Later on Italy, Germany and other countries also joined the
race. These imperialist expansions led to struggle for supremacy and the two world
wars about which you will read further in the lesson. They exploited the colonies
and destroyed their traditional social, economic and political systems. These colonies
in turn started opposing the foreign rules and fighting for their independence.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 4.1

1. Which two natural resources played an important role in the birth of Industrial
Revolution in England?
2. How the development in the means of transport and communication assisted the
merchants?

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through the Ages 3. What were the reason to employ children in coal mines and factories?
4. Match the column:
(a) James Watt (i) Iron Industry
(b) Samuel Crompton (ii) Electric Motor
(c) Henry Cort (iii) Steam Engine
Notes (d) Michael Faraday (iv) Spinning Jenny
(v) Spinning Mule
(vi) Flying Shuttle

4.4 THE RISE OF IMPERIALISM AND COLONIALISM

In the last section you read about Industrial Revolution and how it spread to the
countries of the West. By the turn of the 19th century, most of the European countries
were industrialised. These countries needed constant supply of raw materials and a
ready market for selling the finished goods. So they began to extend control over
areas which were not industrialised. The capitalists too needed new places and new
industries to invest their surplus capital since these needs could not be fulfilled in their
own countries or in neighboring areas. This practice of extending control or rule over
the political and economic life of another country is known as Imperialism. This may
be done through military or other means. Colonialism meant to acquire colonies and
making them dependent by conquest or other means. It was the need for raw
materials, markets and places for investment of capital which prompted the imperial
nations to conquer lands outside their country. The main feature of Imperialism was
economic domination of colonies by an imperial nation through military conquest,
political rule or by any other method. The wealth and resources were drained out
from the colonies to the imperial countries. The interest of the colonies was subjected
to the interests of the imperial country. The country which conquers another land is
known as the Imperial Country while the conquered land is known as a Colony. By
the end of the 19th century almost all countries of Asia and Africa were under the
control of one or the other European nations.
Why do you think these industrialised countries chose Asia and Africa to extend their
dominance? This was because these countries were rich in resources but were
politically and militarily weak and industrially backward. Unfortunately, they were too
far and distant. Without good means of communication, no countries would be able
to make profit from them. The growth of Imperialism coincided with the growth of
transport and communication. Good roads, steamships, railways and canals were
being built by industrialised nations in their own countries and in the colonies. Easy
transportation of goods to and from the colonies made things easier for these
countries. Troops could also be easily sent to colonies. With the development of
telegraph and telephone, messages could be sent easily. Almost every country now
came within the easy reach of imperial countries.

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Extreme Nationalism became a major force in the extension of Imperialism. For pride, through the Ages
prestige and glory, some countries like Italy and Germany conquered lands belonging
to others. By this time, the Europeans who had developed a feeling of racial
superiority considered the people of Asia and Africa as backward. According to
them, it was ‘the white man’s burden’ to civilise the ‘backward people’. So it was
their duty to conquer these countries, spread Christianity and bring enlightenment to
them. This feeling provided a moral justification for the conquest of these lands.
Notes
This was not difficult as adventurers and explorers played a significant role in inciting
a desire among Europeans for conquering lands. They brought back valuable
information about the lands they discovered and described the wealth and resources
they saw in these remote lands. Do you remember reading the names of many
explorers such as Christopher Columbus, Vasco da Gama and Ferdinand Magellan?

4.4.1 Imperialism in Africa

Do you know that once upon a time Africa was known as the Dark Continent? Very
little information was available about this continent. The missionaries and the explorers
were the first to venture into the interiors. There they discovered an immense treasure
of ivory, gold, diamond, timber and people who could be made slaves. Africa also
had weak political systems, a backward economy and society as well as weak armies.
A competition started amongst the European nations to gain power and prestige as
well as raw materials and markets for their manufactured goods. The Europeans on
the other hand had technologically advanced weapons which helped in their
conquests. Till 1875, European possessions in Africa were limited to some forts and
trading posts along the coast and a few small colonies. But between 1880 and 1910,
the whole of Africa was divided up amongst the Europeans. All important decisions
related to Africa and its people were taken on the conference tables of London, Paris,
Lisbon and other European capitals for the next 50 years!

France ruled the maximum number of colonies in Africa while Britain ruled over
the greatest number of people.

France acquired a huge empire in North and West Africa. Algeria, Tunisia, Morocco,
Ivory Coast, Dahomey, Mali and other areas in West Africa came under the French
rule. Britain ruled Gambia, Sierra Leone, Gold Coast, Nigeria, South Africa,
Rhodesia, Uganda, Kenya, Egypt, Sudan, Eritrea, parts of Somaliland and Libya.
Germany ruled over Southwest Africa, Tanganyika, Togoland and Cameroon until
German was defeated in World War I. By the time the war started in 1914, only
two independent countries were left in Africa - Liberia and Ethiopia. But Ethiopia
was taken over by Italy in 1935.

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through the Ages An interesting feature about Imperialism was the slave trade in Africa. The Europeans
started importing slaves from Africa to work on the plantations in their colonies in
America. There was a regular slave market in Lisbon, the capital of Portugal. Between
1500 and 1800, nearly 15 million Africans were captured and sold as slaves.

Notes ACTIVITY 4.3

A person is discriminated and looked down upon based on his/her color, race, class,
caste or region. We have many incidents of verbal and physical abuse both in India
and abroad regarding the same. Do you think we are acting sensitively and maturely
when we take part in such acts? How would the other person feel? Suggest some
steps you can take to stop this.

4.4.2 Imperialism in Asia

As in Africa so in Asia, the Europeans started colonising here also. The British and
the French did not like the prosperous trade carried on by Portugal and Holland,
whom they ultimately threw out from India. Soon the English and the French
Companies made settlements here. In 1763, the British ended the French influence
in India and established their own control. You will read more about the British rule
in India in the next lesson. Countries like Japan and China refused to accept the
western culture and way of life because of their belief in their traditional ways. The
Boxer Rebellion and the Opium War gave the power to the industrialised countries
to get involved in China. Gradually they accepted industrialisation and western
influence. Let us read how it happened.

4.4.3 China
Chinese goods were in great demand in European countries but there was no demand
for European goods in China. This one-sided trade was not profitable for European
merchants so they started smuggling opium to China to demoralise the Chinese youth
and exchange Chinese goods. This led to the First Opium War between China and
Britain in which China was easily defeated and Britain gained many concessions for
herself. She succeeded in getting all five ports of China opened for British traders.
The Chinese government could not impose any tariff on foreign goods. They could
not carry out any trial against British subjects in Chinese courts. The island of Hong
Kong was handed over to Britain.
The Second Opium War was fought to revenge against the insult of British flag and
the murder of a French missionary. China was defeated by the two European powers
and was forced to concede extra territorial rights.
The Boxer’s Rebellion was an organised terror against the Christian missionaries and
exploitation of China after the division of China into spheres of influence. Chinese

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youth tortured ‘foreign nationals’ with their fists. They had the secret support of the through the Ages
royal court.

4.4.4 Japan
The Meiji Restoration began in 1868 with an era of ‘enlightened rule’ which
transformed Japan from a closed feudal society to the first industrialised nation. She
had little natural resources of her own and needed both overseas markets and sources Notes
of raw materials.
In 1871, a group of Japanese politicians toured Europe and US. Japan framed a
state led industrialisation policy. In 1877, the Bank of Japan was founded. Many
steel and textile factories were set up, education was popularised and Japanese
students were sent to study in the West. By the year 1905, under the slogan of ‘Enrich
the Country, Strengthen the Military’, Japan rose as a formidable industrial and
military nation. She was successful in conquering Formosa, Southern Sakhalin,
Korea, Manchuria, Indo-China, Burma, Malaya, Singapore, Indonesia and the
Philippines.

4.4.5 Imperialism in South and South-East Asia

South and South-East Asia includes Nepal, Burma, Sri Lanka, Malaya, Indonesia,
Indo-China, Thailand, Indo-Philippines. Even before the rise of the New Imperialism,
many of these countries were already dominated by the Europeans. Sri Lanka was
occupied by the Portuguese then by the Dutch and later by the British. England
introduced tea and rubber plantations, which came to form 7/8ths of Sri Lanka’s
exports.
Other countries of South East Asia also suffered under Imperialism. French troops
attacked Vietnam claiming that they were protecting the Christians of Indo-China.
Gradually Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia were added to the French Colonial Empire.
The British added Burma and the port of Singapore to gain control over the Malaya
states.

Thailand or Siam remained an independent state even though it was sandwiched

between the French conquests in Indo-China and the British in Burma.

4.5 IMPACT OF IMPERIALISM

Some of the positive effects of Imperialism on the colonies were the introduction of
transportation and communication like railway lines, canals, telegraphs and telephones.
It also led to the growth of political consciousness and the feeling of nationalism in

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through the Ages the colonies. It led to development in modern education and science which helped
the nations to develop after they gained their independence.
Imperialism had a disastrous effect on the colonies. The indigenous industries were
ruined and the natural resources ruthlessly exploited. China was divided into spheres
of influence and thrown open to international trade. The whole of Africa, except for
Liberia and Ethiopia, was divided amongst the European nations. A large numbers
of Africans were sold as slaves. In South Africa, the ‘white’ European community
Notes
ill-treated the ‘black’ on the basis of their dark skin. This is called racial discrimination
or apartheid which was the worst impact of Imperialism.
The negative impact of Imperialism outweighs its positive one as it drained both the
Asia and Africa of their wealth, raw materials and exploited their markets by selling
their industrial goods thereby destroying the economy of these colonies. Their policy
of racial discrimination made the people lose their self respect as well as their
confidence. You will read more of about it in the next few lessons on India. In India,
the Europeans came as traders but became rulers. They destroyed our prosperous
economy. India which was an exporter of textile became a buyer of finished goods
and exporter of raw materials. Besides, heavy taxation led to poverty of the masses.
The 20th Century saw more scientific discoveries and inventions than any other period
in the human history. Starting with the steam-powered ships it ended with human visit
to space, moon landings and of course the network of computers. The world shrunk
with instant communication and speedy transport. Unfortunately the whole world was
affected by imperialist rivalries and economic motive. This created a tension among
European countries, US and Japan which entangled them in two World Wars about
which you will read in the coming section.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 4.2

1. Define Imperialism.
2. Mention two advantages of the growth of transportation in the colonies which
helped in the spread of Imperialism.
3. What was the Slave Trade?
4. Choose the right answer:
(a) Which of the following was known as the Dark Continent?
(i) Africa (ii) Asia (iii) Europe
(b) Meiji Restoration took place in which country?
(i) Cambodia (ii) Sri Lanka (iii) Japan
(c) Opium War was fought in?
(i) India (ii) China (iii) Burma
(d) Which was not a French colony?
(i) Vietnam (ii) Morocco (iii) Kenya

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through the Ages
4.6 WORLD WAR I
Industrialisation, Colonialism and Imperialism created intense rivalry among the
European nations over their possessions of colonies in Asia and Africa. This
competition became more acute by the end of the 19th century when colonies were
no longer available in Asia and Africa. Compromise was not possible due to mutual
distrust and hostilities and in 1914 a war began in Europe which soon engulfed the
entire world. It involved all the major countries of the world and their colonies. The Notes
damage caused by this war had no precedent in history. For the first time in history
all the resources of the warring states were mobilised. It involved their army, navy
and air force. The civilian population suffered tremendous casualties because of
indiscriminate bombing. Since the war was spread over a very large part of the world
for the first time, it is known as World War I. It marked a turning point in world
history. It was not a sudden occurrence but the culmination of a large number of
forces and developments covering a long period before 1914.

4.6.1 Causes of World War I

Imperialist rivalries among the different nations like England, France, Germany and
others were a major cause of the war. Earlier wars were averted because possibilities
of acquiring more colonies were still there. But the situation had now changed. Most
of Asia and Africa had already been divided up and possibilities of further expansion
were not there. It was possible only by dispossessing some imperialist country of
their colony. This division of colonies created conditions of war. In the last quarter
of the 19th century, Germany had made tremendous economic and industrial progress
and left England and France far behind in industrial production. She needed colonies
as much as Britain to fulfill her economic needs. In the imperial race, Germany became
the main competitor of England. British naval supremacy was also challenged when
Germany built the largest warship ‘Imperator’ and built the Kiel Canal connecting
the North Sea and Baltic Sea endangering the English coast line. Germany also built
a railway line connecting Berlin with Baghdad which made it easier for Germany to
send troops or suppliers to the East. But it posed a threat to British colonies there.

Like Germany, all other major powers of Europe and Japan also had their imperialistic
ambitions. Italy after her unification wanted Tripoli in North Africa which was under
the Ottoman Empire. France wanted to add Morocco to her conquest in Africa while
Russia had her ambitions in Iran. Japan had her ambitions in the Far East where she
was able to extend her influence after the Russo-Japanese War of 1905. Austria had
her ambitions in the Ottoman Empire while the United States of America was slowly
emerging as a powerful nation. Her main interest was to preserve the independence
of trade as it was increasing at a fast pace. The expansion of influence of any great
power was posing a major threat to world peace.

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through the Ages 4.6.2 System of Alliances
Conflicts and confrontations for more colonies prompted the imperial powers to look
for allies. In 1882, Germany, Austria and Italy signed the Triple Alliance pledging
mutual military assistance against rival powers. England, Russia and France signed
the Triple Entente in 1907. Emergence of two mutually opposed groups divided
Europe into hostile camps leading to tension and conflicts among European powers.
These countries competed with one another in producing deadly weapons which led
Notes
to a race for armaments. Mutual hatred and suspicion disturbed the atmosphere of
peace. The propaganda which was created made it clear that if war broke out the
whole of Europe would be drawn into it.

4.6.3 Pan Slav Movement and the Balkan Politics

Balkan region of Eastern Europe consisted of many states such as Greece, Romania,
Bulgaria, Serbia, Montenegro and many other smaller states. Originally these states
were under the control of the Ottoman Emperor or the ruler of Turkey. By the
beginning of the 20th century, the Ottoman Empire began to decline. Europeans
powers including Austria and Russia rushed for obtaining a foothold in the region.
The matter got complicated with the resurgence of Nationalism among the people
in most of these states. They were called Slavs. Since they were scattered in many
of the east European states, they started a National Movement called the Pan Slav
movement. Their main demand was to unite the Slavs in one state under Serbia, the
state which had the largest Slav population in this movement. Serbia was supported
by Russia, whereas Austria opposed Serbia and their National Movement. This
resulted in rivalry between Russia and Austria. Austria did not want a strong Serbian
state which would hamper her ambition of expansion. In 1908, Austria annexed two
Slav states, Bosnia and Herzegovina, leading to hostility between Serbia and Austria.
Between 1912 and 1914, four Balkan States fought two wars against the Ottoman
Emperor for independence. Turkey was defeated and lost all her possessions in
Europe. Austria hurriedly set up an independent state of Albania against the Serbian
ambition of Greater Serbia. Hostility mounted between Austria on one side and Serbia
and Russia on the other.
As you can see by 1914, the atmosphere in Europe was explosive. Against this
background, Archduke Francis Ferdinand the heir to the Austrian throne went to
Sarajevo, the capital of Bosnia, on a state visit. As he was getting down from his
car, he was assassinated by a Serbian youth on 28 June 1914. The murder of
Archduke Francis Ferdinand became the immediate cause of the war. Austria held
Serbia responsible for the assassination of their prince and served her with an
ultimatum with various conditions. Assured of Russian help, Serbia refused to accept
the ultimatum and started mobilising her troops on the border. On 28 July 1914,
Austria declared war on Serbia. On 1 August 1914, Germany declared war on
Russia. On 3 August 1914, Germany declared war on France. As German troops

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entered Belgium, England declared war on Germany on 4 August 1914. Thus a minor through the Ages
incident in Europe triggered the war with all the countries joining in which soon took
the shape of World War I.

4.6.4 The Course of the War (1914-1918)

World War I which started in August 1914 continued till November 1918. During
this period many important battles were fought such as the Battle of Marne in 1914, Notes
Battles of Verdu, Battle of Somme and Battle of Jutland in 1916. The year 1917
saw two important developments – one was the entry of USA into the war in April
and second was the withdrawal of Russia from the war in November.
In 1915, a British passenger ship Lusitania was sunk by German U Boats killing 128
US civilians who were travelling in the ship. The US Senate took a very serious view
of this. Besides becoming a powerful nation, Germany would pose a threat to US
supremacy. Moreover, USA being the major supplier of arms and ammunition, the
continuation of war would result in economic advantage for the US. Keeping all these
in view, she decided to join the war in 1917.
Do you remember reading about the October Revolution of 1917 in Russia? One
of the main demands of the revolutionaries was peace. So immediately after the
Revolution under the leadership of Lenin, Russia withdrew from the war and signed
a peace treaty with Germany in 1918.
By July 1918, Germany began to collapse. Bulgaria and Turkey surrendered in
September and October respectively. On 3 November 1918, the Austrian Emperor
surrendered due to widespread unrest in Austria. After similar revolts by the German
people, German Emperor Wilhelm II fled to Holland and Germany was proclaimed
a Republic. The new government signed an armistice on 11 November 1918, bringing
an end to World War I.
In the course of the war, many new weapons such as machine guns, poison gas,
liquid fire, submarine and tanks were used. New strategies and military techniques
were experimented by both sides. England used naval and economic blockade, tanks
and air raids. The French used trench warfare and Germany used U Boats and
submarines to sink ships under the sea.

4.6.5 Immediate Consequences of World War I

World War I was one of the most disastrous and frightening events the world had
witnessed. A million people including innocent civilians lost their lives. There was a
large scale damage of property in most of the European countries. The total
expenditure was estimated at a staggering figure of 180 billion dollars. The economy
of most of the countries was shattered resulting in social tension, unemployment and
poverty.

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through the Ages Between January and June 1919, the Allied Powers met at a conference in the palace
of Versailles, Paris to decide the future of the defeated powers. Though the
representatives of nearly 27 countries attended the conference, the decisions were
taken by Heads of State of Britain, France and USA. Russia was excluded and the
defeated powers were not allowed to attend. The Allies signed different treaties with
the defeated powers. The most important of them were the Treaty of Versailles signed
with Germany, the Treaty of St. Germain with Austria and the Treaty of Serves with
Notes Turkey.
The Treaty of Versailles shattered Germany politically, economically and militarily.
Germany was held guilty of aggression and was asked to pay a huge amount of money
as compensation for the war. Alsace and Lorrain which were taken from France in
1871 were to be returned to France. Rhineland, the land between France and
Germany, was demilitarised and brought under the control of the Allied powers. The
coal rich Saar Valley was given to France for 15 years. German army was disbanded.
Ships were sunk and the army was restricted to 100,000 soldiers only. Germany
was deprived of all her colonies. Much of her territories in Europe were given to
Belgium and Poland.
The Treaty of St. Germain separated Hungary from Austria and Hungary was made
an independent state. Austria had to recognise the independence of Hungary and had
to give part of her territories to Czechoslovakia, Rumania and Yugoslavia. The Treaty
of Sevres broke up the Ottoman Empire. Some of its states were given to the Allied
Powers as mandates. For example, Palestine and Mesopotamia were given to Britain
and Syria to France. The Allied Powers were to look after these countries till they
became self-reliant.
The war and the peace treaties transformed the political map of the world, particularly
Europe. After the October Revolution in Russia, the ruling dynasty of the Romanovs
was overthrown. By the end of the war, Hohenzollern Dynasty of Germany and
Hapsburg Dynasty of Austria were removed and Republic Government was set up.
Monarchy was also abolished in Turkey after a Revolution in 1922. Two new states
- Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia - were created out of the territories taken from
the defeated powers. Hungary emerged as an independent state. Baltic States such
as Estonia, Lithuania, Latvia and Finland were made independent states. The states
of Rumania and Poland were enlarged in size. All this changed the boundaries of
most of the states of Europe.
It was evident that the peace settlements were dictated and unequal settlements which
were imposed upon the defeated powers. They had no say in the deliberations. The
end of the war saw the end of European supremacy and emergence of USSR and
USA as major powers. The period also saw the strengthening of National Movement
in the countries of Asia and Africa. Even before the war ended in November 1918,
the US President Woodrow Wilson had proposed a peace program known as the

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Wilson’s Fourteen Points. The most important point was the proposal for the through the Ages
establishment of an international organisation maintaining peace and security in the
world. On the basis of this proposal, the League of Nations was set up in 1920.

4.6.6 The League of Nations

The League was the first international organisation set up in 1920 with its headquarters
at Geneva. Its main aims were to maintain peace and security in the world, prevent Notes
future war, promote international co-operation, settle international disputes peacefully
and improve the conditions of labourers in member countries. But unfortunately, the
League failed to prevent war and conflict for which it was set up. When Italy attacked
Ethiopia in 1935 and Japan attacked Manchuria in 1936, the League could do
nothing. Also, mutual rivalries among nations for the possession of colonies continued
exposing their imperial ambitions.

ACTIVITY 4.4
“Earth provides enough to satisfy every man’s need, but not every man’s greed”-
Mahatma Gandhi. Do you think this quote holds true? Why or why not? Justify with
the help of examples.

4.7 THE WORLD BETWEEN THE TWO WORLD WARS

The period of twenty years between the two World Wars experienced tremendous
changes. There were positive developments like national awakening in countries of
Asia and Africa and popularity of Socialist Movement in the Soviet Union and in
other countries. The world also saw the worst form of dictatorship in many countries
of Europe, especially in Italy and Germany. A major economic crisis took place which
affected almost every part of the world, particularly the most advanced countries of
the West. The period also witnessed the worst economic depression in USA in 1929,
which affected the economy of the entire world.

4.7.1 Causes for the Growth of Fascism and Nazism

After the war, a number of political movements arose in Europe which was given
the name Fascism. They had a number of features which were common that is hostility
to democracy and socialism, and the aim to establish dictatorship. They were
supported by the rulers, the upper class aristocrats and the capitalists because they
promise to save them from the danger of socialism. They let loose a systematic
campaign of terrorism and murder which the government showed little interest in
curbing.

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through the Ages The dictatorship introduced in Italy by Mussolini is referred to as Fascism. The term
Fascism is derived from Latin word fasces which stood for ‘symbols of authority’
in Ancient Rome. In 1922, Mussolini came to power with the support of the Italian
King and ruled like a dictator from 1925 to 1943. Mussolini banned all political
parties and introduced some reforms to get the support of the people. The arrogance
of Victorian powers, the inability of the existing governments to cope up with post-
war problems, the helplessness of the League of Nations and failure of democratic
Notes forces to check fascism made the rise of dictatorship possible.
The German version of Fascism is known as Nazism. It was established by Adolf
Hitler. He promised to reverse post-war settlements and restore German power and
glory. His vision of rebuilding Germany into a great nation inspired many Germans
to join him. It acted like a balm on the wounds caused by the humiliation after World
War I. Many people supported Nazism because it seemed to offer a way out of
the economic decline. The success of the Nazis proved disastrous not only for the
German people but for the entire Europe and many other parts of the world. It led
to dictatorships being established in Hungary, Rumania, Portugal and Spain. The
growth of anti-democratic government in so many countries led to World War II.

4.7.2 Developments in Other Parts of the World

England and France too had to face severe economic crisis, scarcity and unemployment
but they continued with their democratic governments. Despite workers’ strikes and
other disturbances in England, the problems were sought to be solved by forming
a Coalition Government consisting of Labour, Liberal and Conservative Parties in
1931. In France, a Popular Front Government consisting of Left Wing Parties was
set up in 1936.
Soviet Union emerged as the first Socialist State of the world. Under the new
government, socialist principles were introduced in economy and it was the only
country to remain unaffected while all the Western capitalist countries suffered due
to the Economic Depression in 1929.
Though USA participated in World War I, the country did not suffer much material
loss. Industrial prosperity, political stability and economic growth made it a super
power. However, she suffered the worst economic crisis in 1929 due to overproduction.
Prices of commodities declined leading to the fall in share prices. The banks closed
down and people lost their lifelong savings. The loan which USA had given to the
European countries after World War I had to be withdrawn. It resulted in economic
instability in the European countries also. The new government that came to power
in USA under Franklin Roosevelt introduced a program of economic recovery called
the New Deal. Under this, many reforms were introduced such as creating new
employment opportunities, giving help to the farmers, etc.

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Japan was the only country in Asia which emerged as an imperialist country. You through the Ages
have already read that it defeated Russia in 1905. During the period between the
two World Wars, Japan became a strong military power and supported Fascism.
She signed the Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Axis with the fascist powers. She also signed
the Anti-Commintern Pact to check the spread of communism along with Germany
and Italy, indicating their hostility to Soviet Union.

Notes
4.8 WORLD WAR II
We have read about the League of Nations and how it failed in its aim within twenty
years after its formation. Even though it was set up with the aim of preventing future
war, World War II started on September 1939. Let us find out why the war took
place.

4.8.1 Causes of World War II

World War II, like the earlier war, started in Europe and assumed the character of
a world war. The fascist countries wanted to re-divide the world for imperialist gains
and thus came into conflict with the established power. We know that Germany was
politically, militarily and economically shattered by the Treaty of Versailles. She sought
revenge and was ready to have a trial of strength with the Allied Powers. The position
of Italy was no better. Though Italy joined the Allied Powers during World War I
with the hope of imperial gain, she did not gain any colonies after the war. She lost
nearly 600,000 people during the war. Both the Fascist and Nazi Parties glorified
war and promised to their people that they would bring back the lost glory of their
countries through war. They began to follow an aggressive policy of expansion
through conquests. Germany annexed Rhineland in 1936, Austria in 1938 and
Czechoslovakia in 1938, while Italy attacked Ethiopia. This resulted in social tension
and conflicts among European nations.

You have read about the rise of Japan as a military power and also her support for
fascist powers. By signing the Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Axis, these three powers
committed support to each other. Japan was given a free hand to expand control
in Asia and the region of the Pacific while Germany and Italy would have a free hand
in Europe.

The success of the Soviet Union alarmed the Western Powers. Being capitalist
countries, they wanted to check the spread of Communism. So they adopted a
systematic policy of favoring Italy and Germany, who were anti-communists. This
policy is referred to as the Appeasement Policy. German army which was restricted
to 100,000 soldiers after World War I increased her strength to 800,000 soldiers
without any protest from the western powers. Even when Hitler put aside the Treaty
of Versailles and annexed Rhineland and Austria, the western powers remained silent

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through the Ages spectators. In 1937, Civil War began in Spain between the popularly elected
Government and the fascist leader under General Franco. Hitler supplied arms and
ammunition to overthrow the democratically elected Government in Spain. Soviet
Union appealed to England for collective action against General Franco. When the
whole world sent support to the existing government, England and France did not
take any action. This Appeasement Policy reached its climax when Hitler invited the
Prime Ministers of Britain and France to Munich in August 1938. The Munich Pact
Notes
was signed by them in 1938, allowing Germany to annex Sudetenland in the Northern
part of Czechoslovakia. Later, the whole of Czechoslovakia was annexed. The Policy
of Appeasement strengthened the fascist powers.

It was now clear that Britain and France wanted Germany and Italy to act against
the Soviet Union. To stall these plans, Soviet Union signed a pact with Germany by
which both agreed not to attack one another. This gave her some time to prepare
for future confrontation while Germany obtained the neutrality of the Soviet Union.
The scene was set for World War II when Germany attacked Poland on 1 September
1939. Britain declared war on Germany on 3 September 1939.

4.8.2 Consequences of the War

The war came to an end in September 1945. This was the most destructive war
in human history. It caused unprecedented loss of life, property and resources. Big
buildings were razed to the ground and thousands of people were uprooted from
their homelands. The German Jews were either exterminated or sent to concentration
camps. The Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki were almost wiped off when
atomic bombs were dropped on them. The danger of nuclear holocaust was one
of the major consequences of the war. Germany was divided into four zones, each
under the control of one of the victorious powers. The Nazi Party was banned and
the German army disbanded. Japan was placed under US supervision. In 1949, when
monarchy was re-established, US troops were withdrawn.

Imperialism weakened with USA and Soviet Union emerging as super powers. The
world was now divided into two power blocs – the Communist Bloc headed by
Soviet Union and the Western Bloc headed by the USA. The tension and unarmed
conflict that developed between these blocs started the Cold War which continued
for a very long time.

A major impact of the war was the foundation of United Nations Organisation (UNO)
about which you will read in the next section. The world has since then undergone
many changes. Its political map has changed. A large number of nations of Asia and
Africa who had suffered under colonial rule are now independent. Together they are
now a major force in the world.

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ACTIVITY 4.5
The world has seen devastating world wars and continues to witness conflicts and
struggles till today. Enlist at least five problems which come in the way of world peace.
Suggest ways to address these issues and how you as an individual can contribute
to make the world a better place to live in.
Notes
4.9 FOUNDATION OF UNITED NATIONS
ORGANISATION
The horrors of the war made the world leaders realise the need for an international
organisation for peace. World leaders such as British Prime Minister Winston
Churchill, Soviet Leader Stalin and US President Roosevelt met at various
conferences to decide about the formation of this organisation. Finally, on 24 October
1945 at a conference in San Francisco, the United Nations Charter was adopted
by the members of 50 nations and the United Nations Organisation (UNO) was
formed. Since then 24 October is celebrated every year as UN Day, all over the
world. The UNO is based on the principle of sovereignty and equality of all nations.
The main aims of the UNO are to maintain peace and security in the world, to prevent
future war, to solve international disputes peacefully and to promote international
cooperation.

The UN flag consists of the official emblem of the organisation - a circular world
map, as seen from the North Pole, surrounded by a wreath of olive branches in
white centered on a light blue background.

4.9.1 Objectives of United Nations Organisation

Like the League of Nation, which was established after World War I, the UN too
had a major objective of maintaining international peace and security. It also had
another major objective to develop friendly relations among nations on the basis of
equality and achieve international cooperation in solving economic, social, cultural
and humanitarian problems. To promote human rights and fundamental freedom for
the people of the world was one of the aims of the UN. It was also to act as a
common platform for harmonising the activities of various nations for the attainment
of the objectives of the UN.

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INTEXT QUESTION 4.3

1. Name at least four Balkan states.
2. Which countries formed the Triple Alliance?
3. Give at least three causes of World War I.
Notes 4. Name two countries which adopted dictatorial governments after 1920.
5. What was the main cause of the Great Depression of 1929?
6. When and where the UN was formally constituted?

WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT

 The new wave of Colonisation known as New Imperialism in the last quarter
of the 19th century.
 The main factors behind colonial expansion were the needs created by the
Industrial Revolution, growth of transport and communication, desire for power,
extreme nationalism and an urge to civilise men.
 Japan was the only Asian country to rise as an imperialist power.
 The intense imperialist rivalry among European countries and formation of military
alliances resulted in the outbreak of World War I in 1914.
 The consequences of the war included harsh and humiliating treatment to
Germany in the form of the signing of the Treaty of Versailles, defeated powers
losing their colonies, major territorial changes in Europe, breaking up of the
Ottoman Empire, independence of Hungary and setting up of the League of
Nations.
 Growth of Fascism in Italy led by Mussolini and Nazism in Germany led by Hitler
suppressed democracy, freedom, socialism and communism between1919-
1939.
 The Policy of Appeasement of the western powers towards Germany and Italy
led to the outbreak of World War II.
 Formation of the UN, division of Germany, weakening of imperial powers and
the emergence of independent states in Asia and Africa were some of the
consequences of World War II.
 The post-war situation witnessed the emergence of two super powers – the USA
and the Soviet Union - and the beginning of a bitter Cold War between the two
military power blocs.
 United Nations Organisation was formed for peace and harmony in the world
at the end of the war.

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TERMINAL EXERCISES
1. How the inventions in the textile industry revolutionised the production of cotton
cloth?
2. What were the various factors – political, economic, geographical and technological
– which contributed to industrialisation in England? Notes
3. State both the advantages and the disadvantages in the society with the coming
of the Industrial Revolution.
4. Why did the industrialised countries start fighting amongst themselves for the
control of the areas where Industrial Revolution had not taken place?
5. What made Japan join the race for colonies?
6. Mention both the positive and the negative effects of Imperialism on the colonies.
7. Examine the consequences of World War I.
8. How did the Appeasement Policy by the western powers led to the rise of
Fascism in Italy and Nazism in Germany?
9. Describe the course of events during World War II.
10. What are the main objectives of the United Nations?
11. Mark the following places on the given outline map of the world:
(a) Any two colonies each of Britain and France.
(b) The Triple Allies and the Triple Entente of World War I.
(c) The Allies and the Axis Powers of World War II.

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ANSWERS TO INTEXT QUESTIONS

4.1
1. Coal and Iron.

Notes 2. They provided a faster and reliable means of transporting raw materials and
factory made products to their destination, speeding up business transactions.
3. Children were employed because their small size helped them move better in the
horizontal and narrow coal mines. Plus, they were paid very low wages compared
to older men and hence were preferred in factories.
4. (a) iii
(b) v
(c) i
(d) i

4.2
1. Imperialism is defined as the practice of extending control or rule over the political
and economic life of another country.
2. The two ways were:
(a) It made easier the flow of goods to and from the colonies to the imperial
country.
(b) Troops could be easily sent to colonies and keep them under control.
3. The importing of people from Africa by the Europeans to work as slaves on their
plantations in their colonies in America was the Slave Trade.
4. (a) i
(b) iii
(c) i
(d) iii

4.3
1. Greece, Romania, Bulgaria, Serbia, Montenegro.
2. Germany, Austria and Italy.

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3. The main causes of World War I were: through the Ages

(a) The rise of Germany as an industrial nation led to its growing need for
raw materials, hence imperialist rivalry for colonies began with England and
France.
(b) System of Alliances divided Europe into two hostile camps – Triple Alliance
and Triple Entente – leading to tension and conflicts.
(c) The resurgence of nationalism in the Balkan States known as the Pan Slav Notes
Movement. People now wanted to be independent and remain under
foreign control.
4. Italy and Germany.
5. Overproduction resulted in the declining prices of commodities, leading to the
fall in share prices. The banks closed down and people lost their lifelong savings.
This was the Great depression of 1929.
6. The UN was formally constituted on 24 October 1945 at a conference held in
San Francisco, USA.

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Notes
IMPACT OF BRITISH RULE ON
INDIA: ECONOMIC, SOCIAL
AND CULTURAL (1757-1857)

Around the 18th Century a number of significant events took place in the world. One
such event was the Industrial Revolution which took place in England. It gradually
spread to other countries of Europe also. You must have read about the Industrial
Revolution that took place in England, and also read about the discovery of new
sea and trade routes. One such sea route to India was discovered by a Portuguese
called Vasco da Gama in 1498. As a result, the English, French, Portuguese and
the Dutch came to India for trade. They also used it to spread missionary activities
in India. Do you know that the beginning of modern period in Indian history began
with the coming of these European powers to India? In this lesson you will be reading
about the coming of the British to India and the impact it had on the economic, social
and cultural spheres as well.

OBJECTIVES
After studying this lesson, you will be able to:
 discuss the reasons for the British to come to India;
 identify the various methods used by the British to colonize India;
 study the economic impact during the British rule;
 describe the British impact on Indian society and culture; and
 identify the reasons for the protest movements that took place under their rule
before the revolt of 1857.

5.1 REASONS FOR COMING TO INDIA

The European and the British traders initially came to India for trading purposes. The
Industrial Revolution in Britain led to the increase in demand for raw materials for

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the factories there. At the same time, they also required a market to sell their finished through the Ages
goods. India provided such a platform to Britain to fulfill all their needs. The 18th
century was a period of internal power struggle in India and with the declining power
of the Mughal Empire, the British officials were provided with the perfect opportunity
to establish their hold over Indian Territory. They did these through numerous wars,
forced treaties, annexations of and alliances with the various regional powers all over
the country. Their new administrative and economic policies helped them consolidate
their control over the country. Their land revenue policies help them keep the poor Notes
farmers in check and get huge sums as revenues in return. They forced the
commercialisation of agriculture with the growing of various cash crops and the raw
materials for the industries in the Britain. With the strong political control, the British
were able to monopolise the trade with India. They defeated their foreign rivals in
trade so that there could be no competition. They monopolised the sale of all kinds
of raw materials and bought these at low prices whereas the Indian weavers had
to buy them at exorbitant prices. Heavy duties were imposed on Indian goods entering
Britain so as to protect their own industry. Various investments were made to improve
the transport and communication system in the country to facilitate the easy transfer
of raw materials from the farms to the port, and of finished goods from the ports
to the markets. Also, English education was introduced to create a class of educated
Indians who would assist the British in ruling the country and strengthen their political
authority. All these measures helped the British to establish, consolidate and continue
their rule over India.

Figure 5.1 Currency used by the East India Company

Figure 5.2 Currency used by the East India Company

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5.2 METHODS OF COLONISATION IN INDIA
Look at the map of Europe. You will find many big and small states on it. When
the industrial revolution started in Europe these small states did not have sufficient
raw materials for their industries, or markets for their finished goods. These countries
now started looking for markets in Asia and Africa. England succeeded in controlling
trade with India and established the East India Company in 1600. This company
was supported by the British government. With its help England was able to extend
Notes
her territorial frontiers to the Indian subcontinent. The first factory was established
at Surat in 1613. In 1615, Sir Thomas Roe got permission from the Mughal emperor
Jahangir to open more factories at Agra, Ahmadabad and Broach. Their most
important settlement on the southern coast was Madras where they built a fortified
factory called Fort St. George. This was the first proprietary holding acquired by
the company on Indian soil. Gradually the company expanded its trading network.
By that time the company was well established in India. It had also succeeded in
eliminating the other rival European powers from India. They also started interfering
in the political affairs of the Indian rulers.

Figure 5.3 Present day map of Europe

In 1696, the company developed three villages into a city in Bengal and named
it Kolkotta. They also built a fort around this city known as Fort William.

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Look at the map of the 19th century India. What do you see? You will locate many through the Ages
big and small independent states. These states had their own rulers, economy,
language and culture. These states were constantly at war with each other. It was
not surprising that they fell an easy prey to the European powers especially the British.
It was the battles of Plassey (1757) and Buxar (1764) which provided the ground
for the British success in India. Through these battles, a long era of British political
control over India began. The Battle of Plassey was won by the English in Bengal.
The British made Mir Jafar, the new Nawab of Bengal, in return for which they receive Notes
an enormous sum of money as well as the territory of 24 Parganas from the Nawab.
But Mir Jafar was not able to make further payments to them. As a result he was
replaced by Mir Qasim who proved to be a strong ruler. Mir Qasim was not ready
to meet their demands for more money or control. As a result, Mir Qasim was
removed and Mir Jafar was made the Nawab again. Mir Qasim then joined hands
with the Nawab of Awadh, Shiraj-ud-daula and the Mughal emperor Shah Allam

Figure 5.4 Map of 19th century India

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through the Ages II in plotting against the British, the battle took place at a place called Buxar on 22
October 1764. Their defeat proved to be decisive.
Though the British successfully gained control over Bengal, the imposition of British
rule throughout India was not an easy task. A number of regional powers opposed
them and tried to resist the efforts of territorial expansion of the British. Let us read
about the various wars waged by the British against the Indian states.
Notes (i) Anglo-mysore Wars
Mysore emerged as a powerful state under an able leadership of Haider Ali and his
son Tipu Sultan in the second half of the eighteenth century. Four wars took place
between Mysore and the British. Finally the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War (1799) ended
in the heroic defeat and death of Tipu Sultan. With this a glorious chapter of struggle
between Mysore and the English came to an end. Large ports like Kanara,
Coimbatore and Seringapatam were secured by the British.

Figure 5.5 Tipu Sultan

(ii) Anglo-maratha Wars

The Marathas were another formidable power in western and central India during
the second half of the eighteenth century. But the struggle for power among themselves
gave the British an opportunity to intervene in their internal matters. Many wars took
place between the British and the Marathas mainly on account of the Subsidiary
Alliance (which you will read in 5.2.1). The Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817-19)
was the last war between them. The English defeated the Peshwa, dethroned him
and annexed all his territories. The Peshwa was pensioned off and sent to Bithur
near Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh.
(iii) Anglo-sikh Wars
In north-west India, the Sikhs under their able leader Maharaja Ranjit Singh (1792-
1839) became an effective political and military force. The British power in India

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viewed the rise of the Sikhs as a potential threat. The British thus wanted to bring through the Ages
the Sikhs under control. After the death of Ranjit Singh in 1839, lawlessness prevailed
in Punjab. The British took advantage of this and the First Anglo-Sikh War broke
out in 1845 which ended with the defeat of the Sikhs. In the Second Anglo-Sikh
War in 1849, the British finally defeated them in the battle of Gujarat, a town on
river Chenab (1849). The Sikh chiefs surrendered and Punjab was annexed by Lord
Dalhousie. Maharaja Dalip Singh, the son of Maharaja Ranjit Singh was pensioned
off and sent to England. Notes

Figure 5.6 Maharaja Ranjit Singh

5.2.1 Other Conquests, System of Alliances and Annexations

The Third Battle of Panipat against the Marathas in 1761 had already provided the
stage for the success of British in India. Soon many more native states came under
British control. This was done by a system of alliances called the Doctrine of Lapse
and Subsidiary Alliance. Doctrine of Lapse led to a number of independent kingdoms
being annexed to the British Empire. These were the states that were enjoying British
protection but their rulers had died without leaving a natural heir to the throne. Their
adopted sons could now no longer inherit the property or the pension which was
granted to them by the British. In this way Dalhousie annexed the Maratha States

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through the Ages of Satara (1848), Sambalpur (1850), Udaipur (1852), Nagpur (1853), Jhansi (1854)
and Awadh (1856). In Subsidiary Alliance, the Indian States that were under British
protection had to suspend their armies and instead maintain British troops. They also
surrendered their control on their foreign affair and let go of their right to make
alliances with other foreign states for any purpose, economic or political. In return,
they were given protection by the British from their rivals.

Notes The policy of annexation affected not only the Indian rulers, but all those who were
dependent upon them such as soldiers, crafts people and even nobles. Even the
traditional scholarly and priestly classes lost their patronage from these rulers,
chieftains, nobles and zamindars, and were thus impoverished. Thus, by the mid-
nineteenth century,no single Indian power was there to challenge or resist the British.
Assam, Arakhan, North Eastern region and portions of Nepal and Burma were
already annexed (1818 to 1826). The British also occupied Sind in 1843.

Figure 5.7 Rani Lakshmibai of Jhansi

ACTIVITY 5.1
Imagine you are 15 years old and the nephew/niece of a ruler of a princely state
in 19th century India. Your uncle has no child of his own, so you are made the heir
to the throne. What steps would you take if the British imposed Doctrine of Lapse
in your kingdom and didn’t allow you to succeed after your uncle?

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INTEXT QUESTIONS 5.1

1. Tick the correct answer:
(a) The British came to India as
(i) conquerors (ii) travellers (iii) invaders (iv) traders
(b) Mir Jafar was the nawab of Notes
(i) Mysore (ii) Punjab (iii) Bengal (iv) Berar
2. Why did the British come to India? Give at least two reasons.
3. What were the two main methods that the British used to annex the native states?

5.3 ECONOMIC IMPACT

The Industrial revolution has helped the English merchants accumulate a lot of capital
from the countries of Asia, Africa and America. They now wanted to invest this wealth
in setting up industries and trade with India. The mass production of goods through
machines that we witness today was pioneered through the Industrial Revolution
which occurred first in England during the late 18th and the early 19th century. This
led to a massive increase in the output of finished products. The East India Company
helped in financing and expanding their industrial base. During this time there was
a class of manufacturers in England who benefited more from manufacturing than
trading. They were interested in having more raw materials from India as well as
sending their finished goods back. Between 1793 and 1813, these British manufacturers
launched a campaign against the company, its trade monopoly and the privileges it
enjoyed. Ultimately, they succeeded in abolishing the East India Company’s
monopoly of Indian trade. With this India became an economic colony of Industrial
England. Let us learn more about the economic impact on various Indian industries
and trade.

5.3.1 Textile Industry and Trade

Earlier, Indian handloom had a big market in Europe. Indian textiles such as cotton,
linen, silk and woolen goods already had markets in Asia and Africa. With the coming
of industrialisation in England, the textile industry there made important headway.
There was now a reverse of the direction of textile trade between Britain and India.
There was a massive import of machine made clothes from English factories to Indian
markets. This import of large amount of products manufactured by mechanical looms
in England led to increase threat for the handicraft industries as the British goods
were sold at a much cheaper price.
The British succeeded in selling their goods at a cheap price as foreign goods were
given free entry in India without paying any duty. On the other hand, Indian handicrafts
were taxed heavily when they were sent out of the country. Besides, under the
pressure of its industrialists, British government often imposed a protective tariff on

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through the Ages Indian textiles. Therefore, within a few years, India from being an exporter of clothes
became an exporter of raw cotton and an importer of British clothes. This reversal
made a huge impact on the Indian handloom weaving industry leading to its virtual
collapse. It also created unemployment for a large community of weavers. Many of
them migrated to rural areas to work on their lands as agricultural laborers. This in
turn put increased pressure on the rural economy and livelihood. This process of
uneven competition faced by the Indian handloom industry was later dubbed by the
Notes Indian nationalist leaders as de-industrialisation.

Duty: Taxes which are paid to the government on goods that are bought
or sold.
Tax: A sum of money demanded by a government for its support for specific
facilities or services, levied upon incomes, property, sales.
Tariff: An official list or table showing the duties or custom imposed by a
government on imports or exports.

The main aim of the British was to transform India into a consumer of British goods.
As a result, textile, metal work, glass and paper industries were soon out of work.
By 1813, the Indian handicrafts lost both their domestic as well as foreign market.
Indian goods could not compete with the British factory-made products where
machines were used. These markets were now captured and monopolised by Britain
by means of war and colonisation. From an exporter India became an importer of
these goods. They extracted money from the Indian rulers, merchants, zamindars and
even the common people. Added to this drain were the profit made through trade
and also the salaries of the officials. It was evident that their economic policies were
meant to serve the interests of the East India Company and later the British Empire.

ACTIVITY 5.2
Case Study of Behriyar-Gareriya nomads:
This community of 75 sheep wool weavers’ in Jharkhand from the Gaya district in
Bihar has almost given up weaving blanket due to lack of funds as reported in the
news (The Sunday Tribune-Spectrum, March 11, 2012). One weaver says, ‘we
cannot compete with the blankets being sold in the markets’. Another says, ‘we are
forced to sell our products in villages because of limited access to urban markets’.
Compare the situation of the weavers in British India and in the present times. Is
it same or different? What steps would you suggest to improve their conditions?

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5.3.2 Land Revenue Policy and Land Settlements through the Ages

Since ancient times, the main source of livelihood for the people were agriculture.
Hence, land tax had formed a principal source of revenue for all the emperors all
over the world. In the 18th century, the main occupation of the Indian people were
agriculture. During British rule, revenue from land kept on increasing, and the reasons
for this were many. Earlier the British had come to trade with India. Gradually they
wanted to conquer the vast territory of India for which they needed a lot of money. Notes
They also needed money for trade, projects of the company as well as for the cost
of running the administration. The British carried out a number of land revenue
experiments which caused hardship to cultivators. They extracted taxes from the
farmers to finance their policies and war efforts. Direct and indirect means were
carried out to bring about this collection of revenue for the British. This affected the
lives of the people who could not meet their daily needs because they had to provide
the landowners and the collectors their share in the produce. Local administration
failed to provide relief and natural justice to the rural poor.

Lord Cornwallis introduced the Permanent Settlement in Bengal and Bihar in 1793.
It made the landlord or zamindar deposit a fixed amount of money in the state treasury.
In return they were recognised as hereditary owners of land. This made the zamindar
the owner of the land. The amount of revenue to be paid to the Company was fixed
for a period of time which made the British financially secured. Now they knew in
advance as to how much revenue was coming in form the State. The zamindar also
knew how much revenue was to be paid. So to get surplus revenue for themselves
they asked the peasants to increase production. But, if the zamindar failed to pay
the fixed revenue on time his land was sold off to another zamindar. The British stood
to benefit from this settlement as the new class of zamindars that emerged became
their political allies. They supported the British in times of need and acted as a buffer
between them and the peasants. This class, in fact, supported the British against the
freedom movement.

In 1822, the British introduced the Mahalwari Settlement in the North Western
Provinces, Punjab, the Ganga Valley and parts of Central India. Here the basis of
assessment was the product of a mahal or estate, which may be a village or a group
of villages. Here all the proprietors of mahal were jointly responsible for paying the
sum of revenue assessed by the government. Unfortunately it brought no benefit to
the peasants as the British demands were very high.

The Ryotwari Settlement was introduced in the beginning of the 19th century in
many parts of Bombay and Madras Presidencies. Here the land revenue was imposed
directly on the ryots, the individual cultivators, who actually worked on the land. The
peasant was recognized as the owner of the land as long as he was able to pay the
revenue but the exploitation continued with the high revenue demands.

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through the Ages 5.3.3 Commercialisation of Agriculture
Another major economic impact of the British policies in India was the introduction
of a large number of commercial crops such as tea, coffee, indigo, opium, cotton,
jute, sugarcane and oilseed. Different kinds of commercial crops were introduced
with different intentions. Indian opium was used to balance the trade of Chinese tea
with Britain in the latter’s favor. The market for opium was strictly controlled by British
traders which did not leave much scope for Indian producers to reap profit. Indians
Notes were forced to produce indigo and sell it on the conditions dictated by the Britishers.
Indigo was sent to England and used as a dyeing agent for cloth produced in British
towns. Indigo was grown under a different system where all farmers were compelled
to grow it on 3/20th part of their land. Unfortunately cultivation of Indigo left the
land infertile for some years. This made the farmers reluctant to grow it. In the tea
plantations ownership changed hands quite often. The workers on these plantations
worked under a lot of hardships.
Commercialisation of agriculture further enhanced the speed of transfer of ownership
of land thereby increasing the number of landless laborers. It also brought in a large
number of merchants, traders and middlemen who further exploited the situation. The
peasant now depended on them to sell their produce during harvest time. Because
the peasants now shifted to commercial crops, food grain production went down.
So, less food stock led to famines. It was therefore not surprising that the peasants
revolted. You would read about it in detail in the coming chapters. There was an
enormous drain of wealth from our country to Britain due to the various economic
policies. Additional financial burden was placed on India due to expenditures on
salaries, pensions and training of military and civilian staffs employed by the British
to rule India. If this wealth was invested in India it could have helped enormously
improved the economy in this country. Let us learn how the economic policies
implemented by the British changed the social structure of Indian society.

5.3.4 Rise of the New Money-lending Class

Time bound and excessive demand of revenue by the British government forced the
peasants to take loans from the moneylenders. These moneylenders often exploited
the peasants by charging high interest rates. They often used unfair means like false
accounting, forged signatures and thumb impressions. The new legal system and the
policy introduced by the British only helped the moneylenders who were either local
merchants or landlords. In most cases, the peasants failed to pay back the loan with
full interest. Thus, their lands gradually passed into the hands of the money-lending
class.

5.3.5 Rise of the New Middle Class

A major impact of the British rule in India was the beginning of a new middle class.
With the rise of the British commercial interests, new opportunities opened to a small

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section of the Indian people. They often acted as the agents and intermediaries of through the Ages
the British traders and thus made huge fortunes. The new landed aristocracy, which
came into being after the introduction of Permanent Settlement, also formed a part
of this new class. A major section of the old landowning aristocracy lost ownership
of their land and in many cases were replaced by a new class of land owners. These
people got some English education and became the new elite. With the spread of
British power, new job opportunities were also created. Indian society witnessed the
introduction of new law courts, government officials and commercial agencies. The Notes
English educated people naturally got the necessary patronage from their colonial
rulers. Thus, a new professional and service-holding middle class was also created
by the British, apart from those with landed interests.

5.3.6 Transport and Communication

The means of transport in India at that time were bullock carts, camels and pack
animals. England on the other hand needed railways that connected the raw material
producing areas with the exporting ports and to facilitate the movement of British
goods to different parts of the country as well as bring raw materials to the ports.
The vast network of railways that you witness today was pioneered during the latter
half of the 19th century. This opened avenue for British bankers and investors to invest
surplus wealth and material in the construction of railways. Railways benefited the
British capitalists in two important ways. First, it made trading in commodities much
easier and profitable by connecting the internal markets with the ports. Secondly,
the rail engines, coaches and the capital input for building of rail lines came from
Britain. The British capitalists who invested in railways were also guaranteed a
minimum profit of 5% by the government. These companies were also given free
land with a lease of 99 years.
Although the railways were set up for the advantage of British trade, they also played
an important role in the national awakening of the country. Though the British had
never anticipated, the extensive transport network and improved education brought
people and ideas closer.
During British rule, India took ideas of liberty, equality, human rights, science and
technology from the West. This accelerated the process of modernisation. Now we
will read about the impact of modern idea on Indian society.

The first railway line was the Red Hill Railroad line, Madras. It opened in 1837
and was use for the carriage of granite stone. While the first passenger railway
line ran from Bombay to Thane in 1853. The same year Dalhousie opened the
first telegraphic line from Calcutta to Agra and also introduced the postal service
to India.

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INTEXT QUESTIONS 5.2

1. State true or false and justify your statement:
(a) Duty free entry of foreign goods was good for Indian economy.
............................................................................................................
Notes (b) All land settlements benefit the British.
............................................................................................................
(c) Indigo, rice, wheat, tea and opium were the five major commercial crops
introduced by the British.
............................................................................................................
(d) Some of the money lending class became the new landowners.
............................................................................................................
2. Provide any two reasons why the British built an extensive network of railways
in India?

5.4 BRITISH IMPACT ON SOCIETY AND CULTURE

Indian society underwent many changes after the British came to India. In the 19th
century, certain social practices like female infanticide, child marriage, sati, polygamy
and a rigid caste system became more prevalent. These practices were against human
dignity and values. Women were discriminated against at all stages of life and were
the disadvantaged section of the society. They did not have access to any
development opportunities to improve their status. Education was limited to a handful
of men belonging to the upper castes. Brahmins had access to the Vedas which were
written in Sanskrit. Expensive rituals, sacrifices and practices after birth or death were
outlined by the priestly class.
When the British came to India, they brought new ideas such as liberty, equality,
freedom and human rights from the Renaissance, the Reformation Movement and
the various revolutions that took place in Europe. These ideas appealed to some
sections of our society and led to several reform movements in different parts of the
country. At the forefront of these movements were visionary Indians such as Raja
Ram Mohan Roy, Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, Aruna Asaf Ali and Pandita Ramabai.
These movements looked for social unity and strived towards liberty, equality and
fraternity. Many legal measures were introduced to improve the status of women.
For example, the practice of sati was banned in 1829 by Lord Bentinck, the then
Governor General. Widow Remarriage was permitted by a law passed in 1856. A
law passed in 1872, sanctioned inter-caste and inter-communal marriages. Sharda
Act was passed in 1929 preventing child marriage. The act provided that it was illegal
to marry a girl below 14 and a boy below 18 years. All the movements severely
criticized the caste system and especially the practice of untouchability.

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The impact of the efforts made by these numerous individuals, reform societies, and through the Ages
religious organisations was felt all over and was most evident in the national
movement. Women started getting better education opportunities and took up
professions and public employment outside their homes. The role of women like
Captain Laxmi Sehgal of Indian National Army (INA), Sarojini Naidu, Annie Besant,
Aruna Asaf Ali and many others were extremely important in the freedom struggle.

Notes

Figure 5.8 Captain Lakshmi Sehgal (in the middle, front row) and other INA
Cadres with Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose (left, front row)

5.4.1 Social and Cultural Policy

The British had come to India with the idea of making immense profits. This meant
buying of raw materials at very cheap rates and selling finished goods at much higher
prices. The British wanted the Indians to be educated and modern enough to consume
their goods but not to the extent that it proved detrimental to British interests.
Some of the Britishers believed that Western ideas were modern and superior, while
Indian ideas were old and inferior. This was, of course, not true. Indians had a rich
traditional learning that was still relevant. By this time in England there was a group
of Radicals who had a humanistic ideology towards Indians. They wanted India to
be a part of the modern, progressive world of science. But the British government
was cautious in undertaking rapid modernisation of India. They feared a reaction
among the people if too much interference took place with their religious beliefs and
social customs. The English wanted perpetuation of their rule in India and not a
reaction among the people. Hence, though they talked about introducing reforms,
in reality very few measures were taken and these were also half-hearted.

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through the Ages 5.4.2 Education Policy
The British took a keen interest in introducing the English language in India. They
had many reasons for doing so. Educating Indians in the English language was a part
of their strategy. The Indians would be ready to work as clerks on low wages while
for the same work the British would demand much higher wages. This would reduce
the expenditure on administration. It was also expected to create a class of Indians
who were loyal to the British and were not able to relate to other Indians. This class
Notes
of Indians would be taught to appreciate the culture and opinion of the British. In
addition, they would also help to increase the market for British goods. They wanted
to use education as a means to strengthen their political authority in the country. They
assumed that a few educated Indians would spread English culture to the masses
and that they would be able to rule through this class of educated Indians. The British
gave jobs to only those Indians who knew English thereby compelling many Indians
to go in for English education. Education soon became a monopoly of the rich and
the city dwellers.
The British Parliament issued the Charter Act of 1813 by which a sum of Rupees
One lakh was sanctioned for promoting western sciences in India. But a controversy
soon arose. Some wanted the money to be spent on advocating western ideas only.
There were others who placed more emphasis on traditional Indian learning. Some
recommended use of vernaculars (regional languages) as the medium of instruction,
others were for English. In this confusion people failed to notice the difference
between English as a medium and English as a subject for study. The British, of
course, decided in favor of teaching western ideas and literature through the medium
of English language alone. Another step in this direction was the Woods Despatch
of 1854. It asked the Government of India to assume responsibility for the education
of the masses. As part of the directive given by the Woods Despatch, Departments
of Education were instituted in all provinces and Affiliated Universities were opened
in Calcutta, Madras and Bombay in 1857. A few English schools and colleges were
opened instead of many elementary schools. They ignored the education of the
masses. But in reality, it was not sufficient to cater to the needs of the Indian people.
Though the British followed a half-hearted education policy in India, English language
and western ideas also had some positive impact on the society. Many reformers
like Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Swami Dayanand Saraswati,
Sir Syed Ahmad Khan, and Swami Vivekananda absorbed western ideas of
liberalism and democracy and used it to reform some of the non-humanitarian social
and religious practices of the time. Though education did not reach the masses but
some ideas of anti-imperialism, nationalism, social and economic equality took root
through political parties, discussions and debates on public platform and the press.
The spread of English language and western education helped Indians to adopt
modern, rational, democratic, liberal and patriotic outlook. New fields of knowledge

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in science, humanities and literature open to them. English became the lingua franca through the Ages
of the educated people in India. It united them and gradually made them politically
conscious of their rights. It also gave opportunity to the Indians to study in England
and learn about the working of democratic institutions there. The writings of John
Locke, Ruskin, Mill, Rousseau and many others instilled in them the ideas of liberty,
equality, fraternity, human rights and self-government. The French and the American
Revolutions, and the unifications of Italy and Germany further strengthened their
appreciation of these ideas. Cavour, Garibaldi and Mazzini became their favorite Notes
heroes. They began to aspire for these ideals for India.
Western thinkers like Max Mueller and Annie Besant encouraged vernacular
languages and literary works to instill a sense of pride in Indian heritage and culture.
It enabled Indians to revive India’s cultural past. Also, the important role of press
in arousing political awakening and exchange in ideas is noteworthy. The newspapers
and journals gave opportunities to share ideas and problems. Similarly, novel, drama,
short story, poetry, song, dance, theatre, art and cinema were used to spread views
and express resistance to colonial rule. They spoke the language of the people,
showcasing their everyday lives, joys and sorrows. Along with newspapers and
journals, they promoted the feelings of self confidence, self respect, awareness and
patriotism, thereby developing a feeling of national consciousness.

Indian People’s Theatre Association (IPTA) was founded in 1943. It used music as
an integral medium to express dissent and resistance, and continuing its cultural
movement even after Independence. Songs ranged from the awareness of exploitation,
immortalising the sacrifices of peasants, the revolt of 1857 and the people killed in
the Jallianwala Bagh in Amritsar. They cited the meaninglessness of war and violence
and also protested against the partition of India through their songs.

The British devised several strategies to make their rule effective. The early British
administrators in India like Warren Hastings, William Jones, Jonathan Duncan and
others glorified India’s ancient past. These scholars and administrators were called
Orientalists. They thought that a better understanding of Indian languages, literature
and culture would make it easier for them to rule India. Important institutions that
came to be identified with their efforts were the Calcutta Madarsas founded by
Warren Hastings (1781), the Asiatic Society of Bengal founded by William Jones
(1784), the Sanskrit College at Banaras founded by Jonathan Duncan (1794) and
the Fort William College founded by Wellesley (1800). These institutions, especially
the Asiatic Society and the Fort William College became the epicenter of the study
on Indian culture, languages and literature. For the first time great ancient Sanskrit
writers like Kalidasa became known to the world through translation of their
monumental work into English.

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ACTIVITY 5.3
During this period there were some individuals who played a major role in glorifying
India’s culture, knowledge and tradition. Listed below are some personalities whose
contribution have been recognised worldwide. Search for more information in the
library/internet on their works.
Notes
1. Aryabhatta ............................................................
2. Charaka ............................................................
3. Maitreyi ............................................................
4. Gargi ............................................................
How do you think it must have helped the Indians to take pride in their past history
and regain self respect?

5.4.3 Impact of the Reform Movement

How did the socio-religious reform movements led to the national movement? The
persistent efforts of the reformers had immense impact on the society. The religious
reform movements instilled in the minds of Indians greater self-respect, self-
confidence and pride in their country. These reform movements helped many Indians
to come to terms with the modern world. The reformers felt that modern ideas and
culture could be best imbibed by integrating them into Indian cultural stream. They
helped other countrymen to appreciate that all modern ideas were not against Indian
culture and values. The introduction of modern education guided the Indians towards
a scientific and rational approach to life. People became more conscious of their
identity as Indians which was ultimately responsible for their united struggle against
the British in the freedom movement of India.

5.4.4 British Administration and Judicial System

The Indians found it difficult to adjust to the new system of administration introduced
by the British. The Indians were denied political rights and the British officers treated
them with contempt. Indians were excluded from all higher positions in the civil
administration and military.
The British also introduced a new system of law and justice in India. A hierarchy
of civil and criminal courts was established. The laws were codified and attempts
were also made to separate the judiciary from the executive. Efforts were made to
establish the ‘Rule of Law’ in India. But this only helped the British to enjoy arbitrary
powers and to interfere with the rights and liberties of the Indians. The law courts
were not easily accessible to the common people. Justice became a costly affair. The
new judicial system also discriminated between Europeans and Indians.

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INTEXT QUESTIONS 5.3

1. Match the following:
(a) Widow Remarriage Act (i) 1857
(b) Charter Act (ii) 1794
(c) Department of Education (iii) 1813
Notes
(d) Sanskrit College of Banaras (iv) 1856
(v) 1855
2. Name at least two centers of Indian culture and languages founded by the British.
3. Briefly explain at least two legal measures which helped improve the status of
women in British India.

5.5 PROTESTS MOVEMENTS

The adverse impact of the British rule on the political, economic and social spheres
resulted in sharp reaction of the Indian people against the foreigners. This led to a
series of the anti-British movements throughout the country. Peasants and tribes
rebelled against exploitative rulers. This has been dealt in greater detail in the next
few lessons. During the British rule, the number of famines recorded in India was
unprecedented. During the first half of the 19th century, 7 big famines were recorded
which led to the death of 15 lakh people. Similarly, in the latter half of the 19th century
there were 24 famines causing over 200 lakh deaths. The most devastating was the
Bengal Famine of 1943 which killed 3 to 4 million Indians. Peasants burdened with
taxation, eviction from land and survivors from the Bengal famine joined the rebel
groups of Sanyasis and Fakirs. In 1783, rebels stopped paying revenues to company
agents. However, rebels were finally forced to surrender. Similarly, Poligars of Tamil
Nadu, Malabar and Coastal Andhra, Mappilas of Malabar revolted against the
colonial rule. In North India, the Jats of western Uttar Pradesh and Haryana revolted
in 1824. In Maharastra and Gujarat, the Kolis revolted.
Tribes in different parts of country also rebelled as colonial government extended
their authority to tribal lands. The tribes were subjected to various extortions. Tribal
leaders such as Bhils of Khandesh and Kolis of Singhbhum revolted against British
rule. However, British suppressed them ruthlessly. Oppressed Santhals on the border
of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa also revolted against Britishers as they were being evicted
from their lands. They even set up their own government but British suppressed their
revolt. Though these rebels did not succeed, they exposed the unpopular character
of colonial rule. Even today, we witness many disparities in our society. At least one-
third of the country’s population barely manages to survive. If you compare this
situation with that at the time of independence, we have made good progress but
we still have a long way to go.

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Notes

Figure 5.9 Santhal Rebellion: Fight between Railway Engineers and Santhals
(Illustrated from London News, 1856)

ACTIVITY 5.4
According to expert analysis, more than 17,500 farmers killed themselves between
2002 and 2006. Farmers’ suicides have been reported from Maharashtra, Andhra
Pradesh, Karnataka, Gujarat, Kerala, Punjab, Chhattisgarh and Tamil Nadu. The
reasons are mainly crop failure and debts. Also, the number of farmers is also falling
due to their abandonment of farming. Collect more information either from newspapers,
magazines and internet, or by talking to 5-6 farmers on the possible reasons for taking
such an extreme step? Share your thoughts.
Have you seen the movie Peepli Live? Do watch it if you can.

5.5.1 Impact of the Revolt of 1857

The economic decline of peasantry and artisans were reflected in 12 major and
numerous minor famines from 1770 to 1857. All these factors only helped to spread
anti-British feeling which ultimately culminated in the revolt of 1857. The British were
not very sensitive to the feelings of the masses they ruled ruthlessly. Hence, reforms
introduced by them to put an end to some social customs made the people believe
that the Government wanted them to be converted to Christianity. As a result, the
English East India Company’s rule in India witnessed a large number of uprisings
and rebellions. In a later lesson you will read about some important and popular
uprisings and also analyse the nature and significance of these uprisings. You will also
read about the Revolt of 1857 which had a major impact on our national movement.
For the first time it unified and brought together people having different ethnic,
religious and class background against the British rule.

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The revolt brought an end to East India Company’s rule, along with changes in the through the Ages
British policy towards Indian States. One of the most important outcomes of the revolt
was that it gave rise to nationalism. Indian people became more aware of their heroes,
who sacrificed their lives for the country so that others might live in free India in times
to come. The revolt however scarred the relationship between Hindus and Muslims
with the Divide and Rule Policy which was adopted by the British. They felt that
if they wanted to continue their rule in India, it was important to divide the Hindus
and Muslims. Notes

5.5.2 Impact Today

After reading this lesson, you would become more aware of how British rule affected
every bit of Indian life. This political control also meant a long drawn interaction
between two distinct cultures. Some changes were deliberately introduced to
strengthen the British political and trading interests. But there were others that
occurred as a byproduct of the interaction between the Indian and the western
cultures. A large number of British and Europeans stayed in our country during this
period which also brought cultural transformation.
We should also understand that our present life is shaped to a great extent by our
immediate past. In this immediate past, the British control over a large part of the
country becomes an important determining factor. Some of the cultural and legal
changes that took place as a result of British rule continue to affect our life even today.
The rails, the club life, the imperial buildings like the Rashtrapati Bhavan and the
Parliament are reminiscent of the British rule in India. Many food items like bread,
tea and cake that we consume today are a direct result of our interaction with
Europeans during the British rule. If you look around yourself, you will be surprised
to know that a large number of costumes prevalent in urban India were adopted
during the British rule, for example, trousers, coats and ties. The idea of introducing
Indian civil service started during this period. The Indian armed forces still retain many
aspects of European training and culture. The medium of our instruction or learning
itself is predominantly English. The Supreme Court and the High Court pass their
judgments in English. This language itself is a legacy of the British rule and continues
to be the lingua franca of Indians seeking employment in their own country.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 5.4

1. Identify two reasons for protest movements by peasants and tribal groups in
India.
2. How did the British policy of Divide and Rule affect the national interest of the
country? Explain in 30 words.

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WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT

 The British came to India as traders, but also had territorial ambitions. They
gradually gained control over the whole of India by using various means like direct
conquest, annexation and diplomacy.
 The Battle of Plassey in 1757 marked the beginning of the political dominance
Notes
of the British in India. British rule had a deep impact on the political and social
life of the Indians.
 The economic impact of British rule was most far-reaching. It destroyed the
traditional economy of India and drained India’s wealth to Britain. The economic
policies of the British also affected the classes of peasants, artisans very adversely.
 The discontentment that resulted from British Rule gave rise to a series of
resistance movements against the British. The Sanyasi and Fakir uprisings, the
Farazi movements, the Wahabi movement and the Santhal rebellion are some
examples of resistance to British rule.
 The war of 1857 had to end in defeat due to the military and political weaknesses
of the Indians.

TERMINAL EXERCISES
1. How did the land revenue policies of the British affect the life of the peasants?
2. Distinguish between Permanent Settlement and Mahalwari System.
3. How did English education contributed in the rise of nationalism in India?
4. Examine the reasons for the success of the English language in the country?
5. Do you agree with the fact that British impact could be seen even today? If yes,
how?

ANSWERS TO INTEXT QUESTIONS

5.1
1. (a) (iv)
(b) (iii)
2. To find raw materials for their industries in Britain and markets for their finished
goods.
3. Doctrine of Lapse and Subsidiary Alliance.

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1. (a) No because the cheap foreign goods were a threat to Indian handloom. Also,
Indian weavers suffered much loss.
(b) No because the high revenue rates led many peasants to revolt against the
British rule. Though the British Empire benefitted economically, it had to
suffer politically in the long run.
(c) No because rice and wheat are food crops. Notes

(d) Yes because when the peasants failed to pay back their loan their lands
passed into the hands of the money lending class.
2. The main purpose was to connect trading ports and industrial towns to villages
from where they got their raw materials, that is, cash crops. It ensured its easy
and fast transport. Also, finished goods from the trading ports could be taken
to various markets.

5.3
1. (a) (iv)
(b) (iii)
(c) (i)
(d) (ii)
2. Asiatic Society of Bengal founded by William Jones in 1784.
Fort William College founded by Lord Wellesley in 1800.
3. The practice of sati, wherein the wife had to jump at her husband’s funeral fire,
was banned in 1829.
Sharda Act, which raised the marriageable age of girls to 14 and boys to 18
thereby preventing child marriage, was passed in 1929.

5.4
1. (a) The exploitative nature of the British with their heavy taxation and high
revenue rates on the peasants.
(b) Various extortion policies and extension of British authority to tribal lands.
2. The British policy of Divide and Rule led to the division of the country on the
basis of religion. The relationship between the Hindus and the Muslims suffered
with the British pitching native against native to continue their rule.

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Notes
RELIGIOUS AND SOCIAL
AWKENING IN COLONIAL INDIA
Read a conversation between Mimi, a thirteen year old girl, and her grandmother.
Mimi: “Which college did you go to read Grandma?”
Grandmother (smiling): “I never went to college, my dear. I only studied up to class
6 and was married when I was of your age.”
Mimi (shocked): “Married at thirteen! That is illegal, Grandma! Did you not protest?”
Grandmother: “Things were different at that time besides many of my friends got
married at the same age.”
This made Mimi curious about the practices prevalent in the society when her
grandmother was a child. She also wondered how things changed over a period of
time. Who were the people responsible for bringing this change? Mimi wanted to
know all this and more. In this lesson you will read how reforms were introduced
in the 19th and 20th century in India. You will also read about the impact of these
reforms on the society.

OBJECTIVES
After reading this lesson, you will be able to:
 identify the social practices that existed in our society during the 19th century;
 discuss the importance of socio-religious reform movements during the 19th and
early 20th century in raising awareness about prevalent social practices;
 explain the efforts of the reformers to deal with issues like caste system, child
marriage, sati pratha, through legislation and other means;
 discuss the role of reformers from the 19th century onwards in promoting school
education in India;
 analyse the impact of the reform movement on Indian society.

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6.1 SOCIETY IN THE EARLY 19TH CENTURY
The Indian society, which you see in 2012, is very different from the one in the first
half of the 19th century. Two major social causes prevented the society’s progress.
These were lack of education and subordination of women. Many sections of the
Indian society were rigid and followed certain practices which were not in keeping
with humanitarian values.
Notes
6.1.1 Lack of Education
Majority of people in those days were illiterate. All over the world education was
in the hands of a very small number of people. In India also, education was limited
to a handful of men belonging to the upper castes. Brahmins in India had access to
the Vedas which were written in Sanskrit. It was a language known only to them.
Religious texts were also controlled by these people. So they interpreted them in
a way that benefitted them. Expensive rituals, sacrifices and practices after birth or
death were outlined by this priestly class. It was mandatory for everyone to perform
these rituals in the belief of a better life after death. Nobody could question the
Brahmin priests because nobody knew what was written in the scriptures. Similarly
in Europe, the Bible was written in Latin. It was the language of the Church and
their priests interpreted the religious texts accordingly. And that is why, as a reaction,
Europe saw the Renaissance and the Reformation Movement about which you
have read earlier in this book. Even ideas like liberty, equality, freedom and human
rights were introduced in Europe by various revolutions which took place there.

6.1.2 Position of Women

Girls and women today have better opportunities for their development. They have
more freedom to study and work outside of home. However, way back in the 19th
century the life was much harder for majority of the women. Certain social practices
like female infanticide, child marriage, sati pratha and polygamy were prevalent in
some sections of Indian society. Female infanticide or killing of a girl child was a
very common practice. Girls who survived were often married at a very young age
and often to men who were much older. Polygamy, a practice of a man having more
than one wife was an accepted norm among many castes and religion. In some parts
of the country Sati Pratha was practiced in which a widowed woman was compelled
to burn herself on the funeral pyre of her husband. Those women who could escape
the practice of Sati had to live a very miserable life. Women had no right to property.
They also had no access to education. Thus, in general, women had a subordinate
position in the society. The fear of the invader and loss of family honor was one
reason. The other reasons were dowry and sharing of ancestral property which further
deteriorated their status.

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through the Ages It was evident that certain practices and superstitions were preventing Indians from
progressing. Reforms were needed to bring a change in the social and religious lives
of the people.

Notes Infanticide: The killing of an infant born alive; the killing of a newly born child;
Child Sex Ratio: The number of girls per 1000 boys in the 0-6 years age group.
In India, the ratio has shown a sharp decline from 976 girls to 1000 boys in 1961
to 914 girls to 1000 boys as per the 2011 census. As per global terms, the normal
child sex ratio should be above 950.

ACTIVITY 6.1
According to the 2011 census, the states with the highest and the lowest sex ratio
is Kerala with 1084 females per 1000 males, and Haryana with 877 females per
1000 males. Find out any 5 states having sex ratio of less than 914 females per 1000
males.
Visit the website www.censusindia.gov.in for information.

6.2 A DESIRE TO CHANGE: SOCIO-RELIGIOUS

AWAKENING
What do you think could be the reasons that led to the awakening of the people
against discrimination and inequality? Reformers like Raja Rammohan Roy,
Ishwarchandra Vidyasagar, Swami Dayanand Saraswati, Jyotiba Phule, Sir Syed
Ahmed Khan and Pandita Ramabai understood that ignorance and backwardness
in the society was responsible for hindering its progress and development. This
realisation was reinforced when they came in contact with the Europeans and found
that life was very different in other parts of the world. When the British missionaries
started spreading Christianity, they criticized and questioned many of our social and
religious practices. Many of their ideas were accepted by our reformers. The desire
to reform the society was so strong that these reformers were now ready to face
challenges as well as resistance from the orthodox Indians. They started several
movements to bring desirable changes in the society.
These were made possible by enlightened people like Swami Dayanand Saraswati
and Raja Ram Mohan Roy. They studied the religious scriptures and criticized the
prevalent religious and social practices. According to them, society should be based
on the concepts of liberty and equality both for men and women and this was possible

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only by the spread of modern and scientific education especially among the women. through the Ages
These movements came to be called socio-religious movement because the
reformers felt that no change is possible in a society without reforming the religion.
We will read further to know why education and other priviliges were available to
only the upper classes in society.

6.2.1 The Caste System

Notes
Since ancient times, Indian society had a caste system which was originally occupation
based. Over a period of time, interpretation of religious texts by the upper caste and
lack of access to religious scriptures by the lower caste led to several superstitious
practices in the name of religion. This also resulted in power being concentrated in
upper caste and exploitation of the lower caste.
Hindu society was based on the Varna system, that is, Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya
and Shudra. According to this system people were divided on the basis of their
occupation. The people who were engaged in praying and worshipping the Gods
were categorized as Brahmins. Those who were engaged in wars were called
Kshatriyas. Those whose occupation was agriculture and trading were known as
Vaishyas and those who used to serve the upper three Varnas were known as
Shudras. This caste system, which was purely based on occupation, had become
hereditary. A person born in a particular caste could not change his/ her caste even
though they might have changed their work. This created inequality in society. It
also led to the exploitation of the lower castes. Therefore, caste system had became
a major hindrance in the development of a healthy, democratic and progressive
society
Many socio-religious reformers and organizations stepped forward to fight against
this social practice. Organizations, such as Brahmo Samaj, Arya Samaj, Prarthana
Samaj, Ramakrishna Mission and reformers like Jyotiba Phule, Pandita Ramabai, Sri
Narayana Guru, Periyar, Vivekananda, Mahatma Gandhi and many others strongly
protested against its rigidity. Most reformers considered the prevalent caste practices
as against the original spirit of the Vedas and other scriptures. They considered the
caste system as irrational and unscientific. They felt it was against the basic rules of
humanity. The untiring and relentless efforts of the social reformers helped people
to become more tolerant towards each other.

Article 14 of the Constitution states that, ‘it shall not discriminate against any
citizen on the grounds of religion, race, caste, sex, place of birth or any of
them.’ This constitutional provision has facilitated the participation of the
marginalized in the social, political and economic development of the country.

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through the Ages 6.2.2 The Prevalent Religious Practices
Most of the social practices were done in the name of religion. Hence, social reform
had no meaning without religious reform. Our reformers were deeply rooted in Indian
tradition and philosophy and had a sound knowledge of the scriptures. They were
able to blend positive Indian values with western ideas and the principles of
democracy and equality. On the basis of this understanding, they challenged the
Notes rigidity and superstitious practices in religion. They cited the scriptures to show that
the practices prevalent during nineteenth century find no sanction in them. The
enlightened and the rationalistic amongst them questioned the popular religion which
was full of superstitions and was exploited by the corrupt priests. The reformers
wanted society to accept the rational and scientific approach. They also believed in
the principle of human dignity and social equality of all men and women.

6.2.3 The Educational Scenario

In the 19th century, many children, especially girls, were not sent to school. Education
was imparted in traditional Paathshalas, Madrasas, Mosques and Gurukuls. Religious
Education was imparted along with subjects like Sanskrit, Grammar, Arithmetic,
Religion and Philosophy. Science and technology had no place in the curriculum.
Many superstitious beliefs existed in the society. In certain communities girls were
not allowed to be educated. It was thought that educated women would soon become
widows after marriage! But in reality lack of education and awareness was the root
cause of social and religious backwardness among the Indians. So it was important
to promote modern education.

All socio-religious reformers whether Hindus, Muslims, Sikhs or Parsis aimed at the
spread of modern education. They believed that education was the most effective
tool to awaken and modernize our society.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 6.1

1. List any two social practices against which the reform movement began.
2. Why the caste system was considered irrational and unscientific?
3. What was the basis of the reformers’ criticism of rigidity in religion?
4. Read the excerpt below and answer the given question:
Dr. Bhim Rao Ambedkar belonged to a poor Mahar family, considered an
untouchable caste. He had his college education in India and later earned
degrees and doctorates for his study and research from Columbia University

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and the London School of Economics. Dr. Ambedkar was the Chairman of through the Ages
the Drafting Committee of the Indian Constitution. Despite facing social
and financial hardships, Dr. Ambedkar spent his whole life fighting against
social discrimination and was awarded the Bharat Ratna posthumously in
1990.
(i) In addition to education, which other attributes (qualities) enabled Dr.
Ambedkar to withstand the discrimination and contribute to the society? Notes

ACTIVITY 6.2
Cite at least two instances where you observed caste-based discrimination. Note
down your reactions in 50 words.

6.3 SOCIO RELIGIOUS REFORMERS OF THE 19TH

CENTURY
Many Indian thinkers and reformers came forward to bring reforms in society.
According to them society and religion were interlinked. Both needed to be reformed
to achieve positive growth and development of the country. Hence our reformers
took the initiative to awaken the Indian masses. Some of these reformers founded
organizations to spread the awareness about which you will read now. Another major
contribution of these reformers was in the field of education.

6.3.1 Raja Ram Mohan Roy

Raja Ram Mohan Roy was born in a Brahmin family of Bengal. He knew many
languages and had read Quran, Bible and the New
Testament along with Hindu scriptures in great
depth. Liberal education exposed him to different
cultures and philosophies. Deeply moved by the
plight of his brother’s widow, who had been forced
to commit Sati, he was determined to uproot this
social practice. This led him to challenge other
unfair social and religious practices prevalent at
that time. He founded Brahmo Samaj in 1828.
He was the first person to take an initiative to
challenge the practice of Sati and it soon became
his life-long crusade. He mobilized public opinion
and cited the scriptures to show that this practice
had no sanction in Hindu religion. In the process
Figure 6.1 Raja Ram Mohan Roy
he faced displeasure and enmity of orthodox

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through the Ages Hindus. In his efforts he was supported by the then Governor General of India, Sir
William Bentinck. A law was passed in 1829 making Sati illegal and punishable. He
also made efforts to advocate widow re-marriage and condemned child marriage.
He represented a synthesis of the Eastern and the Western thoughts. An authority
on the Vedas, Vedantas and Upanishads, he also took up the best in all religions
as he was well versed in the scriptures. He advocated the importance of Vedas in
Notes reforming religion and upheld the fundamental unity among all religions. He held that
all the principal ancient texts of the Hindus preached Monotheism (worship of one
God) and opposed Polytheism (belief in more than one God). He was critical of
idol worship and observance of meaningless rituals.
He strongly advocated the learning of English language, literature, scientific advancement
and technology to modernize India. He maintained an English school in Calcutta at
his own cost. Subjects like mechanics and philosophy were also taught among other
subjects. A Vedanta college was opened in 1825. Raja Ram Mohan Ray helped in
the opening of the Hindu college in Calcutta for higher learning.

6.3.2 Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar

A great scholar and reformer, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar dedicated his entire life
to the cause of social reforms. The first Hindu Widow Remarriage Act was introduced
in 1856 owing to his relentless efforts. He also protested
against child-marriage and campaigned against polygamy.
Though he did not concern himself much with religious
questions, he was against all those who opposed reforms
in the name of religion.
Though he was a Sanskrit scholar, his mind was open
to the best in Western thought. His major contribution
was in the field of education. He encouraged the study
of Sanskrit and Bengali literature. He also introduced the
study of Western thought in the Sanskrit college to Figure 6.2 Ishwar Chandra
inspire the Indians to shake off their age-old beliefs and Vidyasagar
modernize their ideas. He believed that condition of
women could be improved only through their education. His efforts in this direction
were praise worthy. He helped in opening approximately 35 girls’ school in Bengal.
He was a champion of women’s education. The admission of non-Brahmin students
in the Sanskrit College was made possible through his efforts.

6.3.3 Swami Dayanand Saraswati

The Arya Samaj founded by Swami Dayanand Saraswati in 1875 undertook the task
of reforming Hindu religion in North India. He considered Vedas to be infallible and

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the foundation of all knowledge. He rejected all those religious thoughts which were through the Ages
in conflict with the Vedas. He believed that every person had the right to have direct
access to God. It started the Shuddhi Movement to bring back those Hindus who
had converted to Islam and Christianity. Satyarth Prakash was his most important
book.

Notes

Figure 6.3 Swami Dayanand Saraswati

Arya Samaj advocated social reform and worked to improve the condition of women.
It fought untouchability and the rigidities of the hereditary caste system and promoted
social equality. The use of Hindi language in which he wrote and preached made
his ideas accessible to the people of Northern India. Arya Samaj also had a major
role to play in the national movement as it inculcated a spirit of self respect and self
reliance among the people.
The role of Arya Samaj was commendable in promoting education among the masses.
Some of Swami Dayanand’s followers later started a network of schools and colleges
called D.A.V. (Dayanand Anglo Vedic) in the country to impart education on western
lines without compromising on the Vedic teachings. They encouraged teaching of
English and modern science along with Sanskrit and Vedic education.

6.3.4 Ramakrishna Paramhansa and Swami Vivekananda

Ramakrishna Paramhansa (1836-1886) highlighted the essential unity of religions and
the need to lead a spiritual life. He believed that the different religions of the world
are only different ways to reach the same god. Swami Vivekananda (1863-1902)
was his foremost disciple.

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through the Ages
The history of the world is the history of a few men who had faith in themselves.
That faith calls out the Divinity within. You can do anything. You fail only when
you do not strive sufficiently to manifest infinite power. As soon as a man or
a nation loses faith in himself or itself, death comes. Believe first in yourself, and
then in God. – Swami Vivekananda.

Notes Vivekananda was the first spiritual leader who thought beyond religious reforms. He
felt that Indian masses needed secular as well as spiritual knowledge to empower
them to believe in themselves. Vivekananda established the Ramakrishna mission after
the name of his guru Ramakrishna Paramhansa. Through his speeches and writings,
he brought out the essence of Hindu culture and religion. He believed in the spirit
of Vedanta and the essential unity and equality of all religions. He laid stress on the
removal of religious superstitions, obscurantism, and outdated social customs. He
tried to remove caste rigidities, and untouchability. He motivated the people to
respect women while he himself worked for women’s upliftment and education.
Vivekananda attached primary importance to the removal of ignorance among the
people.

Figure 6.4 Sri Ramakrishna Paramhansa and Swami Vivekananda

6.3.5 Sir Syed Ahmed Khan

Sir Syed Ahmed Khan believed that the religious and social life of the Muslims could
be improved only by imbibing modern western scientific knowledge and culture. His
major concern was the removal of social and educational backwardness among the
Muslims. He worked hard to raise the status of the Muslim women. He was against

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the purdah system, polygamy, easy divorce and lack of education among the girls. through the Ages
Though he was opposed by the orthodox Muslims, he made commendable efforts
in promote women’s education. He tried to interpret the Quran in the light of reason
and spoke out against fanaticism and ignorance. He also initiated social reforms for
the upliftment of Muslim society.
Throughout his early life, he advocated the study of English language even against
the opposition of the orthodox Muslims. He considered that only modern education Notes
could lead Muslims towards progress. He established an English school in Ghazipur
(present day Uttar Pradesh) in 1864. He started the Mohammadan Anglo-Oriental
College (M.A.O.) at Aligarh in 1875 which later developed into the Aligarh Muslim
University. It provided education in humanities and science through English medium.
He also established a scientific society for translating English books. He also published
a journal for spreading awareness among the Muslims towards social reforms
especially towards modern education. He started the Mohammadan educational
conference for spreading liberal ideas among the Muslims. The movement for reform
started by him is known as the Aligarh Movement which proved to be an important
step towards social and political awakening among the Muslims.

Figure 6.5 Sir Syed Ahmed Khan

6.3.6 Jyotirao Govindrao Phule

Jyotirao Govindrao Phule from Maharashtra worked to attain equal rights for
peasants and the lower caste. He and his wife, Savitribai Phule, are most known
for their efforts to educate women and the lower castes as well as the masses. He
first educated his wife, after which both of them opened a school for girls in India

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through the Ages in August 1848.took up the cause of women and started a girls’ school in Poona
(Pune) in 1851. He is also remembered for his efforts towards promoting widow
remarriage. In September 1873, Jyotirao along with his followers formed the Satya
Shodhak Samaj (Society of Seekers of Truth) with the main objective of liberating
the lower castes and protecting them from exploitation and atrocities. He was
popularly known as Jyotiba.

Notes

Figure 6.6 Jyotiba Phule and his wife Savitribai Phule

6.3.7 Justice Mahadev Govind Ranade

Justice Mahadev Govind Ranade established the Poona Sarvajanik Sabha and the
Prarthana Samaj in 1867 in Bombay to bring about religious reforms. It sought
to remove caste restrictions, abolish child marriage, the shaving of widows’ heads,
the heavy cost of marriages and other social functions;
encourage education of women and promote widow
remarriage. Like Bramho Samaj, it advocated the
worship of one God. It condemned idolatry and the
domination of the priestly castes in religious matters.
He introduced vernacular languages in the University
curriculum which made higher education accessible
to Indians. He attempted to reform the rigid traditions
in the society without destroying the social atmosphere
of India’s rich cultural heritage. He was also a Figure 6.7 Justice Mahadev
founding member of the Indian National Congress. Govind Ranade

6.3.8 Pandita Ramabai

In Maharashtra, Pandita Ramabai, a renowned social reformer, fought for the rights
of women and spoke against the practice of child marriage. She promoted girls

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education and started the Arya Mahila Samaj in1881, through the Ages
in Pune, to improve the condition of women, especially
child widows. In 1889, she established the Mukti
Mission, in Pune, a refuge for young widows who had
been deserted and abused by their families. She also
started Sharda Sadan which provided housing,
education, vocational training and medical services to
widows, orphans and the visually challenged. She also Notes
wrote many books showing the hard life of women,
including child brides and child widows. The Pandita
Ramabai Mukti Mission is still active today. Figure 6.8 Pandita Ramabai

6.3.9 Annie Besant

Annie Besant was a member of the Theosophical Society and came to India for the
first time in 1893. This movement was led by Westerners who glorified Indian religious
and philosophical traditions and encouraged vernacular languages and literary works
to instill a sense of pride in Indian heritage and
culture. It aroused political awakening and helped
Indians recover their self-confidence and get a
sense of pride in their own country. The society also
preached the universal brotherhood of man. It
made immense contribution towards the
development of Modern India. Annie Besant became
the President of the Theosophical Society in 1907.
Besant opened a college for boys, the Central
Hindu College at Banaras based on Theosophical
principles with the aim to build a new leadership for
India. The students studied religious texts along with
modern science. The college became a part of the Figure 6.9 Annie Besant
new University, the Banaras Hindu University from
1917.

ACTIVITY 6.3
Identify any two social practices or superstitions which are still prevalent despite
several reform movements and government regulations. What can you, as an
individual do to challenge these social practices or superstitions?
Clue: Social practices or superstitions like dowry, gender discrimination, illiteracy,
child marriage, female infanticide.
Possible Action: Lead by personal example, organise group discussion; write a letter
to the newspaper, assist people in distress in public places etc.

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through the Ages 6.3.10 Muslim Reform Movement
A few movements were launched which aimed to spread modern education and
removing social practices like the polygamy. The Mohammedan Literacy Society of
Calcutta was founded by Abdul Latif in 1863. It was one of the earliest organisations
that promoted modern education among the upper
and middle class Muslims. It also played an important
role in promoting Hindu-Muslim unity. Shariatullah of
Notes
Bengal, leader of the Faraizi movement in Bengal,
took up the cause of the peasants. He also condemned
the evils of the caste system among the Muslims.
There were several other socio-religious movements
which in one way or the other helped the national
awakening of the Muslims. Mirza Ghulam Ahmed had
founded the Ahmediya Movement in 1899. Under this
movement, a number of schools and colleges were Figure 6.10 Muhammad Iqbal
opened all over the country. They emphasised the
universal and humanitarian character of Islam. They favoured the unity among Hindus
and Muslims.
One of the greatest poets of Modern India, Muhammad Iqbal (1876-1938)
influenced the philosophical and religious outlook of several generations through his
poetry.

Muhammad Iqbal wrote the famous song ‘Saare jahaan se achcha hindustaan
hamaara. . .’

6.3.11 The Akali Reform Movement

The formation of the two Singh Sabhas at Amritsar and Lahore in the 1870’s was
the beginning of religious reform movement among the Sikhs. The setting up of Khalsa
College in Amritsar in 1892 helped promote Gurmukhi, Sikh learning and Punjabi
literature. The college was set up with help from the British. In 1920, the Akali
movement which rose in Punjab, started the cleansing of the management of the
Gurudwaras or Sikh shrines. A powerful Satyagraha in 1921 against the Mahants
forced the Government to pass a new Gurdwara Act in 1925. With the aid of this
act and by direct action, they freed the sacred places from the control and domination
of corrupt Mahants.

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6.3.12 Reform Movement among the Parsis through the Ages

Narouji Furdonji, Dadabhai Naoroji, S.S. Bengalee

and others began religious reforms among the Parsis
in Mumbai in the middle of the 19th century. In
1851, they founded the Rahnumai Mazdayasnan
Sabha or Religious Reform Association. They played
an important role in the spread of education,
Notes
especially among girls. They also campaigned against
the orthodox practices in Parsi religion. In course
of time, the Parsis became one of the most
progressive sections of Indian society.
Figure 6.11 Dadabhai Naoroji

ACTIVITY 6.4
Make a list of 10 eminent personalities who have contributed towards making our
society a better place to live in. Also find out the field in which they have contributed.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 6.2

1. Fill in the blanks with correct answer:
(i) He ................... did not represent the synthesis of the thought of East
and West
(a) Swami Vivekananda (b) Rammohan Roy
(c) Dayanand Saraswati (d) Iswarchandra Vidyasagar
(ii) He did not emphasize the infallibility of the Vedas
(a) Swami Vivekananda (b) Ramakrishna Paramhans
(c) Dayanand Saraswati (d) Syed Ahmed Khan
(iii) The movement started to free the sacred places from the control and
domination of corrupt Mahants
(a) Akali Movement (b) Caste reform movement
(c) Shuddhi movement (d) Satyagraha movement.
2. Match the following:
(i) Bramho Samaj (a) Swami Vivekananda
(ii) Arya Samaj (b) Annie Besant
(iii) Ramakrishna Mission (c) Swami Dayanand Saraswati

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through the Ages (iv) Theosophical Society (d) Jyotiba Phule
(v) Akali Movement (e) Pandita Ramabai
(vi) Satya Shodhak Samaj (f) Raja Ram Mohan Roy
(vii) Aligarh Movement (g) Sikhs
(viii) Arya Mahila Samaj (h) Justice Mahadev Govind Ranade
Notes (i) Sir Sayed Ahmed Khan
(j) Dadabhai Naoroji
3. Write any two limitations of the reform movements.
4. Read the excerpt below and answer the given questions:
Ramvati is working as a peon in NIOS office. She got married at the age
of 21, but unfortunately her husband passed away when she was 28. She
was offered her husbands’ job at NIOS because she had completed her
secondary school education. With this job Ramvati is now able to look after
her children and herself. She leads a dignified life and her children are proud
of their mother.
(a) What could have happened if Ramvati had got married as a child?
(b) If Ramvati was not allowed to work outside home, what could have
happened to her and her family?

6.4 IMPACT OF THE REFORM MOVEMENTS ON

INDIAN SOCIETY
The reform movements were able to create socio-religious consciousness among the
Indians during the 19th century. All these movements laid stress on rational
understanding of social and religious ideas and encouraged a scientific and humanitarian
outlook. The reformers felt that modern ideas and culture could be best imbibed by
integrating them into Indian cultural streams. The introduction of modern education
guided the Indians towards a scientific and rational approach to life. All the
movements worked to improve women’s status and criticized the caste system
especially the practice of untouchability. These movements looked for social unity
and strived towards liberty, equality and fraternity.
Importance was given to education especially women’s education. Some legal
measures were introduced to raise the status of women. For example Sati Pratha
and infanticide were declared illegal. Widow Remarriage was made possible by a
law passed in 1856 and condition of widows improved. A law passed in 1872,
sanctioned inter-caste and inter-communal marriages. Marriageable age of girls was
raised to ten by a law passed in 1860. Further, Sharda Act was passed in 1929
preventing child marriage. According to it, a girl below 14 and a boy below 18 cannot

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be married. The impact of the efforts of these reformers was most evident in the through the Ages
National Movement. A large number of women came out to take part in the freedom
struggle. The role of women like Captain Laxmi Sehgal of Indian National Army,
Sarojini Naidu, Annie Besant, Aruna Asaf Ali and many others was extremely
important in the freedom struggle. Women now came out of the purdah and took
up jobs.
The persistent efforts of the reformers had immense impact on the society. The Notes
religious reform movements instilled in the minds of Indians greater self-respect, self-
confidence and pride in their country. These reform movements helped many Indians
to come to terms with the modern world. People became more conscious of their
identity as Indian. It was ultimately responsible for their united struggle against the
British in the freedom movement of India.
In the 20th century and especially after 1919, the Indian National Movement became
the main propagator of social reform. Indian languages were used to reach the
masses. They also used novels, dramas, short stories, poetry, the press and in the
1930’s used the cinema to spread their views. The movements promoted the feelings
of self-confidence, self-respect, awareness and patriotism and thereby developed a
feeling of national consciousness. Do you remember reading some of the novels and
seeing some films related to Independence Movement. For a beginning start making
a list of some such authors and their book. Make a list of some films also. Also make
a list of some songs. May be this clue will help you “Insaf ki dagar pe, Bachhon
dikhao chal ke, yeh desh hai tumhara, neta tumhi ho kal ke”, or “Vande
Mataram” sung by Lata Mangeshkar in the same film.
These reform movements had certain limitations. It affected a very small percentage
of the population, mostly the educated class and could not reach the vast masses
of the peasantry and urban poor who continued to live in the same conditions.

Humanitarian: Having the concern for or helping to improve the welfare and
happiness of all people.
Liberty: Freedom to act or think as you chose.
Fraternity: A group of people with something in common.

WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT

 The Indian society was challenged by issues like superstitious beliefs, backwardness
and evil practices such as Sati or widow immolation and untouchability.
 Some educated Indians like Raja Rammohan Roy, Iswarchandra Vidyasagar,
Jyotiba Phule, Swami Dayanand Swaraswati, Sir. Syed Ahmed Khan, Swami

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through the Ages Vivekananda took the initiative to reform the society by introducing reforms in
the religion first as the social practices were often driven by religious beliefs.
 All the socio-religious reformers emphasized upon modern education and
scientific knowledge to reform the society. Women’s education has been specially
emphasized upon to improve the position of the women in the society.
 The impact of the reform movements in the society was immense. Due to the
Notes persistent efforts of the social reformers many such practices like Sati, untouchability
was abolished by law. Widow-remarriage was introduced. Modern education
was encouraged in the society.
 Despite all the efforts, India still require more involvement of the educated people
in spreading awareness. The role of media is very crucial in this regard.

TERMINAL EXERCISES
1. Explain the social practices that existed in 19th century India.
2. Why do you think reforms were needed to awaken our society?
3. Why do you think that the social reform movement had no meaning without
religious reforms?
4. Do you think the reformers were able to bring change in the Indian society?
5. How did the socio-religious reform movements lead to the National Movement?
6. Explain the role of following reformers in challenging caste system and advocating
widow remarriage:
(a) Raja Ram Mohan Roy
(b) Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar
(c) Jyotiba Phule
7. Identify the common features amongst the following reformers:
(a) Theosophical Society and Ramakrishna Mission
(b) Akali Movement and Arya Samaj
8. Explain the hindrances in the growth of women’s education in the 19th Century
India.
9. Who introduced English education among the Muslims? Explain his/her contribution
in this area.
10. Study the map carefully and answer the questions that follow:
(a) Name the places where Brahmo Samaj, Arya Samaj, Prarthana Samaj and
M.A.O. College became popular.
(b) Name the social reformers who were active in Western India and also mark
the places where they were active.

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Notes

Figure 6.12

ANSWERS TO INTEXT QUESTIONS

6.1
1. Sati, Caste System, Child Marriage, Plight of Widows.
2. Because it was against the basic tenets of humanity.
3. Courage, determination, motivation and a vision to achieve goals.
4. They found that the scriptures do not sanction rigidity and superstitions.

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through the Ages 6.2
1. (i) (c) (ii) (d) (iii) (a)
2. (i) (f) (ii) (c) (iii) (a) (iv) (b) (v) (g) (vi) (d)
(vii) (i) (viii) (e)
3. (a) She would have been illiterate, would have been married at an early age,
would have many children and possibly had been suffering due to ill health
Notes
as a result of child-birth at a very early age. She would probably have been
dependant on her parents or in-laws for her survival.
(b) She would be dependent on others resulting in low socio-economic status.
4. (a) It affected a very small percentage of the population, mostly the educated
class.
(b) It did not reach the masses.

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Notes
POPULAR RESISTANCE TO THE
BRITISH RULE
British colonial rule had a tremendous impact on all sections of Indian society. Can
you imagine being ruled by some strangers year after year? No, we cannot. Most
of us were born after 1947 when India had already become independent. Do you
know when the British conquered India and colonised its economy they faced stiff
resistance from the people. There were a series of civil rebellions. These rebellions
were led by rulers who were deposed by the Britishers, ex-officials of the conquered
Indian states, impoverished zamindars and poligars. It brought together people
having different ethnic, religious and class background against the British rule. In this
lesson, we will read about some important popular uprisings, their nature and
significance. We will also read about the uprising of 1857 which had a major impact
on our National Movement.

OBJECTIVES
After studying this lesson you will be able to:
l discuss the causes of the popular resistance movements against the colonial rule
before 1857;
l explain the nature and significance of the peasant and tribal revolts;
l identify the issues that led to the Revolt of 1857; and
l analyse the importance and significance of the Revolt of 1857.

7.1 THE EARLY POPULAR RESISTANCE MOVEMENTS

AGAINST COLONIAL RULE (1750-1857)
Can you think of a reason why these resistance movements are called popular? Was
it because of the large number of people who participated in them? Or was it because
of the success they met with? After reading this section you will be able to arrive
at a conclusion.

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through Ages 7.1.1 Causes of Popular Resistance Movements
Why do people resist? They resist when they feel that their rights are being taken
away. That means all resistance movements started against some form of exploitation.
British rule whose policies had undermined rights, status and economic position of
Indians symbolised this exploitation. The protest and resistance was mainly offered
by the displaced ruling classes, peasantry and tribals. For example, when Warren
Notes Hastings attacked Banaras and imprisoned King Chet Singh to fulfill his unjustified
demand of money and army, the people of Banaras rebelled. In Madras Presidency,
Poligars rebelled, when the British tried to snatch away their military and land rights.
Interference in religious practices was another cause of these popular rebellions.
Often these revolts were anti-Christian. This was due to the socio-religious reforms
introduced by the British which were unacceptable to the people.
In some other rebellions, difference between the religion of the ruler and exploited
classes became the immediate cause for the rebellion. This happened in Mappila
Rebellion of Malabar region. Here the Muslim peasantry fought against the Hindu
landlords and moneylenders. In the next section we shall read about the nature of
this movement.

7.1.2 Nature of Popular Resistance Movements

Violence and plunder were the two most popular tools used by the rebels to express
their resistance against their oppressors. Lower and exploited classes often attacked
their exploiters. They were the Britishers or the zamindars or the revenue collecting
officials, wealthy groups and individuals. Santhal Rebellion saw mass scale violence
where account books of moneylenders and government buildings were burnt and their
exploiters punished.
In a previous lesson we read about the land policies of the British. The purpose was
to extract as much money as possible from the peasants and tribal people. This caused
so much unrest among the peasants and the tribals that they started expressing their
resentment against the British.
It is important to know that these popular resistance movements aimed at restoration
of old structures and relations which had been done away with by the British. Each
social group had its own reasons to raise its voice against the colonial powers. For
example, displaced zamindars and rulers wanted to regain their land and estates.
Similarly, the tribal groups rebelled because they did not want the traders and
moneylenders to interfere in their lives.

7.2 PEASANT MOVEMENTS AND TRIBAL REVOLTS

IN THE 19TH CENTURY
You would be surprised to know that beginning with the Sanyasi Rebellion and Chuar
Uprising in Bengal and Bihar in the 1760s, there was hardly a year without an armed

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opposition. From 1763 to 1856 there were more than 40 major rebellions apart from through Ages
hundreds of minor ones. These rebellions were, however, local in character and
effects. They were isolated from each other because each rebellion had a different
motive. We will now read more about these movements in the next section of this
lesson.

Notes

Figure 7.1 Map of India citing various places of Peasant and

Tribal Revolts in the 19th century

7.2.1 Peasant Revolt

In an earlier lesson you read about the various land settlements and the adverse effects
they had on the Indian peasantry. The Permanent Settlement had made the zamindar
the owner of the land. But this land could be sold off if he failed to pay the revenue

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through Ages on time. This forced the zamindars and the landlords to extract money from the
peasants even if their crops failed. These peasants often borrowed money from the
moneylenders, who were also called mahajans. The impoverished peasants could
never pay back this borrowed money. This led to many hardships like extreme
poverty and being forced to work as bonded labourers. Hence the lower and
exploited classes often attacked their exploiters. Failure to pay by the zamindars
also meant that the land would be taken away by the British. The British then would
Notes auction this land to the highest bidder, who often came from the urban areas. The
new zamindars from the city had little or no interest in the land. They did not invest
money in seeds or fertilizers to improve the fertility of the land but only cared to collect
as much revenue as they could. This proved destructive for the peasants who
remained backward and stagnant.
To get out of this situation, the peasants now started producing commercial crops
like indigo, sugarcane, jute, cotton, opium and so on. This was the beginning of
commercialisation of agriculture. The peasants now depended on merchants, traders
and middlemen to sell their produce during harvest time. As they shifted to commercial
crops, food grain production went down. Less food stocks led to famines. It was
therefore not surprising that the hungry peasants revolted. Lets us read more about
some peasants revolts which took place on account of the British policies:
(i) The Faqir and Sanyasi Rebellions (1770–1820s): The establishment of
British control over Bengal after 1757 led to increase in land revenue and the
exploitation of the peasants. The Bengal famine of 1770 led peasants whose
lands were confiscated, displaced zamindars, disbanded soldiers and poor to
come together in a rebellion. They were joined by the Sanyasis and Fakirs.
The Faqirs were a group of wandering Muslim religious mendicants in Bengal.
Two famous Hindu leaders who supported them were Bhawani Pathak and a
woman, Devi Choudhurani. They attacked English factories and seized their
goods, cash, arms and ammunition. Maznoom Shah was one of their prominent
leaders. They were finally brought under control by the British at the beginning
of the 19th century.
The Sanyasi Uprisings took place in Bengal between the periods of 1770-
1820s. The Sanyasis rose in rebellion after the great famine of 1770 in Bengal
which caused acute chaos and misery. However, the immediate cause of the
rebellion was the restrictions imposed by the British upon pilgrims visiting holy
places among both Hindus and Muslims.
(ii) The Indigo Rebellion (1859-1862): The British adopted many ways through
which they could increase their profits. They also started interfering with the
basic means of livelihood of the people. Not only did they introduce new crops,
they also brought new techniques of farming. Heavy pressure was put on the
zamindars and peasants to pay high taxes and grow commercial crops. One
such commercial crop was Indigo. The cultivation of indigo was determined

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by the needs of the English cloth markets. The discontent of the farmers growing through Ages
indigo was mainly for three reasons:
l They were paid very low prices for growing indigo;
l Indigo was not lucrative as it was planted at the same time as food crops;
l And loss of fertility of the soil because of planting indigo.

Notes

Figure 7.2

As a result, food stocks declined. The peasants suffered at the hands of the
traders and the middleman on whom they depended to sell their goods,
sometimes at very low prices. They supported the zamindars to maintain their
dominance and deal with their problems in administering those areas.
The peasants launched a movement for non cultivation of indigo in Bengal. Hindu
and Muslim peasants together went on strike and filed cases against the planters.
They were supported by the press and the missionaries. The government passed
orders in November 1860, notifying that it was illegal to force the raiyats to
cultivate indigo. This marked the victory for the rebels.

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Notes

Figure 7.3 Indigo cultivation in Bengal

(iii) Farazi Movement (1838-1848): This was the first ever no-tax campaign
against the British Government led by Shariatullah Khan and Dadu Mian. Their
band of volunteers fought heroically with the armed group of Indigo planters
and zamindars. It brought together all the cultivators of Bengal against the
tyranny and illegal extractions by the landlords.
(iv) Wahabi Movement (1830’s-1860’s): The leader of the movement was Syed
Ahmed Barelvi of Rae Bareilly who was greatly influenced by the teachings of
Abdul Wahab of Arabia and Shah Waliullah, a Delhi saint. The movement was
primarily religious in its origin. It soon assumed the character of a class struggle
in some places, especially in Bengal. Irrespective of communal distinctions,
peasants united against their landlords.

7.2.2 Significance of Peasant Revolt

The aggressive economic policies of the British shattered the traditional agrarian
system of India and worsened the condition of peasants. The peasant revolts taking
place in various parts of the country were mainly directed at these policies. Though
these revolts were not aimed at uprooting the British rule from India, they created
awareness among the Indians. They now felt a need to organise and fight against
exploitation and oppression. In short, these rebellions prepared the ground for various
other uprisings such as Sikh Wars in Punjab and finally the Revolt of 1857.

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ACTIVITY 7.1
Resistance is shown by all of us in our day to day life. How is this resistance different
from the resistance movements? What makes some resistance movements popular?
Discuss these questions with your friends, peer group or family. Write a note of not
more than 50 words on the discussion.
Notes
7.2.3 Tribal Revolts
Another group of people who revolted against the British rule were the tribals. The
tribal groups were an important and integral part of Indian life. Before their annexation
and subsequent incorporation in the British territories, they had their own social and
economic systems. These systems were traditional in nature and satisfied the needs
of the tribals. Each community was headed by a chief who managed the affairs of
the community. They also enjoyed independence regarding the management of their
affairs. The land and forests were their main source of livelihood. The forests provided
them with basic items which they required for survival. The tribal communities
remained isolated from the non-tribals.
The British policies proved harmful to the tribal society. This destroyed their relatively
self-sufficient economy and communities. The tribal groups of different regions
revolted against the Britishers. Their movements were anti-colonial in nature because
they were directed against the colonial administration. The tribals used traditional
weapons, mainly bows and arrows and often turned violent. The Britishers dealt
severely with them. They were declared criminals and anti-social. Their property was
confiscated. They were imprisoned and many of them were hanged. The tribal
movement in India remained confined to some regions only. But it did not lag behind
other social groups as regards participation in the anti-colonial movements. We shall
now read about some major tribal revolts that took place against the British rule:
(i) The Santhal Rebellion (1855-57): The area of concentration of the Santhals
was called Daman-i-Koh or Santhal Pargana. It extended from Bhagalpur in
Bihar in the north to Orissa in the south stretching from Hazaribagh to the
borders of Bengal. The Santhals like other tribes worked hard to maintain their
lives in the forests and wild jungles. They cultivated their land and lived a peaceful
life which continued till the British officials brought with them traders,
moneylenders, zamindars and merchants. They were made to buy goods on
credit and forced to pay back with a heavy interest during harvest time. As a
result, they were sometimes forced to give the mahajan not only their crops,
but also plough, bullocks and finally the land. Very soon they became bonded
labourers and could serve only their creditors. The peaceful tribal communities
were now up in arms against the British officials, zamindars and money lenders
who were exploiting them. Sidhu and Kanu were leading Santhal rebel leaders.

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through Ages They gave a heroic fight to the British government. Unfortunately, the Santhel
Rebellion was crushed in an unequal battle but it became a source of inspiration
for future agrarian struggles.

Notes

Figure 7.4 Tirka Manjhi

(ii) Munda Rebellion (1899-1900): One of the most important and prominent
rebellion which took place after 1857 was the Munda Rebellion. The Mundas
traditionally enjoyed certain rights as the original clearer of the forest which was
not given to the other tribes. But this land system was getting destroyed in the
hands of the merchants and moneylenders long before the coming of the British.
But when the British actually came into these areas they helped to destroy this
system with a rapid pace when they introduced contractors and traders. These
contractors needed people to work with them as indentured laborers. This
dislocation of the Mundas at the hands of the British and their contractors gave
birth to the Munda Rebellion. The most prominent leader of this rebellion was
Birsa Munda who was more aware than the others as he had received some
education from the Missionaries. He encouraged his tribe people to keep the
tradition of worshipping of the sacred groves alive. This move was very
important to prevent the Britishers from taking over their wastelands. For this,
Birsa Munda fought against the moneylenders/mahajans and English officials.

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He attacked Police Stations, Churches and missionaries. Unfortunately the through Ages
rebels were defeated and Munda died in prison soon after in 1900. But his
sacrifice did not go in vain. The Chhotanagpur Tenancy Act of 1908 provided
some land ownership rights to the people and banned bonded labour of the
tribal. Birsa Munda became the architect of Munda Rebellion and somebody
who is remembered even today.

Notes

Figure 7.5 Birsa Munda

Indentured: An indentured laborer was one who had to work for others on a
contractual basis for a fixed period of time. The person had to work in a foreign/
new place and in return would be given payment for travel, accommodation and
food.

(iii) Jaintia and Garo Rebellion Rebellion (1860-1870s): After the First Anglo-
Burmese War, the British planned the construction of a road connecting
Brahmaputra Valley (present day Assam) with Sylhet (present day Bangladesh).
The Jaintias and the Garos in the North-Eastern part of India (present day
Meghalaya) opposed the construction of this road which was of strategic
importance to the British for the movement of troops. In 1827, the Jaintias tried
to stop work and soon the unrest spread to the neighbouring Garo hills. Alarmed,
the British burnt several Jaintias and Garo villages. The hostilities increased with
the introduction of House Tax and Income Tax by the British in 1860’s. The

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through Ages Jaintias leader U Kiang Nongbah was captured and publicly hanged and the
Garo leader Pa Togan Sangma was defeated by the British.

Notes

Figure 7.6 U-Kiang Nongbah memorial

(iv) The Uprising of the Bhils (1818-1831): The Bhils were largely concentrated
in Khandesh (present day Maharashtra & Gujarat). Khandesh came under
British occupation in 1818. The Bhils considered them as outsiders. On the
instigation of Trimbakji, rebel minister of Baji Rao II they revolted against the
Britishers.
(v) The Kol Uprising (1831-1832): The Kols of Singhbhum in the Chhotanagpur
area enjoyed autonomy under their chiefs but the entry of the British threatened
their independence. Later the transfer of tribal lands and the coming of
moneylenders, merchants and British laws created a lot of tension. This
prompted the Kol tribe to organise themselves and rebel. The impact was such
that the British had to rush troops from far off places to suppress it.
(vi) The Mappila Uprisings (1836-1854): The Mappilas were the Muslim
cultivating tenants, landless labourers and fishermen of Malabar region. The

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British occupation of Malabar region and their new land laws along with the through Ages
atrocities of the landlords (mainly Hindus) led the Mappilas to revolt against
them. It took many years for the British to crush the Mappilas.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 7.1

Notes
1. Explain the following terms in one sentence each:
(a) Faqirs (b) Mahajan (c) Mappilas
2. In the space given space list three groups involved in the exploitation of the Indian
peasantry.
(a) ..........................................................
(b) ..........................................................
(c) ..........................................................
3. List three causes of popular resistance movements in the given space.
(a) ..........................................................
(b) ..........................................................
(c) ..........................................................

7.3 THE UPRISING OF 1857 – CAUSES, SUPPRESSION

AND CONSEQUENCES
The revolt of 1857 started on 10th May when the Company’s Indian soldiers at
Meerut rebelled. Called the Sepoy Mutiny by the British, it is now recognised as
the First War of Independence against the British rulers. Indian soldiers killed their
European officers and marched towards Delhi. They entered the Red Fort and
proclaimed the aged and powerless Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar, as the
Emperor of India. This rebellion was a major anti-colonial movement against the
aggressive imperialist policies of the British. In fact, it was an economic, political and
social struggle against the British rule. This severe outburst of anger and discontent
shook the foundations of colonial rule in large parts of India. We will now study the
causes of dissatisfaction among the Indian people which made them rebel against
the British rule.
(a) Political Causes: The nature of colonial expansion through annexation became
a major source of discontent among the Indian rulers. British wanted to acquire
land and collect as much wealth for England as they could. Their policy of
annexation called Doctrine of Lapse and Subsidiary Alliance led to a number
of independent kingdoms being annexed to the British Empire. These were states
that were enjoying British protection but their rulers had died without leaving

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through Ages a natural heir to the throne. As a result their adopted sons could now no longer
legally inherit the property or receive the pension which was granted to them
by the British. In this way Lord Dalhousie annexed the Maratha States of Satara,
Nagpur , Jhansi and several other minor kingdoms. On the death of Baji Rao
II, the pension granted to him was abolished and the claim of his adopted son,
Nana Saheb, to receive this pension was denied to him. This interference by
the East India Company was disliked by many Indian rulers. Before the policy
Notes of Doctrine of Lapse, the Indian ruler had a right to adopt an heir to his throne
even if he was childless, but now they had to take prior consent from the British.

Figure 7.7 Map of India citing the major cities participating

in the Revolt of 1857.

The policy of annexation affected not only the rulers but affected all those who
were dependent upon them namely, soldiers, crafts people and even the nobles.

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Even the traditional scholarly and priestly classes lost the patronage which they through Ages
were getting from these rulers. Thousands of zamindars, nobles and poligars
lost control over their land and its revenues. The annexation of Awadh on
grounds of misgovernment was also resented by the Nawab who was loyal to
the British. No alternative jobs were provided to the people who lost their jobs
when the British took over Awadh. Even the peasants had to pay higher taxes
and additional land revenue.
Notes
The continuous interference of the British in the basic way of living, traditional
beliefs, values and norms was seen by the masses as a threat to their religion.
The British administrators gradually became arrogant and gulf between them and
the people widened.
(b) Economic Causes: Another important cause of the Revolt was the disruption
of the traditional Indian economy and its subordination to the British economy.
The British had come to trade with India but soon decided to exploit and
impoverish the country. They tried to take away as much wealth and raw material
from here as they could. The Britishers kept high posts and salaries for
themselves. They used political control to increase their trade as well as export
and import of foreign goods. All means were used to drain India of her wealth.
Indian economy now suffered under the British policies. Since they worked
against the interests of Indian trade and industry, Indian handicrafts completely
collapsed. The craftsmen who received royal patronage were impoverished
when the states were annexed. They could not compete with the British factory
made products where machines were used. It made India into an excellent
consumer of British goods and a rich supplier of raw materials for the industries
in England. The British sold cheap, machine made clothes in India which
destroyed the Indian cottage industry. It also left millions of craftsmen
unemployed. The British also sent raw materials to England for the factories
there. This left little for the Indian weavers. The Britishers also imposed heavy
duties on Indian made goods. Now they could reap huge profits as there was
no competition for their goods. Thus, the British drained India of her wealth
and her natural resources.
What other measures did the British take to exploit India? To buy raw materials
and sell their finished goods they introduced steamships and railways. The
railways opened a vast market to the British and facilitated export of Indian
raw materials abroad. The railways connected the raw material producing areas
with the exporting ports. As a result British goods flooded the Indian market.
But do you know that the railways played an important role in the national
awakening of the country too? They let people and ideas come closer together,
something that the British had never anticipated. In 1853, Dalhousie opened
the first telegraphic line from Calcutta to Agra. They also introduced the postal
service to India.

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through Ages Since land was the major source of revenue for them, the British thought of
various means to get revenue from land. The colonial policy of intensifying land
revenue demand led to a large number of peasants losing their land to revenue
farmers, traders and moneylenders. This was done through the Ryotwari and
Mahalwari systems. Permanent Settlement of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa did not
recognise the hereditary rights of the peasants on land. On the other hand, if
they failed to pay 10/11th of the entire produce, their property could be sold
Notes
off. To prevent this situation the peasants often borrowed money from the
moneylenders at a high rate of interest. Sometimes they even sold their property
to the moneylenders. Even the officials harassed the peasants who dared not
seek justice at the courts for fear of further harassment. The new class of
zamindars that were created by the British became their political allies. They
supported them in times of need and acted as buffers between the British and
the people. Some of them even supported the British against the freedom
movement. The economic decline of peasantry and artisans was reflected in 12
major and numerous minor famines from 1770 to 1857. All these factors helped
to spread an anti-British feeling which ultimately culminated in the revolt of 1857.
(c) Social and Religious Causes: The British were not very sensitive to the
feelings of the vast mass of Indian people. Social reforms against sati, female
infanticide, widow re-marriage and education of woman, made many people
unhappy. With an objective to convert people the Christian missionaries opened
schools and college. They also needed a population which was educated and
modern enough to buy their goods, but not enough to prove detrimental to British
interests. It made the people believe that the Government was in collusion with
the missionaries to eradicate their religion and convert them to Christianity. The
passing of Act XXI of 1850 enabled converts to Christianity inherit ancestral
property. The new law was naturally interpreted as a concession to Christian
converts which further created anxiety and fear among the people.
The religious sentiments of the sepoys were hurt in 1806 in the Madras
presidency. The Hindus were asked to remove their caste marks from their
foreheads and the Muslims were asked to trim their beards. Though the sepoy
uprising was put down, it was evident that the British neither understood nor
cared for the Indian soldiers. The loyalty of the sepoys was further undermined
by certain military reforms which required them to serve overseas. This outraged
their religious feelings. They had an aversion to overseas services, as travel
across oceans meant loss of caste for them.
(d) Discontent in the Army: The soldiers in the East India Company’s army came
from peasant families which were deeply affected by the governments’ policies.
Indian soldiers were not given posts above that of subedars. Some sepoys
wanted special bhatta/allowance if sent on oversea duty. Sometimes they were
paid, but most of the time they were not. They, therefore, started distrusting

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their officers. These instances contributed in their own way to the revolt of 1857. through Ages
The soldiers had other grievances too. They were paid salaries less than their
English counterparts. As a result, the morale of the Indian sepoy was very low.
On the other hand, when the soldiers refused to cross the ‘black water’ that
is oceans and seas because their religion forbade it, the British were ruthless
on them.
(e) Immediate Cause: Strong resentment was rising among the Indians and they
Notes
were waiting only for an occasion to revolt. The stage was all set. Only a spark
was needed to set it on fire. Introduction of greased cartridge in 1856 provided
that fire. The government decided to replace the old-fashioned musket, ‘Brown
Bags’ by the ‘Enfield rifle’. The loading process of the Enfield rifle involved
bringing the cartridge to the mouth and biting off the top. There was a rumour
among the Sepoys in January 1857 that the greased cartridge contained the fat
of cow and pig. The cow is sacred to the Hindus and the pig is forbidden to
the Muslims. The sepoys were now convinced that the introduction of greased
cartridges was a deliberate attempt to defile Hindu and Muslim religion and their
religious feelings. This sparked off the revolt of sepoys on 29th March 1857.

7.3.2 Course of the Revolt

A sepoy called Mangal Pandey was the first soldier who openly disobeyed orders.
He killed two English officers at Barrackpore near Calcutta on 29 March 1857.He
was arrested, tried and executed. The regiments of Barrackpore were disbanded.
The news of Mangal Pandey very soon reached other parts of the country and
resulted in open revolts.

Figure 7.8 Mangal Pandey

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through Ages The most decisive uprising occurred at Meerut where 85 sepoys of the cavalry
regiment were sentenced to 2-10 years imprisonment for refusing to use greased
cartridges. The very next day, on 10th May 1857, three regiments broke into open
mutiny. They killed British officers and broke open the prison to release their
comrades. They began to march towards Delhi, where they were joined by the local
infantry and the common people. The rebels captured Delhi and killed many British
officers. They declared the Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah as the emperor of India.
Notes
From Delhi the revolt spread to other places. In Kanpur,Nana Sahib was declared
the Peshwa. His troops were commanded by Tantya Tope and Azimullah. At
Lucknow, Begum Hazrat Mahal was assisted by Maulvi Ahmadullah. In Jhansi, Rani
Lakshmi Bai and in Arrah, Kunwar Singh led the revolt. Khan Bahadur Khan was
the leader in Bareilly.

Figure 7.9 Begum Nazrat Mahal

The loss of Delhi greatly lowered the prestige of the British. To recover their lost
prestige they took help of the loyal forces from Punjab. The siege lasted four months
and Delhi was finally recaptured on 10th September 1857. It took another ten months
of fighting before the Governor-general, Lord Canning, could proclaim the end of
the Mutiny on 8th July 1858.
Stiff resistance had been offered to the British force by the heroic trio of the rebellion
– Rani Laxmi Bai of Jhansi, Tantya Tope and Kunwar Singh. Rani Laxmi Bai led
the rebel ranks. Mounted on horseback, she boldly faced the British cavalry but when
her horse stumbled and fell she was killed. According to the British commander-in-
chief, Sir Hugh Rose, she was the best and bravest military leader of the rebels.
Kunwar Singh was killed in another battle in Bihar. Tantya Tope was captured while

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he was asleep. He was hanged after a trial. This was the end of the heroic trio and through Ages
the rebellion was finally suppressed by the British.
The old Emperor Bahadur Shah along with his two sons was taken prisoner. After
a trail he was deported to Rangoon, where he died in 1862, at the age of 87. His
sons were shot dead at Delhi without a trial .We must now look into the causes for
the failure of the revolt.
Notes

ACTIVITY 7.2
Which personality of the revolt of 1857 inspired you the most? Can you identify any
two of their qualities that you may also share?

7.3.3 Nature of the Revolt

A big debate surrounds the revolt of 1857. British historians describe the events of
1857 -1858 as a mutiny by the sepoys. It should perhaps be mentioned here that
there were many uprisings by the sepoys prior to 1857. One example is the Vellore
mutiny of July 1806 where Indian sepoys had revolted against the East India
Company’s garrison. Nevertheless, ‘order’ was restored very soon and this revolt
did not go beyond the confines of the cantonment.
But if you look closely into the facts of 1857 you will see the difference. The revolt
was started by the sepoys but was joined in large numbers by the civilian population.
The participation of peasants and artisans made the revolt a widespread and popular
event. In some areas, the common people revolted even before the sepoys. All this
shows that it was clearly a popular revolt. It was characterised by Hindu-Muslim
unity. Unity between different regions also existed. Rebels in one part of the country
helped people fighting in other areas. The revolt should be seen as the first nationalist
struggle in India for independence from foreign rule.
You will realise that the Revolt of 1857 was not one movement but many. It was
not a class revolt either. The peasantry did not rebel against the landlords. They only
directed attacks against money-lending grain dealers or the representatives of the
British Indian government. But their policies strongly influenced the way a particular
region as a whole was going to react. The Revolt in Awadh as well as in other regions,
was popular, in that it pertained to people as a whole and was carried out by them.
Talukdars and peasants in Awadh fought together against a common foe. But there
is no doubt that the revolt of 1857 was the first time that soldiers of the Indian army
recruited from different communities, Hindus and Muslims, landlords and peasants,
had come together in their opposition to the British. It also provided the necessary
foundation for the later successful anti-colonial struggles against the British.

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7.4 FAILURE OF THE REVOLT
Although the revolt was a big event in the history of India, it had very little chance
of success against an organised and powerful enemy. It was suppressed within a year
of its outbreak. Various causes led to the failure of the Revolt of 1857. There was
no unity of purpose among the rebels. The sepoys of Bengal wanted to revive the
ancient glories of the Mughals while Nana Saheb and Tantya Tope tried to re-
Notes establish the Maratha power. Rani Lakshmi Bai fought to regain Jhansi, which she
had lost as a result of British policy of Doctrine of lapse. Secondly, this rising was
not widespread it remained confined to North and Central India. Even in the north,
Kashmir, Punjab, Sind and Rajputana kept away from the rebels. The British
managed to get the loyalty of the Madras and Bombay regiments and the Sikh states.
Afghans and Gurkhas also supported the British. Many Indian rulers refused to help
the rebels. Some were openly hostile to them and helped the British in suppressing
the revolt. The middle and upper classes and the modern educated Indians also did
not support the revolt. Thirdly the leadership of the movement was weak. Indian
leaders lacked organisation and planning. The rebel leaders were no match to the
British soldiers. Most of its leaders thought only of their own interest. They were
motivated by narrow personal gains. They fought to liberate only their own territories.
No national leader emerged to coordinate the movement and give it purpose and
direction. Lakshmi Bai, Tantya Tope and Nana Saheb were courageous but were
not good military generals. With the escape of Nana Sahib and the death of Bahadur
Shah Zafar came the end of Peshwaship and the Mughal rule.
The rebels were short of weapons and finances. Whatever few weapons existed were
old and outdated. They were no match to the sophisticated and modern weapons
of the British. The rebels were also poorly organised. The uprisings in different parts
of the country were uncoordinated. Often the sepoys behaved in an uncontrolled
manner. On the other hand the telegraphic system and postal communication helped
the British to speed up their operation. The English mastery of the sea enabled them
to get timely help from England and crush the revolt ruthlessly.

7.5 SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE REVOLT

The Revolt of 1857 was the first sign that the Indians wanted to end British rule and
were ready to stand united for this cause. Even though they failed to achieve their
objective they succeeded in sowing the seeds of nationalism among the Indians. Indian
people became more aware of the heroes, who sacrificed themselves in the Revolt.
However, it was the beginning of distrust between Hindus and Muslims which the
British later exploited to continue their rule in India.

7.6 THE LEGACY OF THE REVOLT

The Revolt of 1857 is unique in a sense that cut across caste, community and class
barriers. Indian people for the first time put up a unified challenge to the British rule.

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Though the efforts of the rebels failed, the British government was pressurised to through Ages
change their policy towards India. In August 1858, by the Act for the Better
Government of India, both the Board of Control and the Board of Directors were
abolished. And the office of the Secretary of State for India was created with an
Indian Council of 15 members to assist the Viceroy of India, designation earlier
known as Governor General in India. In August 1858 the British crown assumed
control of India from the East India Company and in 1877 Queen Victoria was
crowned empress of India. This brought to an end the rule of East India Company. Notes
In the proclamation of 1st November 1858 the Queen announced a continuation of
the Company’s policies. India became a colony of the British Empire. The Indian
rulers were assured of their rights to succession after adoption. The crown promised
to honor all the treaties and the agreements made by the company with the rulers
of Indian State.
By now the British had become distrustful of the Hindu Muslim unity. They decided
to follow the policy of divide and rule the country. They kept a tight control over
key positions both in the civil and military administration. To give expression to this
pledge the Indian Civil Service Act of 1861 was passed, which provided for an annual
competitive examination to be held in London for recruitment to the coveted Civil
Service.
The revolt played a pivotal role in Anglo- Indian history. The British became cautious
and defensive about their empire, while many Indians remained bitter and would never
trust their rulers again. It was not until the emergence of Indian National Congress
in 1885 and Mahatma Gandhi that Indians re-gathered their momentum for home
rule. One group which kept away from trouble and opposition to the British was
the English-educated Indians. This group owed its rise to the conditions of the new
rule. Some of its members were descendants of the new Bengali zamindars, a class
created by the Permanent Settlement in Bengal. It is curious to note that some
members of this elite group would turn against the British some thirty or forty years
after the 1857 Revolt.
The Army had been mainly responsible for the crisis of 1857. Hence, radical changes
were introduced in the army. The strength of European troops in India was increased
and the number of Indian troops reduced from the pre- 1857 figure. All Indian artillery
units with the exception of a few mountain batteries were disbanded, even the artillery
was kept with the British soldiers. On the other hand, there were attempts to play
native against natives on the basis of caste, religion and region. All the big posts in
the army and the artillery departments were reserved for the Europeans. There was
mutual distrust and fear between Indians and the British.
It was increasingly realised that one basic cause for the Revolt of 1857 was the lack
of contact between the ruler and the ruled. Thus, a humble beginning towards the
development of representative institutions in India was made by the Indian Councils
Act of 1861.The emotional after effects of the Revolt were perhaps the most
unfortunate. Racial bitterness was perhaps the worst legacy of the struggle.

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INTEXT QUESTIONS 7.2

1. List two grievances of the Indian sepoys against the colonial rulers.
2. Name any three important leaders of the Revolt of 1857.
3. When and how was the East India Company’s rule abolished?
Notes
4. Enlist any three major causes of the failure of the Revolt of 1857.

WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT

l Oppression and exploitation of the people were the main reasons for the rebellion
and resistance to British rule in India.
l Being evicted from their lands, peasants and tribals became labourers on their
own lands. Different form of taxes made their life miserable.
l Those who were engaged in small cottage industries had to close their factories
as a result of the import of British manufactured goods. All these changes and
unresponsive attitude of the British administration compelled the peasantry to vent
their grievances through rebellions.
l Unfortunately these rebellions were not successful before the organised British
armed forces but they paved the way for future challenge to the British Raj in
India.
l The Revolt of 857 was a big challenge to British authority. It was led by the
sepoys and supported by the common people.
l Economic, political, social, religious and military causes were responsible for the
Revolt of 1857. The greased cartridges incident was the immediate cause of the
revolt.
l A large part of India was affected by the revolt. The main centres of the revolt
were Meerut, Delhi, Kanpur, Lucknow, Jhansi, Bareilly and Arrah. Some
important leaders of the revolt were Bakht Khan, Nana Sahib, Tantia Tope,
Azimullah, Begum Hazrat Mahal, Maulvi Ahmadullah, Rani Lakshmi Bai, Khan
Bahadur Khan and Kunwar Singh.
l The revolt failed to end British rule in India. The major reasons for its failure
were – its localised and unorganised nature, weak leadership and lack of
weapons and finances.

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TERMINAL EXERCISES
1. Explain two common features of the Peasant and Tribal Revolts.
2. How did the political and socio-religious factors led to the Revolt of 1857?
3. Explain the significance of the Revolt of 1857.
4. Make a table listing main leaders of the Revolt of 1857 and the reasons for their
joining it. Notes
5. Do you think the Revolt of 1857 made any impact on the British and their rule
in India? Analyse the situation and give your inference.
6. History tells us that people normally protest when their means of livelihood are
threatened. Do you think this holds true even today? Identify one incident that
has happened recently published from the newspaper or magazines and make
a report of about 50 words.
7. (a) On the given outline map of India locate the region of the following
rebellions:
(i) Faqir and Sanyasis Rebellion (ii) Santhal Rebellion
(iii) Munda Rebellion (iv) Jaintia and Garo Rebellion
(b) Give one cause for each of the rebellion.

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ANSWERS TO INTEXT QUESTIONS

7.1
1. (a) Faqirs were a group of wandering Muslim religious mendicants.
(b) Mahajan was the term used for moneylenders.
Notes
(c) Mappilas were the Muslim cultivating tenants, landless laborers and
fishermen of Malabar region.
2. The three groups of exploiters were:
(a) Officials of British Government
(b) Landlord
(c) Money lender
3. The four causes of popular resistance movements were:
(a) Exploitation by the British
(b) High revenue rates on the peasants
(c) Compulsory growing of commercial/cash crops
(d) Interference in the religious practices of the people by the British.

7.2
1. (a) Low pay and no bhatta, that is, no extra payment for their duty overseas,
(b) Social discrimination in promotion, pension & in terms of service,
(c) Use of greased cartridge rumored to contain the fat of cow and pig which
hurt their religious sentiments.
2. Rani Laxmi Bai, Tantia Tope, Begum Hazrat Mahal, Nana Saheb, Kunwar Singh
of Arrah.
3. The East India Company’s rule was abolished in 1858 through a declaration of
the Queen’s Proclamation by the British Parliament.
4. The three major causes of the failure of the Revolt of 1857 were:
(a) The revolt was a big event in the history of India. It had very little chance
of success against an organised and powerful enemy.
(b) It remained confined to north and central India.
(c) There was no unity of purpose among the rebels
(d) The leadership of the movement was weak.
(e) The rebels were short of weapons and finances.

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INDIAN NATIONAL MOVEMENT Notes

In the last few lessons, you have been reading about the history of our civilization
starting from the Pre-historic Age till the modern period. You have travelled down
to this lesson on India’s Freedom Movement. Don’t you think it was a very interesting
journey? You read how people lived in jungles, used crude stones to protect
themselves, and got food by killing animals. You also read about the Bronze Age
when metals were discovered and were used for cutting down small forests and also
how its use made life more comfortable. This led us to the Iron Age and the beginning
of Industrialization. You read how as society grew, some people became more
powerful than the others. You also read how money and land became a source of
greed for powerful nations. This led to protest and resistance against states and
nations who tried to control the others by exploiting the natural and human resources
and by ruling over them ruthlessly. One of these states happened to be our own county
India. You shall read about India’s long struggle for freedom in this lesson.

OBJECTIVES
After reading this lesson you will be able to:
 identify the causes that led the rise of Nationalism in India
 trace the emergence of Indian National Congress
 discuss the various stages of the National Movement in India
 list the names of prominent leaders of the Indian National Movement
 discuss the role of Gandhi in this Movement

8.1 ORIGIN OF NATIONALISM

The rise of Nationalism is reflected in the spirit of Renaissance in Europe when
freedom from religious restrictions led to the enhancement of national identity. This
expression of Nationalism was furthered by the French Revolution. The political

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through Ages changes resulted in the passing of sovereignty from the hands of an absolute monarch
to the French citizens, who had the power to constitute the nation and shape its
destiny. The watchwords of the French Revolution - Liberty, Equality and
Fraternity - inspired the whole world. Many other revolutions like the American
Revolution, the Russian Revolution, etc. (about which you have already read in
Lesson 3) also strengthened the idea of Nationalism. In this lesson, you will read
about the rise of Nationalism in India which emerged in the 19th Century after the
Notes revolt of 1857.

8.1.1 Rise of Nationalism in India

For India, the making of national identity was a long process whose roots can be
drawn from the ancient era. India as a whole had been ruled by emperors like Ashoka
and Samudragupta in ancient times and Akbar to Aurangzeb in Medieval times. But,
it was only in the 19th Century that the concept of a national identity and national
consciousness emerged. This growth was intimately connected to the anti-colonial
movement about which you have already read in lesson 4. The social, economic and
political factors had inspired the people to define and achieve their national identity.
People began discovering their unity in the process of their struggle against
colonialism.
The sense of being oppressed under colonial rule provided a shared bond that tied
different groups together. Each class and group felt the effects of colonialism
differently. Their experiences were varied, and their notions of freedom were not
always the same. Several other causes also contributed towards the rise and growth
of Nationalism. One set of laws of British Government across several regions led
to political and administrative unity. This strengthened the concept of citizenship and
one nation among Indians. Do you remember reading the lesson Popular Resistance
Movements? Do you remember the way the peasants and the tribals rebelled when
their lands and their right to livelihood was taken away? Similarly this economic
exploitation by the British agitated other people to unite and react against British
Government’s control over their lives and resources. The social and religious reform
movements of the 19th century also contributed to the feeling of Nationalism. Do
you remember reading about Swami Vivekananda, Annie Besant, Henry Derozio and
many others? They revived the glory of ancient India, created faith among the people
in their religion and culture and thus gave the message of love for their motherland.
The intellectual and spiritual side of Nationalism was voiced by persons like Bankim
Chandra Chatterji, Swami Dayanand Saraswati and Aurobindo Ghosh. Bankim
Chandra’s hymn to the Motherland, ‘Vande Matram’ became the rallying cry of
patriotic nationalists. It inspired generations to supreme self-sacrifice. Simultaneously,
it created a fear in the minds of the British. The impact was so strong that the British
had to ban the song. Similarly, Swami Vivekananda’s message to the people, “Arise,
awake and stop not till the goal is reached”, appealed to the Indians. It acted as
a potent force in the course of Indian Nationalism.

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Do you also remember reading about the establishment of printing press and how through Ages
it helped in wide circulation of ideas like liberty, equality and fraternity? All these
factors helped in the spread of Nationalism among the people of India.
Around this time many organizations were being formed which raised their voices
against British rule. Most of these organizations were regional in nature. Some of
these organizations were very active such as Bengal Indian Association, Bengal
Presidency Association, Pune Public Meeting, etc. However it was felt that if these Notes
regional organizations could work jointly it would help the Indian masses to raise
their voices against the British Rule. This led to the formation of Indian National
Congress in the year 1885. We will discuss about this in the next section of this lesson.

8.2 EMERGENCE OF INDIAN NATIONAL CONGRESS

(1885)
The Indian National Congress was founded by Allan Octavian Hume in 1885. Hume
was a retired Civil Service Officer. He saw a growing political consciousness among
the Indians and wanted to give it a safe, constitutional outlet so that their resentment
would not develop into popular agitation against the British rule in India. He was
supported in this scheme by the Viceroy, Lord Dufferin, and by a group of eminent
Indians. Womesh Chandra Banerjee of Calcutta was elected as the first President.
The Indian National Congress represented an urge of the politically conscious Indians
to set up a national organization to work for their betterment. Its leaders had complete
faith in the British Government and in its sense of justice. They believed that if they
would place their grievances before the government reasonably, the British would
certainly try to rectify them. Among the liberal leaders, the most prominent were Firoz
Shah Mehta, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, Dada Bhai Naoroji, Ras Behari Bose,
Badruddin Tayabji, etc. From 1885 to 1905, the Indian National Congress had a
very narrow social base. Its influence was confined to the urban educated Indians.

Figure 8.1 Indian National Congress (Session 1885)

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through Ages The early aims of this organization were limited only to communicate with British
government on behalf of the Indian people and voice their grievances. It was rightly
called the era of the Moderates. You will soon find out why?

8.2.1 Initial stages of Indian National Congress

The congress placed its demands before the government always in the form of
Notes petitions and worked within the framework of law. It was for this reason that the
early Congress leaders were referred to as ‘Moderates’. During its first twenty years
the Congress made moderate demands. The members placed their demands before
the Government always in the form of petitions and worked within the framework
of law. It was for this reason that the early Congress leaders were referred to as
‘Moderates’ They asked for: (a) representative legislatures, (b) Indianization of
services, (c) reduction of military expenditure, (d) education, employment and holding
of the ICS (Indian Civil Services) examination in India, (e) decrease in the burden
of the cultivators, (f) defense of civil rights, (g) separation of the judiciary from the
executive, (h) change in the tenancy laws, (i) reduction in land revenue and salt duty,
(j) policies to help in the growth of Indian industries and handicrafts, (k) introduction
of welfare programmes for the people.
Unfortunately, their efforts did not bring many changes in the policies and administration
of the British in India. In the beginning, the Britishers had a favourable attitude towards
the Congress. But, by 1887, this attitude began to change. They did not fulfill the
demands of the Moderates. The only achievement of the Congress was the enactment
of the Indian Councils Act, 1892 that enlarged the legislature by adding a few non-
official members and passing of a resolution for holding Indian Civil Services
Examination simultaneously in London and in India. Many leaders gradually lost faith
in the Constitutional process. Even though the Congress failed to achieve its goal,
it succeeded in creating national awakening and instilling in the minds of the Indian
people a sense of belonging to one Nation. They provided a forum for the Indians
to discuss major national issues. By criticizing the government policies, they gave the
people valuable political training. Though, They were not ready to take aggressive
steps which would bring them in direct conflict with the Government. The most
significant achievement was the foundation of a strong national movement.
The Britishers who were earlier supporting the Moderates soon realized that the
movement could turn into a National force that would drive them out of the country.
This totally changed their attitude. They passed strict laws to control education and
curb the press. Minor concessions were given so as to win over some Congress
leaders. The British Viceroy, Lord Curzon was a staunch imperialist and believed
in the superiority of the English people. He passed an Act in 1898, making it an
offence to provoke people against the British rulers. He passed the Indian Universities
Act in 1904, imposing stiff control over Indian Universities. Curzon was out to

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suppress the rising Nationalism in India. This was evident from what he did in 1905 through Ages
about which you will read in the next section.

8.3. PARTITION OF BENGAL (1905)

What do you think happened in1905? Curzon announced the partition of Bengal.
The reason for partition was given as an attempt to improve administration. But the
real aim was to ‘Divide and Rule’. The partition was done in order to create a Notes
separate State for Muslims and so introduce the poison of communalism in the
country. However the Indians viewed the partition as an attempt by the British to
disrupt the growing national movement in Bengal and divide the Hindus and Muslims
of the region. Widespread agitation ensued in the streets and in the press. People
of different parts of India opposed the partition of Bengal all over the country. This
opposition was carried on by organized meetings, processions and demonstrations
etc. Hindus and Muslims tied ‘rakhi’ on each other’s hands to show their unity and
their protest.

ACTIVITY 8.1
(Do you know what ‘rakhi’is? Write a paragragraph on it. Connect it with the Indian
festival of Raksha Bandhan.)
The use of Swadeshi (made in our own country by our own people) goods, business,
national education and Indian languages were encouraged. The new nationalist spirit
of self reliance- shed the fear of repression including imprisonment and painful torture
by the British rule. It was Bal Gangadhar Tilak who realized the importance of boycott
as a weapon that could be used to paralyze the whole British administrative machinery
in India. The boycott and Swadeshi movements were instrumental in the establishment
of swadeshi enterprises - textile mills, banks, hosiery, tanneries, chemical works and
insurance companies. Swadeshi stores were opened. Volunteers supplied goods at
the doorstep of every household. The movement spread to all classes and groups
of people. Everyone, including women and children, came forward to take part. The
most active were school and college students. This made the British reverse the
partition of Bengal and unite it in 1911. During this time, the role of Radical
Nationalists in the Indian National Congress, who were called the ‘Garam Dal’,
came to be appreciated. They tried to involve people from all classes and groups
including peasants, worker, students as well as women. They succeeded in uniting
the Indian people against the common enemy - the British. The young people were
roused to the highest level of patriotism and zeal to free their country. They helped
in making people self confident and self reliant. They also revived the Indian Cottage
industry.

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8.4 THE RISE OF RADICAL NATIONALISTS
The mild policies of the Moderates in the Congress led to the rise of passionate,
radical nationalists, who came to be called the ‘Garam Dal’. Thus the first phase
of the nationalist movement came to an end with government reaction against the
Congress on the one hand and a split in the Congress in 1907 on the other. That
is why the period after 1905 till 1918 can be referred to as the ‘Era of Passionate
Notes Nationalists or Garam Dal’. Lala Lajpat Rai, Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Bipin Chandra
Pal (Lal-Bal-Pal) were important leaders of this Radical group. When the Moderates
were in the forefront of the action, they had maintained a low profile but now they
swung into action. Their entry marked the beginning of a new trend and a new face
in India’s struggle for freedom. According to them, the Moderates had failed to define
India’s political goals and the methods adopted by them were mild and ineffective.
Besides, the Moderates remained confined to the upper, landed class and failed to
enlist mass support as a basis for negotiating with the British.

Figure 8.2 Lal-Bal-Pal

The Garam Dal realized that the British were out to exploit Indians, destroy their
self-sufficiency and drain India of its wealth. They felt that Indians should now become
free of foreign rule and govern themselves. This group, instead of making petitions
to the government, believed in organizing mass protests, criticizing government
policies, boycotting foreign goods and use of Swadeshi (home-made) goods etc.
They did not believe in depending on the mercy of the Britishers, but believed that
freedom was their right. Bal Gangadhar Tilak gave a slogan ‘Freedom is our birth
right and we must have it’.
In 1916 the two groups were again united with the efforts of Mrs. Annie Besant.
Do you remember reading about her in an earlier lesson? She started working for

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the Home rule movement in 1914. She was convinced that India should be granted through Ages
Self-Government. In 1916, Muslim League and Congress also came to an
understanding with each other and signed the Lucknow Pact. Later, Mahatma
Gandhi, Jawahar Lal Nehru, Subhash Chandra Bose became the eminent figures of
Indian National Congress, who led the freedom movement of India forward.

Notes
ACTIVITY 8.2
Prepare a time line of the events of the history of Indian National Congress from
its establishment to Independence. Collect photographs related to it and arrange them
on this chart.

8.5 FORMATION OF THE MUSLIM LEAGUE (1906)

As the radical movement grew stronger the British began to look for ways and means
to break the unity among Indian. They tried to do this through the partition of Bengal
and by sowing the seed of communalism among Indian people. They motivated
Muslims to form a permanent political association of their own. In December, 1906,
during the Muhammadan Educational conference in Dacca, Nawab Salim Ullah Khan
raised the idea of establishing a Central Muhammadan Association to take care of
Muslim interests. Accordingly, on 30th December, 1906, the All India Muslim League
was founded. Another prominent person, Aga Khan was chosen as its president. The
main objective of the league was to protect and advance the rights of Muslims in
India and represent their needs to the government. By encouraging the issue of
separate electorates, the government sowed the seed of communalism and separatism
among Indians. The formation of the Muslim League is considered to be the first
fruit of the British master strategy of ‘Divide and Rule’. Mohammad Ali Jinnah later
joined the League.

8.6 MORLEY-MINTO REFORMS (1909)

Do you remember reading about the Indian Councils Act 1892, which enlarged the
legislature by adding members to the Central Legislative Assembly? The Council Act
of 1909 was an extension of the 1892 reforms, also known as the Morley-Minto
Reforms after the names of the then Secretary of State (Lord Morley) and the then
Viceroy (Lord Minto). It increased the members of the Legislative Assembly from
sixteen to sixty. A few non-elected members were also added. Though the members
of the Legislative Council were increased, they had no real powers. They remained
mainly advisory in character. They could not stop any bills from being passed. Nor
did they have any power over the budget.

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through Ages The British made another calculated move to sow the seed of communalism in Indian
politics by introducing separate electorates for the Muslims. This meant that from
the constituencies dominated by Muslims only Muslim candidates could be elected.
Hindus could only vote for Hindus, and Muslims could only vote for Muslims. Many
leaders protested against this communal electorate policy of the British to ‘Divide
and Rule’.

Notes
8.7 THE NATIONAL MOVEMENT DURING THE FIRST
WORLD WAR
The First World War started in the year of 1914, about which you have already read
in the previous lesson. This War was fought among the nations of Europe to get
colonial monopoly. During war time, the British Government made an appeal to the
Indian leaders to join hands with them in their time of crisis. Indian leaders agreed
but they put their own terms and conditions i.e. after the war was over, the British
government would give Constitutional (legislative and administrative) powers to the
Indian People. Unfortunately, the steps taken by the British government during the
World War I created unrest among the Indian people. This was because the British
government had taken a huge loan during war time which they had to repay. They
increased rent from the land, i.e. lagan. They forcefully recruited Indians in the British
Army. They increased the price of necessary goods and imposed taxes on personal
and professional income. As a result, they had to face protest from the Indian society.
Farmers and workers of Champaran, Bardoli, Kheda and Ahmedabad actively
protested against the exploitative policies of British government. Lakhs of students
left schools and colleges. Hundreds of lawyers gave up their practice. Women also
significantly contributed in this movement and their participation became wider with
the emergence of Gandhi. The boycott of foreign cloth became a mass movement,
with thousands of bonfires of foreign cloth lighting the Indian sky.

ACTIVITY 8.3
Media played a very significant role in the success of Indian National Movement.
Find out the names of some prominent newspapers of that time. Also the kinds of
media publicity used during that time. Write a report.

8.7.1 Coming together of Naram Dal and Garam Dal

During the war time, The Naram Dal and Garam Dal came together in 1916 at
Lucknow Congress session. The Muslim League and the Congress agreed to
separate electorates and decided to give weightage to the other party wherever they
were in minority. Both Congress and Muslim League jointly demanded self-

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government which could no longer be ignored by the Government. The Lucknow through Ages
session was also significant as the radical leaders of the Congress were attending
it after the split in 1907. It brought Tilak into prominence and he remained an active
member in the Movement till his death in 1920. The pact which took place between
the Congress and Muslim League aroused great hopes and aspirations in the country.
Simultaneously, the work done by the Home rule movement infused confidence and
determination among the people. In order to pacify the Indians, the Montague-
Chelmsford Reform came in 1919. It introduced Dyarchy - which was a kind of Notes
double government in the provinces. The provisional government was to be divided
into two parts - one to be responsible to the Indian Electorate through the Legislature,
and other to the Governor. The report also laid stress on the Indianization of the
services.
In the First World War, Britain and its allied groups won the war. During the War,
Muslims supported the government with an understanding that the sacred places of
Ottoman Empire would be in the hands of Khalipha. But after the War, a new treaty
was imposed on the Turkish Sultan and Ottoman Empire was divided. This angered
the Muslims who took it as an insult to the Khalipha. Shoukat Ali and Mohammad
Ali started the Khilafat Movement against the British government.
After the end of the First World War, the British government also passed another
Act known as the Rowlatt Act. The Act authorized the British government to arrest
and imprison any person without trial in a court of law. It also banned Indians from
keeping any type of weapon. This angered the Sikhs, who kept a kripan (a type
of small sword) with them as part of their religion. The Indians considered this Act
as an insult to them. On 13th April, 1919 on the occasion of Baisakhi fair at
Jallianwalla Bagh (Amritsar), people had gathered for peaceful protest against this
Act. Suddenly, a British officer, General Dyer, entered into the park with his troops
and ordered them to open fire on the crowd with their machine guns. This was done
without any warning to the people. The Jalianwalla Bagh gates were closed and the
people - men, women and children could not escape to safety. Within a few minutes
about a thousand persons were killed. The massacre aroused the fury of the Indian
people. Showing his anger and pain, the famous philosopher-poet Rabindra Nath
Tagore returned his Knighthood to the British government.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 8.1

1. Explain three causes which led to national consciousness among Indians during
the British regime.
2. Why was British government interested in the formation of Indian National
Congress in 1885?

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through Ages 3. What were the differences between the Moderates and the Radicals?
4. Why did the Indian leaders support the British during the First World War?
5. Why was the Khilafat movement against British rule?

8.8 EMERGENCE OF GANDHI

Mohan Das Karamchand Gandhi was a lawyer, trained in Britain. He went to South
Notes Africa in 1893 and resided there for twenty one years. The treatment of the Indians
in South Africa by the British provoked his conscience.
He decided to fight against the policy of racial discrimination
of the South African Government. During the course of
his struggle against the government he evolved the technique
of Satyagraha (non-violent insistence for truth and
justice). Gandhi succeeded in this struggle in South Africa.
He returned to India in 1915. In 1916, he founded the
Sabarmati Ashram at Ahmedabad to practice the ideas
of truth and non-violence. Gopal Krishna Gokhale advised
him to tour the country mainly in the villages to understand
the people and their problems. His first experiment in
Satyagraha began at Champaran in Bihar in 1917 when
Figure 8.3 Mohan Das
he inspired the peasants to struggle against the oppressive Karamchand Gandhi
plantation system. He also organised a satyagraha to
support the peasants of the Kheda districts of Gujarat. These peasants were not able
to pay their revenue because of crop failure and epidemics. In Ahmedabad, he
organized a movement amongst cotton mill workers.

ACTIVITY 8.4
You are requested by the peasant community to contact Gandhiji and invite him to
visit Champaran. Write a letter to him explaining the conditions of the peasants there
and what you would like him to do for these people.

8.8.1 The Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-22)

Gandhiji by this time, was convinced that no useful purpose would be served by
supporting the government. He was also emboldened by his earlier success in Bihar
In the light of the past events and the actions of British government, he decided to
launch a nationwide satyagraha against the proposed Rowlatt Act in 1919. He
threatened to start the non-cooperation movement in case the government failed to
accept his demands. Why do you think Gandhiji protested against the Act? It was
because the Act gave the government enormous powers to repress political activities

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and allowed detention of political prisoners without any trial for two years. Gandhiji through Ages
wanted non violent civil disobedience against such unjust laws. The government paid
no heed to it. Gandhiji, therefore, started his non-cooperation movement in August
1920, in which he appealed to the people not to cooperate with the British
government. At this time, the Khilafat movement started by the Muslims and the Non-
cooperation movement led by Gandhi merged into one common confrontation against
the British Government.
Notes
For this Gandhi laid down an elaborate programme- (1) Surrender of titles and
honorary offices as well as resignation from nominated seats in local bodies;
(2) refusal to attend official and non-official functions; (3) gradual withdrawal of
children from officially controlled schools and colleges; (4) gradual boycott of British
courts by lawyers and litigants; (5) refusal on the part of the military, clerical and
labouring classes to offer themselves as recruits for service in Mesopotamia;
(6) boycott of elections to the legislative council by candidates and voters; (7) boycott
of foreign goods and National schools and colleges.
Later, it was supplemented with a constructive programme which had three principal
features: (1) promotion of ‘Swadeshi’, particularly hand-spinning and weaving;
(2) Removal of untouchability among Hindus; (3) promotion of Hindu-Muslim unity.
Due to this appeal of Gandhiji, an unusual frenzy overtook the country. A large number
of people, dropping their differences, took part in this movement. Over two-thirds
of the voters abstained from taking part in the elections to the Council, held in
November, 1920. Thousands of students and teachers left their schools and colleges
and new Indian educational centers were started by them. Lawyers like Moti Lal

Figure 8.4 Gandhi during National Movement

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through Ages Nehru, C. R. Das, C. Rajagopalachari and Asif Ali boycotted the courts. Legislative
Assemblies were also boycotted. Foreign goods were boycotted and the clothes
were put on bonfire.
But, during this movement some incidents took place that did not match with the
views of Gandhiji. The non-violent Non-Cooperation Movement, which started
auspiciously, was marked by violence in August, 1921. The government started taking
Notes serious action. Prominent leaders were arrested. In two months, nearly 30,000
people were imprisoned. The outbreak of violence cautioned Gandhi. Mob violence
took place on February 9, 1922, at Chauri Chaura village, in Gorakhpur district of
UP. This was followed by more violence at Bareilly. Gandhi suspended his non-
cooperation on February 14, 1922. He was arrested at Ahmadabad on March 18,
1922, and sentenced to six years simple imprisonment. The non-cooperation
movement failed to achieve success, yet it succeeded to prepare a platform for the
future movements. After taking back the Non-Cooperation movement, Gandhiji and
his followers were busy in creative activities in village areas. By this he gave the
message to the people to remove the cast based animosity.

ACTIVITY 8.5
In 1922, Gandhiji suspended his non-cooperation movement after Chauri Chaura
incident, even when the movement was on its peak. Many people criticized the
decision of Gandhi ji. Imagine that you were a journalist at that time and you got
an assignment to interview Mahatma Gandhi just after this movement. Write an
imaginary dialogue of your discussions with Mahatma Gandhi asking him to justify
his decision.

C. R. Das, Motilal Nehru and other like minded persons hatched out a novel plan
of non-cooperation from within the reformed councils. They formed the Swaraj
Party on January 01, 1923. C. R. Das was the president of the party and Motilal
Nehru the Secretary. The party was described as ‘a party within the Congress’ and
not a rival organization. But, they could neither end nor amend the Act of 1919.

In 1927, British government appointed a commission under the chairmanship of Sir

John Simon. The Commission was appointed to study the reforms of 1919 and
suggest further measures for Constitutional reforms. The Commission had no Indian
member in it. The Indians boycotted this all-White commission. Therefore, when this
Commission arrived in India, it faced protests all over the country. Black flags were
shown, demonstrations and Hartals took place all over the country and the cry of
‘Simon go back’ was heard. These demonstrators were lathi charged at a number
of places by the British Police. Lala Lajpat Rai was severely assaulted by the police

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and he succumbed to his injuries. This agitation against the Simon Commission gave through Ages
a new strength to the National Movement of India.

Meanwhile, Indian political leaders were busy in drafting a Constitution. This is known
as Nehru Report which formed the outline of the Constitution. Among its important
recommendations were a declaration of rights, a parliamentary system of government,
adult franchise and an independent judiciary with a supreme court at its head. Most
of its recommendations formed the basis of the Constitution of independent India Notes
which was adopted more than twenty years later. At the historic annual session of
Congress in Lahore in 1929, the Congress committed itself to a demand for Purna-
Swaraj or complete independence and issued a call to the country to celebrate 26th
January as Purna-Swaraj Day. On January 26, 1930, the Congress celebrated
‘Independence Day’. On the same day in 1950 the Constitution of Independent India
was adopted, making India a sovereign, democratic socialist republic. Since then
January 26th is celebrated as Republic Day.

8.8.2 Dandi March

Around the same time, the government made a new law. They imposed taxes on
the use of salt. This was opposed by the people, as salt was the basic need of the
people. But, no attention was paid to demands of the people. During March-April,
1930, Gandhi marched from his Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi on the Gujarat coast
for the purpose of raiding the Government Salt. The violation of salt law was his
first challenge to the government. It was a peaceful march. Gandhi committed a
technical breach of the Salt Law on 6th April, 1930, when he picked up the scattered
sea salt from the coast to break this Law. In this movement farmers, traders and

Figure 8.5 Gandhi during Dandi March

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through Ages women took part in large numbers. The government arrested him in May 1930 and
put him in Yervada jail at Poona. The campaign had a significant effect on British
attitude toward Indian independence. Gandhi-Irwin Pact in 1931 was one of its
examples. Gandhiji also went to London in 1931 and participated in the second round
table conference as the sole representative of the Congress but no settlement could
be arrived at. Although, Gandhi’s arrest removed him from the active leadership of
the movement, this civil disobedience continued. Special stress was laid on boycott
Notes
of foreign goods particularly clothes.

The Civil Disobedience Movement, though a failure, was a vital phase in the struggle
for the freedom. It promoted unity among Indians of different regions under the
Congress banner. It provided an opportunity to recruit younger people and educate
them for positions of trust and responsibility in the organization as also in provincial
administration, which was captured in the 1937 elections. It gave wide publicity to
political ideas and methods throughout the country and generated political awareness
even in remote villages.

8.9 THE REVOLUTIONARIES

The reactionary policy of the British developed a deep hatred towards them among
a section of the younger generation of India. They believed that India could achieve
independence only by an organized revolutionary movement. As a result, they
organized secret groups to launch revolutionary activities against the British. Youths
were trained in aggressive methods of violence as a means of strength against the
British. They attempted killing of unpopular British officials, committed dacoities to
finance their activities and looted arms. Many of them, therefore, chose the path of
violence to gain independence for India. They were called the revolutionaries. The
centres of their activities were Punjab, Maharashtra, Bengal, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh
and Orissa. Prominent among these revolutionaries were Khudiram Bose, Prafulla
Chaki, Bhupendra Nath Dutt, V. D. Savarkar, Sardar Ajit Singh, Lala Hardayal and
his Gadar Party, Sardar Bhagat Singh, Raj Guru, Sukh Deo, Chandra Shekhar Azad,
etc. These revolutionaries organized secret societies, murdered many British officers,
disrupted railway traffic, engaged in organized attack on British wealth. In order to
overturn the British Rule through arms, Kakori Conspiracy was planned by Ram
Prasad Bismil, Ashfaqullah Khan and other team members of the Hindustan
Republican Association in 1925. In 1928, Hindustan Socialist Republican Association
was formed by Chandrasekhar Azad, Bhagat Singh, Batukeshwar Dutt and others.
Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt threw a bomb inside the Central Legislative
Assembly on 8th April, 1929 protesting against the passage of the Public Safety Bill
and the Trade Disputes Bill while raising slogans of Inquilab Zindabad (long live
the revolution), though no one was killed or injured in the bomb incident. Following
the trial in court of this and other cases, Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev and Rajguru were

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hanged in 1931. Their sacrifice provided an incentive to the people. They were through Ages
regarded martyrs and became the symbol of national unity and aspirations.

Notes

Bhagat Singh Sukh Deo Raj Guru Chandra Shekhar Azad

Figure 8.6

ACTIVITY 8.6
Gather a collection of movies based on Indian Nationalism. See those movies and
identify the major issues of Nationalism raised through them. Do these movies really
play an important role in sensitizing us towards Nationalism? Put your thoughts down
in your diary and discuss this with your family and friends.

8.10 THE DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIALIST IDEAS

A significant feature of the twentieth century was the development of Socialist ideas
in Congress and outside it. Peasants now started asking for land reforms, abolition
of zamindari system and reduction in the revenue and debt relief. The All India Trade
Union Congress which was founded in 1920 worked towards improvement in the
workers’ working and living condition. It mobilized the workers to the cause of
complete independence which helped the movement to be broad based. Some of
the prominent socialist and communist leaders were M.N. Roy, S.A. Dange, Abani
Mukhopadhyaya, Nalini Gupta, Muzaffar Ahmed, Shaukat Usmani, Gulam Hussain,
Singaravelu Chettair, G.M. Adhikari and P.C. Joshi. They outlined the course of the
revolution through transformation of individual strike into a general political strike,
the development of spontaneous peasant movements, a nationwide movement for
complete independence, as well as the spread of revolutionary propaganda amongst
the police and the army. Struggle against imperialism was the rallying slogan. In 1936,
when Nehru was the President of the Congress, he declared at the Lucknow Session
that the solution to India’s problems lay in the adoption of socialist ideas. Nehru was
deeply influenced by Karl Marx. Even Subhash Chandra Bose was influenced by
socialist ideas. Because of differences with Gandhi, Bose resigned from the Congress
and formed his own ‘Forward Bloc’.

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8.11 THE COMMUNAL DIVIDE
The policy of divide and rule was inaugurated right in the days of East India Company
when the Britishers were establishing themselves as rulers of India. You have read
how the Company set one Indian ruler against the other and ultimately it became
the undisputable ruler. You have seen that, in the latter half of the 19th Century,
Nationalism started growing. Now the British government found it prudent to vitalize
their policies of divide and rule and drive a wedge between the Hindus and Muslims.
Notes
The British had looked upon the Muslims with disfavor and suspicion since the revolt
of 1857. But now they realized that in order to counteract the growing Nationalism,
time had come to appease the Muslims. The Government seized every opportunity
to set the Indians against one another on the basis of religion and creating hostility
between them. Ultimately, in accordance with this policy, separate electorates for
Muslims were established. You have read about the formation of the Muslims League
which sowed the seeds of communalism. You will remember that the league had been
formed on the encouragement of British officials.
The Communal Award of 1932 was a continuance of this policy, because it allowed
separate electorates and reservation of seats to the depressed classes also. Separate
electorates were first demanded by the Muslims in 1906 and introduced for them
under the Morley-Minto Reforms of 1907. This was done with a view to building
up Muslim communalism as a counterpoise against Indian Nationalism. Under the
Montford Reforms (1919) they were extended for Sikhs, Europeans, Anglo-Indians,
Indian Christians, etc. Under the Act of 1935 seventeen separate electorates were
constituted. In reality, communal electorates were an unmixed evil. They hampered
the growth of national unity. The two-nation theory appeared in 1938 and was clearly
communicated by Jinnah in 1940. Once, the demand for Pakistan was made, it
received direct and indirect encouragement from British authorities. The immediate
cause of the emergence of the demand for Pakistan was the refusal of the Congress
to form coalition ministries after the elections of 1937. The county seemed to be
drifting towards anarchy and ruin. Under the circumstances, partition was accepted
as a ‘necessary evil’, the only way of getting rid of British rule and preventing a
complete breakdown of law and order.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 8.2

1. How was Satyagraha different from the other protests?
2. Why was Simon Commission boycotted by Indians? Give two reasons.
3. Why did Gandhi withdraw the non-cooperation movement?
4. How was the approach of revolutionaries different from the others?
5. What do you understand by ‘Purna-Swaraj’?
6. How was communal divide in India promoted by the British?

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8.12 ACHIEVEMENT OF INDEPENDENCE (1935-47)
The British Government prepared a White Paper in March, 1933. On the basis of
this White Paper, a Bill was prepared and introduced in parliament in December,
1934. The Bill was finally passed as the Government of India Act on August 2, 1935.
The most conspicuous feature of the Act of 1935 was the concept of an All India
Federation comprising the Provinces of British India and the Princely States. It was
compulsory for the Provinces to join the proposed federation. For the Princely States Notes
it was voluntary. The members from the provinces were to be elected, while the
representatives of the States were to be nominated by the rulers. Only 14 percent
of the population in British India had the right to vote. The powers of the Legislature
were confined and restricted. It had no control over defense and foreign relations.
The Act protected British vested interests, discouraging the emergence of national
unity, rather encouraging separation and communalism. All nationalists, including
Nehru and Jinnah, condemned the Act.

The Congress session met in Lucknow on 25th April, 1935. Though the Act was
condemned, it was decided to contest the elections to resist British imperialism and
to end the various regulations, ordinances and Acts, which were initiated against
Indian Nationalism. In the 1937 elections the Congress swept the poll. Congress
Ministries were formed in seven out of the eleven provinces. On March 18, 1937,
the All India Congress Committee adopted a resolution on Congress policies in the
legislatures. It claimed that the Congress had contested the elections “with its
objective of independence and its total rejection of the new constitution, and the
demand for a Constituent Assembly to frame India’s constitution. The declared
Congress policy was to combat the New Act and end it”. The immediate effect of
the coming of the Congress Ministries was a feeling of relief. Political prisoners were
released and a large measure of civil liberty was established. Agrarian legislation was
also passed and this provided considerable relief to the peasantry. Basic education
was intended to be made free and compulsory for every child.

8.12.1 National Movement during the Second World War

When the Second World War broke out in 1939, the Congress attitude was one
of sympathy, though it refused unconditional cooperation. The Congress demanded
that “India must be declared an independent union, and present application must be
given to this status to the largest possible extent”. The British did not agree and as
a result all the ministries resigned in protest in 1939. A demand for Provisional
National Government at the Centre was made at the instance of C. Rajagopalachari
in 1940. It was turned down by the Viceroy Lord Linlithgow. In October, 1940 was
launched the Civil Disobedience Campaign. Acharya Vinoba Bhave was the first to
offer individual Satyagraha.

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through Ages All India Committee of the Cabinet, with Attlee as Chairperson, was set up and a
draft declaration was made. In March, 1942, Sir Stafford Cripps came to India with
the draft declaration. It stated the British Government’s desire to grant India
‘Dominion Status’ at the end of the war. Complete Independence was not promised.
There was no mention of a national government of the Indian people. The Congress
rejected the offer. The Muslim League, opposed to the creation of a single union,
found the scheme unacceptable, as it did not unequivocally concede Pakistan. The
Notes Cripps Mission failed.
The struggle for independence was carried on by Subhash Chandra Bose from
abroad. He found the outbreak of the Second World War to be a convenient
opportunity to strike a blow for the freedom of India. Bose had been put under house
arrest in 1940 but he managed to escape to Berlin on March 28, 1941. The Indian
community there acclaimed him as the leader (Netaji). He was greeted with ‘Jai Hind’
(Salute to the motherland). He tried to raise an Indian army and urge his country
people to rise in arms against the British. In 1942, the Indian Independence League
was formed and a decision was taken to form the Indian National Army (INA) for
the liberation of India. On an invitation from Ras Bihari Bose, Subhash Chandra Bose
came to East Asia on June 13, 1943. He was made president of the Indian
Independence League and the leader of the INA popularly called ‘Azad Hind Fauj’.
He gave the famous battle cry ‘Chalo Dilli’. He promised independence to Indians
saying, ‘tum mujhe khoon do, main tumhe Azadi dunga’ (You give me blood, I
will give you freedom). In March 1944, the Indian flag was hoisted at Kohima.
Unfortunately, after that the movement collapsed. What happened to Netaji remains
a mystery. It is said that he lost his life in an air crash in August 1945. But it could
not be ascertained. The INA continued to occupy an honored place in India’s
freedom struggle. The intense patriotism of Bose and the soldiers of the INA proved
a tremendous source of inspiration for the Indian people.

Figure 8.7 Subhash Chandra Bose and Indian National Army

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8.12.2 Quit India Movement and After through Ages

The failure of the Cripps Mission made the Indians frustrated and embittered. It was
felt that time had now come for launching another mass movement against the British
rule. Discontent of Indian people was increasing due to wartime shortages and
growing unemployment. There was a constant danger of Japanese attack. The Indian
leaders were convinced that India would be a victim of Japanese aggression only
because of British presence in India. Gandhiji said, “the presence of the British in Notes
India is an invitation to Japan to invade India”. Subhash Chandra Bose, who escaped
from India in 1941, repeatedly spoke over radio from Berlin arousing anti-British
feeling which gave rise to pro-Japanese sentiments.

The Congress under Gandhiji felt that the British must be compelled to accept Indian
demands or quit the country. A meeting of the Congress Working Committee in
Wardha passed the Quit India Resolution on 14th July, 1942 which was later
endorsed and passed on 8th August at the Bombay session of the Congress. The
Congress decided to launch a mass struggle on non-violent lines, on the widest
possible scale. Addressing the Congress delegates on the night of 8th August,
Gandhiji, in his soul stirring speech, said:

“I therefore want freedom immediately, this very night before dawn if it can
be had …..I am not going to be satisfied with anything short of complete
freedom. Here is a ‘mantra’, a short one that I give you. You may imprint
on your hearts and let every breath of yours give expression to it. The
‘mantra’ is ‘Do or Die’. We shall either free India or die in the attempt. We
shall not live to see the perpetuation of slavery.”

But before the Congress leaders could start the movement formally, all important
leaders of Congress were arrested before the dawn of 9th August 1942. Congress
was banned and declared as an illegal organization. The Press was censored.

The news of the arrest of popular leaders shocked the nation. Their anger and
resentment was expressed through numerous agitations, hartals, processions and
demonstrations in all parts of the country. With most of the important leaders in jail,
the movement took a different shape at different places. The people gave vent to
their anger by burning government buildings, police stations, post offices anything that
symbolized British authority. Railways and telegraphs lines were disconnected. At
some places, such as in Balia district in U.P., Midnapore district of West Bengal and
in Satara in Bombay, the revolt took a serious turn. Inspired by the ‘mantra’ of
Gandhiji people were ready to make the supreme sacrifice. The British with its army
and police came down heavily on the Indian people. The people were shot
indiscriminately. The Quit India Movement became one of the greatest mass-

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through Ages movements of historical significance. It demonstrated the depth of national sentiments
and indicated the capacity of the Indian people for sacrifice and determined struggle.
After this movement there was no retreat. Independence of India was no longer a
matter of bargain. It was to be a reality.

Notes

Figure 8.8 Quit India Movement (August, 1942)

At the end of the World War in 1945, the British government started to talk about
the transfer of power to Indian Hindus and Muslims. The first round of talks could
not be successful because Muslim leaders thought that the Muslim League was the
only one who could represent Indian Muslims. The Congress did not agree upon
it. In 1946, the Cabinet Mission arrived in India to find a mutually agreed solution
of the Indian Problem. The Mission held talks with the leaders of all prominent political
parties and then proposed its plan of establishing Federal Government in India.
Initially the plan was criticized by all political parties, but later all gave their consent
to it. When the election to the Constituent Assembly took place, the Congress won
one hundred ninety nine seats and the Muslim league won seventy three.

8.12.3 Partition and Independence of India

Differences soon arose between the Congress and the Muslim League concerning
the powers of the Constituent Assembly. The League rejected the Cabinet Mission
Plan in the middle of 1946. In September 1946, the Congress formed the government
at the Centre. The League refused to be a part to it. Muslim League celebrated this
day as a ‘Direct Action Day’ on 16th August 1946 to attain Pakistan. The conflict

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resulted in widespread communal riots in different parts of India. Thousands were through Ages
killed in the riots, lacks of people became homeless. In the mean time, Lord
Mountbatten was sent as the Viceroy to India. He put up his plan in June 1947 which
included partition of India. In spite of strong opposition by Gandhi, all the parties
agreed to the partition and the Indian Independence Act, 1947 came into being. It
created two independent states in the Indian sub-continent, i.e. Indian Union and
Pakistan. India got its independence on 15th August, 1947. At the stroke of mid-
Notes
night (14th -15th August, 1947), transfer of power took place.

ACTIVITY 8.7
Imagine you were chosen by the British government as a member of the Cabinet
Mission to talk to the members of the Indian National Congress and Muslim League
and discuss how to transfer power after independence. Make a list of proposals that
you would present before them?

INTEXT QUESTIONS 8.3

1. Write two basic features of the Act of 1935.
2. What was the demand of Muslim League?
3. What led to the participation of Congress in the elections after 1935?
4. Why were the Indian leaders concerned about the British presence in India during
the Second World War?
5. What were the major causes of the partition of India?

WHAT HAVE YOU LEARNT?

 Renaissance, the French Revolution, American Revolution, Russian Revolution
had promoted the idea of Nationalism in the world.
 Anti-colonial movement led to the rise of Nationalism in India in 19th Century.
The contemporary social and religious reform movements also contributed to the
rise of feelings of Nationalism.
 Indian National Congress was founded in 1985 only to communicate with British
government on behalf of the Indian people and voice their grievances.

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through Ages  In 1905, Lord Curzon announced the partition of Bengal. The Indians viewed
the partition as an attempt by the British to disrupt the growing national movement
in Bengal and divide the Hindus and Muslims of the region.
 In 1906, Muslim League was formed in Dacca with the objective to protect and
advance the rights of Muslims in India and represent their needs to the
government.
Notes  Difference in ideas led to split in Congress in 1907. Two groups i.e. Moderates
(Naram Dal) and Radicals (Garam Dal) were formed.
 In the First World War, Indian leaders agreed to help the British Government
on the condition that the latter would give Constitutional powers to Indians after
the war.
 Gandhiji successfully experimented with the technique of Satyagraha in South
Africa as well as Champaran, Kheda and Ahmadabad in India.
 Gandhiji started the mass movement in India against the British policies. He was
the leader who could encourage and involve all sections of society in this
movement.
 The revolutionaries like Bhagat Singh, Chandrashekhar Azad, Sukhdeo, etc.
chose the path of aggressive movement against the British government.
 The seed of communal divide in India, sowed by the British, led to the future
consequence of partition.
 The struggle for Independence was carried on by Subhash Chandra Bose from
abroad. He became the leader of Indian National Army to liberate India from
British.
 The Quit India movement paved the way for India’s freedom. It was the final
call from Gandhiji to ‘Do or Die’.
 Muslim League demanded the formation of Pakistan for Muslims which led to
the partition. India got its freedom on 15th August, 1947.

TERMINAL QUESTIONS
1. In the initial years of its existence, what types of demands were put by the Indian
National Congress before the British government?
2. Why was Lord Curzon interested in the partition of Bengal?
3. What was the significance of the Satyagrah of Gandhi in Africa? What was the
nature of his Satyagraha in India?

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4. Do you think that the Non-Cooperation movement was successful in its goal? through Ages
Give two reasons in support of your argument.
5. Why was the Simon Commission asked to leave India?
6. Why did the Dandi March lead to the arrest of Gandhi?
7. What made the revolutionaries throw a bomb in the Legislative Assembly?
8. Discuss the role of Azad Hind Fauz led by Subhash Chandra Bose in the Indian Notes
National Movement.
9. How did the ‘Quit India’ Movement contributed to the independence of India?
10. Mention three causes that forced the Britishers give India independence in the
twentieth century.

ANSWERS TO INTEXT QUESTIONS

8.1
1. Anti-colonial movement, political and administrative unity under British rule,
revival of ancient India glory.
2. To give a safe and constitutional outlet to Indians, so that their anger would not
develop into agitation against British.
3. Moderates believed in petition and requesting the British government to solve
the grievances whereas Radicals believed in organizing mass protests, criticizing
government policies, boycotting foreign goods and use of Swadeshi goods.
4. In the hope that the British government would provide Constitutional powers to
the Indians after winning the war.
5. Because of the division of Ottoman Empire and insult of Khalipha.

8.2
1. Satyagraha means a non-violent insistence for truth and justice. Other protests
were violent and aggressive in nature.
2. The Commission had no Indian members.
3. Outbreak of violence during the movement caused its suspension.
4. They chose the path of armed movement against the Britishers. Others were not
in favour of this.
5. Purna-Swaraj means complete independence and sovereignty.

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through Ages 6. By promoting separate electorates for Muslims, Sikhs, etc. and encouraging
Muslim League to raise communal demands.

8.3
1. Princely States and the British Provinces all had to come under All India
Federation. It restricted the power of legislature, i.e. no control over defense and
Notes foreign relations.
2. Muslim League demanded a separate nation for Muslims, i.e. Pakistan.
3. To gain constitutional power and change the British laws, Congress decided to
participate in the elections.
4. Because British presence in India could lead to Japanese invasion during Second
World War.
5. The communal divide, demand of Muslim League and lack of consensus between
the political parties.

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India : Natural Environment, Resources
and Development
9. Physiography of India
10. Climate
11. Bio-diversity
12. Agriculture in India
13. Transport and Communication
14. Population : Our Greatest Resource
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9
Notes

PHYSIOGRAPHY OF INDIA

Tutor : Dear learners, you will agree that the place to which we belong has many
influences on our thinking and behaiour. Let us try to know which place
do we belong to?
Natasha : I belong to Hisar town. Farah is from Fatehabad and Rajinder comes
from Bhiwani.
Tutor : Do you know where all these places are located?
Rajinder : Yes, they are in Haryana as well as in India. But, where is India located?
Farah : What is the need to know India’s location?
Tutor : Location of a country is the key to its identity. It determines the important
aspects like climate, vegetation, agriculture, resources etc. This has a deep
impact on the way people of that area live, what they eat and how
powerful is their voice on the world stage. Therefore, to understand the
various aspects of India, we need to look into its location. Let us discuss
more about it in this lesson.

OBJECTIVES
After studying this lesson you will be able to:

l describe the location of India in terms of latitude and longitude;

l describe with the help of map, the significance of the relative location of India
in terms of neighbouring countries;
l illustrate the States and Union Territories with the help of political map of India;
l explain the major physical divisions of India;
l describe the drainage system in India;
l compare and contrast between the Himalayan and the Peninsular drainage
system; and
l explain the importance of people’s participation in keeping river clean.

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9.1 LOCATION
Teacher: Learners, when someone asks where India is, we can answer in two ways,
in terms of absolute and relative location. Let us see what we mean by absolute
location and relative location. Absolute location is given in degrees of latitude and
longitude. Relative location depends upon point of reference, e.g., near, far etc.
Notes

Latitude: Latitude is the angular distance, north or south from the equator, of
a point on the earth’s surface.
Longitude: Longitude is an angular distance on the earth’s surface, measured
east or west from the prime meridian at Greenwich.
Angular distance : The angular distance between the points from the centres
is called angular distance.

Latitude Longitude
(North/South) (west/East)
90°N 0°
Tropic of
Arctic 66½°N

Tropic of 23½°N
Cancer

Prime Meridian
0° 0° Equator W E

Tropic of 23½°S
Capricorn
Tropic of 66½°S
Antarctica
90°S 0°
Latitude varies from 0° Longitude varies from 0°
of the equator to 90° at Greenwich to 180°
North and South East and West
at the poles

Teacher: With the help of this map can you find out the latitudinal and the
longitudianal location of Indian mainland.
Natasha: The Indian mainland extends between 8°4′ North and 37°6′ North
latitudes and from 68°7′ East and 97°25′ East longitudes. Thus, the
latitudinal and the North-south extent is 3214 km and East-west extent
is 2933 km. India accounts 2.42% of the total world land area
Teacher: India lies entirely in the northern hemisphere, and eastern hemisphere. The
Tropic of Cancer (23°30′ North) passes through the centre of the country.
It divides the country into almost two equal parts Northward of this
latitude is North India and South of it is known as south India. Similarly

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Notes

Figure 9.1 Latitudinal and Longitudinal extent of mainland of India

82°30′ East longitude passes almost from the middle of the country. It
is known as Standard Meridian of India.
Teacher: Now determine the relative location of India and then record it in the
space given below: Remember relative location is given in relationship to
other places (north of, south of, northeast of, next to, across from).India
is part of Asian continent. India is surrounded by water from three sides.
Arabian sea in west, Bay of Bengal in the east and Indian ocean in the
south. Towards its north west is Pakistan and Afghanistan. China, Bhutan,
Tibet and Nepal lies to its north. Bangladesh and Myanmar lies to its east.
Srilanka and Maldives are located in the Indian Ocean towards its south.
The southern most point of the country is Indira Point (Nicobar Islands)
which lies on 6°4′ N latitudes and Kannya Kumari is southern most point
of Indian mainland which lies on 8°4′ N latitudes.

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The 82°30′E longitude passes through Mirzapur (in Uttar Pradesh). This is the
Standard Meridian of the country. The 82°30′ East has been selected as
standard Merdian because there is a time lag of almost two hours between
Notes Gujarat and Arunanchal Pradesh. Therefore, a Central Meridian is selected to
determine the time for the whole country.

9.1.1 Locational Significance

Let’s observe the Fig. 9.2.What do you notice? India is the largest country in terms
of area and population in South-Asia. It is surrounded by ocean. India is strategically
located in Indian Ocean. It commands sea routes between Europe and Africa, South-
East Asia, far East Asia and Oceania. It is because of this that India shares good
trade relation between many countries since ancient times. India has a good location
in terms of sea and also well connected by land. Various passes like Nathu-La
(Sikkim), Shipki-La (Himachal Pradesh), Zoji-La and Burji la pass (Jammu &
Kashmir) have their own importance. The main India-Tibet trade route that connects
Kalimpong near Darjeeling with Lhasa in Tibet passes through Jelepa La. Several
passes have provided a passage to many ancient travelers. These routes are not only
important for trade but also to exchange ideas and culture.

40°E 60°E 80°E 100°E 120°E 140°E

40°N
BLACK JAPAN
SEA
Tokyo
ARAL
SEA

SEA
CASPIAN

Syria

30°N
IRAQ
CHINA
AN
I ST
IRAN AN
GH
AF TIBET
SAUDI Delhi
ARABIA PAKISTAN NE PACIFIC OCEAN
PAL
20°N
RE

Karachi BANGLA
INDIA
D

DESH
Kolkata MYANMAR
SE

Philippines
A

ARABIAN Mumbai THAILAND

SEA BAY
OF BENGAL 10°N
Bangkok

ETHOPIA

SRI LANKA
0°
MALAYSIA
MALDIVES
Sea Routes
INDIAN OCEAN
Air Routes 0 400 800
INDONSIA
Kilometres AUSTRALIA

Figure 9.2 Location of India with respect to important trade routes

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India: Natural Environ-
ment, Resources and
Development
INTEXT QUESTIONS 9.1
1. Look at the map 9.2 and answer the following questions.
(i) Find out the names of two countries lying to the eastern side of India.
(ii) Mention the names of two seas located on the eastern and western side Notes
of India.
(iii) Which country is connected to India by Palk Strait?
(iv) Write the names of two countries having a common border with India.

9.2 STATES AND UNION TERRITORIES OF INDIA

India is the seventh largest country in the world. It has land boundaries of 15,200
km and 6100km long coast line. India’s landmass covers 3.28 million square
kilometer of area. This accounts for nearly 2.42 percent of the total geographical
area of the world.
For good governance, India has been divided into 28 states and 7 union territories.
Let us study the Fig. 9.3 given below.
64° 72° 76° 80° 84° 88° 92°

32° JAMMU & KASHMIR

Srinagar
INDIA
32°
POLITICAL
H. P.
Shimla C H I N A
PUNJAB Dehradun
28° PAKISTAN Chandigarh TIBET
UTTARAKHAND
N A
A
RY ARUNACHAL
HA DELHI
NE 28°
PA SIKKIM
PRADESH
L
BHUTAN Itanagar
UTTARPRADESH Gangtok
Jaipur ASSAM
RAJASTHAN Dispur NAGALAND
24° Lucknow
Shilong Kohima
Patna MEGHALAYA Imphal
BIHAR BANGLADESH MANIPUR 24°
JHARKHAND Agartala
Bhopal TRIPURA Aizawl
Gandhinagar WEST
Ranchi BENGAL MIZORAM
GUJARAT MADHYA PRADESH
RH

Kolkata
20°
A
SG
TI

Daman
MYANMAR
AT

(D&D) ODISHA
CH

Diu
(D&D) Silvasa Raipur Bhubaneshwar 20°
D&NH
Mumbai MAHARASHTRA

16°
ARABIAN BAY OF BEGAL
SEA Hyderabad
ANDHRA PRADESH
KARNATAKA 16°
Panji
GOA

12° REFERENCES
Bangaluru H.P. - HIMACHAL PRADESH
Chennai D&D - DAMAN & DIU
D&NH - DADAR & NAGAR HAVELI
Port Blair
12°
Puducherry
Mahe
( Puducherry) TAMIL NADU
Karaikal
KER

Kavaratti
ALA

Andaman & Nicobar Islands

(INDIA)
8° Lakshadweep
(INDIA) Thiruvananthapuram 200 0 200 400
8°
SRI
Kilometres
LANKA
I N D I A N O C E A N
72° 76° 84° 88° 92°

Figure 9.3 Political Map of India

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 MODULE - 2 Physiography of India
India: Natural Environ-
ment, Resources and This map clearly indicates that each state and union territory has its own capital. It
Development is interesting to note that while New Delhi is the capital of India, Delhi is the capital
of Union Territory Delhi. Can you identify any other capital like this? Yes, it is
Chandigarh which is the capital of two states Haryana and Punjab and also a Union
Territory.

Notes

ACTIVITY 9.1
Find out the minimum number of states you need to across, if you want to move
between the following places. (Refer Fig. 9.5)
(a) Kashmir to Mizoram (b) Punjab to Bihar (c) Delhi to Banglore
(d) Mumabi to Kolkata (e) Chennai to Raipur

INTEXT QUESTION 9.2

1. Look at the map 9.3 and answer the following questions.
(i) Write the names of two States of South India.
(ii) Mention the names of two states sharing international boundary.
(iii) Write the names of two countries sharing their boundaries with Sikkim.
(iv) Write the names of two union territories along Arabian Sea.

9.3 PHYSICAL DIVISIONS OF INDIA

Natasha : What is terrain?
Tutor : Terrain is an area of land which usually has a particular type of physical
feature.
Farah : Like, Mumbai beach is sandy and Shillong is a hilly.
Teacher : Right. Do you know India is a vast country with varied land forms and
topography?
Rajinder : What is the meaning of topography?
Teacher : Topography means the features of a place determined by nature. It is
the description of various features and landscape on the surface of the
earth.
India has the topographical diversity. This includes the Great Himalayas, the Northern
Plain, the Thar desert, the coastal plains and the Peninsular Plateau. The reasons for
variation in the topography could be:
l Differences in the rock formations. These landmasses have been formed in
different geological periods.

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Physiography of India MODULE - 2
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l Number of processes such as weathering, erosion and deposition has modified ment, Resources and
Development
these features to their present forms.

Weathering: Weathering is the process of gradual destruction of rocks at or

near the earth’s surface through physical, chemical and biological processes
caused by wind water, climate change etc.
Notes
Erosion: Erosion is the process of gradual transportation of weathered rock
materials through natural agencies like wind, river, streams, glaciers etc.
Weathering is distinguished from Erosion as no transportation of material is
involved in case of weathering.

India is a country of physical diversity. There are high mountain peaks in some areas
while in others, lie the flat plains formed by rivers. On the basis of physical features,
India can be divided into following six divisions:

64° 72° 76° 80° 84° 88° 92°

The Pamir
KU
NL
U
NM
SH TS
KU KA .
H IND RA
8611
KO
32° RA
SH In M
IW du INDIA
A s 32°
Jhelum nab LIK
h e RA
PHYSICAL
C NG
a v i E
28° R G
7817
T

R
ER

s
ES

u E
nd
D

I 28°
Yam

A
N

GE
IA

T Mt. Everest
D

Ga
AN
IN

8848
na

ng H tra
apu NAGA
AT

a
IR

24° Gha I M hm
RE

ghar Bra
bal a Gan
AL

A
G

am da L A Y A JAINTIA
AV

Ch twa k
Ko

Be GARO KHASI
AR

si

24°
Rann of Kachchh
Malwa Plateau
A Chota Nagpur Plateau
20° Narmada UR
TP
Gir Hills SA Mahanadi
Tapi
Mouth of the Ganges 20°
W

God Chattisgarh
ava
S

ri
E

16°
A

D E C C A N
S

BAY
T

Krishna OF 16°
N
E

ARABIAN BENGAL
R

SEA
R

12°
N

ALTITUDE SCALE
Meters
S

12°
G

Above 1200
A

Nilgiri Hills
2637 600 - 1200
H

v eri 300 - 600

A T

Ka Below 300 ANDAMAN & NICOBAR

8° LAKSHADWEEPS ISLANDS
200 0 200 400
8°
S

Kilometres
SRI
I N D I A N LANKA O C E A N

72° 76° 84° 88° 92°

Figure 9.4 Physiographic Divisions of India

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 MODULE - 2 Physiography of India
India: Natural Environ-
ment, Resources and 1. The Northern mountains 2. The Northern Plains
Development
3. The Peninsular Plateau 4. The Indian Desert
5. The Coastal Plains 6. The Islands.
1. The Northern Mountain : It is divided into three groups. They are :
(i) The Himalayas
Notes
(ii) The Trans Himalayas
(iii) The Puranchal hills
1. Pass: It is a natural gap or a route
between a ridge, hill.
1. The Himalayan Mountains
2. Range: large landmass consisting of
Himalayas are the young fold mountains.
mountains, ridges and peaks.
This is the highest mountain range of
the world. Himalayas act as natural 3. Peak: highest point or tip of a
barrier. The extreme cold, snow and mountain range.
rugged topography discourage the 4. Valley: a depression or a flat land
neighbors to enter India through between two elevated areas.
Himalayas. They run from west-east
direction from Indus to Brahmaputra 5. Dun: Longitudinal valleys existing
along the northern boundary of India beween himachal and shiwaliks.

64° 68° The Pamir 72° 76° 80° 84° 92°

KU
AJ NL
UR UN
H ND Rakaposhi MT
S HI S.
D KU 7788 Ka
ra
HIN Harmosh 7397 ko Aghil
ra Pass
K2 m
8126 8611S Hi
lls Karakoram Pass
Naga Parwat G hy
ok
Khyber Pass La
da
Za
R kh
Ra
s ka ng
rR e
an
E

ge
lum 200 0 200 400
Jhe Bara
KA

S
n ab h Lacha Kilometres
A

IL

he iw
AS

C
a
H

li Shipkila
RA
L

k
E

NG
T
GE

R Kamet Kailash
E
S

i a
Rav
RAN

n 6714
A

g 7750 Mansa rover Lake

R

e H
I M 7817
AN

j Namcha
tlu
E

Sa A Nanda Devi Barwa

EM

L 7756
A
SUL

Y
A R Tsangpo
s
du
In

Annapurna
Ga S h 8078 H 8848 Mt. Everest A
n ga i w
a l I Bomdila
Y
Ya
i k
R a
M A L A
m n g Kanchenjunga a
un e 8598 putr
a hma
Bra
Tis
ta
Ga

i Go
as

Lun l Gh
an

m
n

ba
da

ti a
M

am gh
k

Ch ara
nd

Kos
Si

i
et wa
B
n
Ke

Rann of Kutch Son

Figure 9.5 The Himalyan Mountains

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Physiography of India MODULE - 2
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covering a distance of 2500 KM. Their width varies from 400 in the west and 150 ment, Resources and
KM in the East (Fig. 9.5). The Himalayas may be divided into three parallel ranges: Development

(a) Greater Himalayas or Himadari

(b) Lesser Himalayas or Himachal
(c) Outer Himalayas or Siwaliks. Notes
(a) The Greater Himalayas or Himadari: The Greater Himalayas comprises of
the northern most ranges and peaks. It has an average height of 6000 metres
and width lies between 120 to 190 Kms .It is the most continuous range. It
is snow bound and many glaciers descend from this range. It has high peaks
like Mt. Everest, Kanchenjunga, Makalu, Dhaulagiri, Nanga Parbat etc. having
a height of more than 8000 metres. Mt. Everest (8848 m) is the highest peak
of the world and Kanchenjunga is the highest peak of Himalaya in India. High
Mountain passes also exist in this range, namely, Bara Lacha-La, Shipki-La,
Nathu-La, Zoji-La, Bomidi-La etc. The Ganga and Yamuna rivers originates
from this Himalayas.
(b) The Lesser Himalayas or Himachal: The altitude of this range lies between
1000 and 4500 metres and the average width is 50 KM. The Prominent ranges
in this are Pir Panjal, Dhaula Dhar and Mahabharata ranges.It compresses of
many famous hill stations like Shimla, Dalhousie Darjeeling, Chakrata, Mussoorie,
Nanital etc. It also comprises of famous valleys like Kashmir, Kullu, Kangra
etc.
(c) The Outer Himalayas or the Siwaliks: It is the outer most range of the
Himalayas. The altitude varies between 900-1100 meters and the width lies
between 10-50 KM. They have low hills like Jammu Hills, etc.The valleys lying
between Siwalik and Lesser Himalayas (Himachal) are called ‘Duns’ like Dehra
Dun, Kotli Dun and Patli Dun.

(ii) The Trans-Himalayan ranges

It extends north of greater Himalaya and parallel to it is called zaskar range. North
of Zaskar range lies Ladakh range. The Indus river flows between Zaskar and Ladakh
range. The Karakoram range lie extreme north of the country. K2 is the second highest
peak of the world.

(iii) The Purvanchal hills

It comprises Mishami, Patkoi, Naga, Mizo hills which are located in eastern side.
The Meghalaya plateau is also part of these hills which includes the hills of Garo,
Khasi and Jaintia.

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India: Natural Environ-
ment, Resources and
Development
INTEXT QUESTIONS 9.3
1. Write the names of the three ranges of the Himalayas.
2. Look at the map (Fig. 9.5) and find out.
Notes (i) In which state Nanga Parbat and Nanda Devi are located?
(ii) Say Yes or No.
(a) Mt. Everest is located in India………………………
(b) Shipki-La pass is located in Siwalik Range……………
(c) Mansarover lake is located in Kailash Range………...
3. Mention the names of the countries in which the Greater Himalayas are situated.
4. Identify two purvanchal hills.

2. The Northern Plains

Let us try to locate and label the states lying in the Northern Plains of India (refer
Fig. 9.5. The Northern Plains are located between south of the Himalayas and north
of the Peninsular plateau. It is formed by the deposition of the sediments brought
by three main river systems namely : the Indus, the Ganga and the Brahmaputra. From
Punjab in the west to Assam in the east, this plain is about 2400 km long. Its width
varies from about 300 km in the west to about 150 km in the east. It mainly includes
the states of Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal and Assam. This
plain is very fertile due to alluvial sediments brought by the rivers from the Himalayas.
This plain is one of the largest and most fertile plains of the world. Major crops such
as wheat, rice, sugarcane, pulses, oil seeds and jute are grown here. Due to proper
irrigation, the plain makes significant contribution in the production of food grains.
The Northern plain is broadly divided into two parts :

(a) The Western plain

(b) The Ganga-Brahmaputra plain

(a) The Western Plain

This plain is formed by the river system of the Indus. It lies to the west of Aravallis.
This plain is formed due to deposits brought by the rivers like the Satluj, the Beas
and the Ravi. This part of the plain has doabs.

(b) The Ganga-Brahmaputra plain

It is also formed by the deposition of the sediments brought by two main river systems,
the Ganga and the Brahmaputra. The early civilizations like Mohenjo-Daro and

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India: Natural Environ-
Harappa also called river valley civilizations, were spread over plain areas. This is ment, Resources and
Development
because of the availability of fertile land and water through the river networks.

Doab: the alluvial land between two converging rivers. Example doab area in
Punjab.
Khadar: The area flooded by rivers almost every year
Notes
Banger: The area never flooded by rivers.

3. The Peninsular Plateau

Look at the map (Fig. 9.6) given below, you will find that the Peninsular plateau is
a triangular shaped table land. It is part of ancient land mass called Gondwana level.
It covers an area of nearly 5 lakh sq.km. It is spread over the states of Gujarat,
Maharashtra, Bihar, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.

72°E 76° 80° 84° 88°

28°N
28°N

Ya
m
un
l a
Ga

ba
Luni m
n

a
ga

Ch
AN

Gan
a
tw

g
TH

S a
Be

ILL
AS

IH
AJ

AL BUNDEL Son
R

24°
AV 24°
AR KHAND
ati

hi MALWA PLATEAU
Ma
arm

YA
VINDH
Sab

CHOTA NAGPUR
N GE PLATEAU
Narmada
RA
GIR RANGE RA LA
Tapi SATPU IKA
MA RH
GA
TIS
20° AT Mahanadi
SATMALA CH 20°
HILLS G
oda
vari
S

BA MAHENDRA GIRI
T

LA
A

GH
AT
H
W

Kr R AN
G

ish
GE
E

na
S
T E

16° U
EA 16°
AT
a

PL
dr
R

ha

NA BAY
gb

ARABIAN A
N

NG OF
Tu

SEA LE
Panneru
M

BENGAL
TE
T
N
A L

AS
E R

CO
A B

S T
GH

12°
EL

12°
AT
A R

E A

ND
S

MA

ANNAMALAI
C

HILLS Kaveri
RO

0 100 200 300 400 500

O

CO
A S

Kilometres
CARDAMOM
HILLS
T

I N D I A N O C E A N
8°
8°
72°E 76° 80° 84°

Figure 9.6 The Peninsular plateau of India

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 MODULE - 2 Physiography of India
India: Natural Environ-
ment, Resources and River Narmada divides the peninsular plateau into two parts : The central highlands
Development
and Deccan Plateau

(i) The central Highlands: It extends from Narmada river and the northern plains.
A ravallis is the important mountain which extends from Gujrat through Rajasthan
to Delhi. The highest peak of the Aravallis hills is Gurushikhar (1722m) near
Notes Mt. Abu. The Malwa Plateau and Chhota Nagpur plateau are parts of the central
highlands. River Betwa, chambal and Ken are the important river of Malwa
plateau while Mahadeo, Kaimur and Maikal are the important hills of chhota
Nagpur plateau. The valley of Narmada is lies between the Vindhyas and the
satpura which flows east to west and joins the Arabian sea.
(ii) The Deccan Plateau: The Deccan plateau is separated by a fault (A fracture
in the rock along which rocks have been relatively replaced), from Chota
Nagpur plateau. The black soil area in the Deccan plateau is known as Deccan
trap. It is formed due to volcanic eruptions. This soil is good for cotton &
sugarcane cultivation. The Deccan plateau is broadly divided into:

(a) The Western Ghats

(b) The Eastern Ghats

(a) The Western Ghats: If you look at map (Fig. No. 9.6), we will see the
Western Ghats or Sahyadris lie on the Western edge of the Deccan plateau.
It runs parallel to the western coast for about 1600 km. The average
elevation of the Western Ghats is 1000 metres. The famous peaks in this
area are Doda Betta, Anaimudi amd Makurti. The highest peak in this
region is Anaimudi (2695m.). Western ghats are continuous and can be
crossed through passes like Pal Ghat, Thal Ghot and Bhor Ghat. The rivers
like Godavari, Bhima and Krishna flow eastward while the river Tapti flows
westward. The streams form rapids & water falls before entering the
Arabian Sea. The famous water falls are Jogfalls on Sharavati, Shiva
Samudram falls on Kaveri etc.
(b) The Eastern Ghats: The Eastern Ghats are discontinuous low belt. Their
average elevation is 600 m. They run parallel to the east coast from south
of Mahanadi valley to the Nilgiri hills. The highest peak in this region is
Mahendragiri (1501 m). The famous hills are Mahendragiri hills, Nimaigiri
hills in Orissa, Nallamallai hills in Southern Andhra Pradesh, Kollimalai and
Pachaimalai in Tamilnadu. The area is drained by the Mahanadi, Godawari,
Krishna and Kaveri river systems. The Nilgiri hills join Western & Eastern
Ghats in the south.

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ment, Resources and
Development
ACTIVITY 9.2
Trace five main differences between Western and Eastern Ghats.

1. Continuity
Notes
2. Average Elevation
3. Extent
4. Highest Peak
5. Rivers

4. The Indian Desert

The Indian Desert lies towards the western margin of Aravali Hills. It is also called
Thar Desert. It is the ninth largest desert in the world. It spreads over the states of
Gujarat and Rajasthan. This region has semi-arid and arid weather conditions. It
receives less than 150 mm of rainfall per year. The vegetation cover is low with thorny
bushes. Luni is the main river in this area. All other streams appear only at the time
of rainfall otherwise they disappear into the sand.

Figure 9.7 The Indian Desert

I am Thar ‘The Indian Desert’:

1. I remain dry most of the year. The moisture bearing winds goes parallel to
Aravalli so I receive scanty rainfall.
2. I am pierced by cactus and other thorny bushes on my body.
3. If you are thirsty, you will have to walk several kilometers to reach an oasis
and sinduates (small water body).

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 MODULE - 2 Physiography of India
India: Natural Environ-
ment, Resources and 4. The sand dunes add to the beauty of my desert.
Development
5. My people follow rich cultures and traditions.

5. The Coastal Plains

The coastal plains in India run parallel to the Arabian Sea & Bay of Bengal along
Notes the Peninsular Plateau.The western coastal plain is a narrow belt along the Arabian
sea of about 10-20km wide. It stretches from Rann of Kachchh to KanyaKumari.
Western coastal plains comprises of three sectors (i) Konkan Coast (Mumbai to
Goa), (ii) Karnataka coast from Goa to Mangalore (iii) Malabar Coast (Mangalore
to Kanya Kumari). The eastern coast runs along Bay of Bengal. It is wider than the
western coastal plain. Its average width is about 120Kms. The northern part of the
coast is called Northern Circar and the southern part is called Coromandal Coast.
Eastern coastal plain is marked by Deltas made by the rivers Mahanadi, Godavari,
Krishna amd Kaveri. The Chilka largest salt water lake in India in Odisha is located
to the south of Mahanadi Delta. The coastal plains are belts for growing spices, rice,
coconut, pepper etc. They are centres of trade & commerce. The coastal areas are
known for fishing activities, therefore large number of fishing villages have developed
along the coasts. Vembanad is famous lagoon which is located at Malabar coast.

6. The Islands
India has two main groups of Islands. There are 204 islands in Bay of Bengal called
as Andaman and Nicobar islands and 43 islands in Arabian Sea called as
Lakshadweep islands The Andaman & Nicobar island extend from north to south
in Bay of Bengal. They are bigger in size. An active volcano is located on the Barren
Island in Andaman & Nicobar group of islands. Lakshadweep islands are located
near Malabar coast of Kerala in the Arabian sea. They cover an area of 32 sq km.
Kavarati is the capital of Lakshdweep. These islands are formed by corals and
endowed with variety of flora and fauna. These islands are important tourist attraction
under water activities like snokling, such diving, deep sea diving and other sports
make these island more popular.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 9.4

1. Answer the following questions briefly (not more than two sentences)
(i) How was Deccan Trap formed?
(ii) State any two economic activities of coastal plains.
(iii) Why does Andman and Nicobar Islands attract more tourists?
(iv) Write the names of the rivers which help to form the western plain.

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ment, Resources and
9.4 DRAINAGE SYSTEMS IN INDIA Development
The drainage system refers to the system of flow of surface water mainly through
rivers. An area drained by a river and its tributaries is called a drainage basin. The
drainage system is related to a number of factors like slope of land, geological
structure, amount and velocity of water. A river through its drainage system performs
several tasks. These are excess water removal from a particular area, transportation Notes
of sediments from one place to other, providing natural source for irrigation and
maintaining the water table of a region. Traditionally, rivers were useful as a source
of abundant fresh water and navigation. In today’s world rivers importance has risen
to include hydro power generation and setting up water-based industries. These are
also important tourist attraction for activities such as boating, river rafting and cliff
jumping. Because of their utility, rivers are important for life and hence regarded as
lifeline. Many cities are located along the rivers and are densely populated. Delhi
on the banks of Yamuna, Patna along Ganga, Guwahati along Brahmaputra, Nasik
along Godavari and Cuttack along Mahanadi are some examples (Fig. 9.8). On the
basis of the origin the drainage can be divided in to two parts:
(a) The Himalayan drainage system
(b) The Peninsular drainage system

Tributary: A stream or river that flows into a larger river. e.g. Yamuna
Delta: A triangular shaped land at the mouth of a river formed from the deposition
of silt, sand and small rocks that flow downstream in the river. eg. Ganga delta.
Estuary: A partially enclosed coastal body of water where the salty tidal water
mixes with the fresh water of the river. eg. Narmada river makes an estuary.

9.5 MAJOR DRAINAGES SYSTEMS

As mentioned earlier on the basis of origin, the Indian river have been classified into
two major drainage systems. Let us discuss the comparision between the two
drainage systems.
Himalayan River System
1. They are Perennial rivers originating from glaciers.
2. Rivers form valleys by the process of erosion.
3. The rivers are ideal for irrigation purposes as they pass through plain fertile tracts.
4. These rivers have meandering courses which shift over time.

9.5.1 The Himalayan Drainage System

Most of the Himalayan Rivers are perennial. This means they have water throughout
the year. This is because most of these rivers originate from the glaciers and snowy

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 MODULE - 2 Physiography of India
India: Natural Environ-
ment, Resources and peaks. They also receive water from the rainfall. The main river system in this category
Development are:

1. The Indus River System Jhelum, Ravi, Beas and Satluj

2. The Ganga Rivers System Yamuna, Ramganga, Ghaghara, Gomti,
Gandak and Kosi etc.
Notes
3. The Brahmaputra River System Dibang, Lohit, Tista and Meghna etc.

9.5.2 The Peninsular Drainage System

You have already studied about Peninsular Plateau. Most of the Peninsular rivers flow
eastwards and enters into Bay of Bengal. Only Narmada and Tapi rivers which flow
westwards of the Western Ghats. They are good for generating hydropower because
these rivers form rapids & water falls. The major peninsular rivers are Mahanadi,
Godavari, Krishna and Kaveri.

64° 68° 72° 76° 80° 84° 88° 92°

32°
Ind
us
R.
INDIA
32°
Ch
en
MAJOR RIVERS
ab
R.

R.
m
elu

R.
vi
Jh

28° Ra
.
uj R
Satl

. 28°
u sR
Ind

Ya R.
m
24° un tra
aR pu
. ma
ah
G

R. Br
an

bal
ga

am
R.

Ch Kos
i R. 24°
.
ati R

R.
n
So
arm
Sab

.
iR
ah

20°
M

Hug

Narmada R.
li

Tap
i R.
20°
Ma
han
adi
R.
Godav
ari R.
16°

BAY 16°
ARABIAN Krishna R.
OF
SEA BENGAL

12°

12°
Kave
ri R.

Lakshadweep Andaman & Nicobar Islands

8°

SRI 8°
LANKA
I N D I A N O C E A N
72° 76° 80° 84° 88° 92°

Figure 9.8 Major Rivers of India

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ACTIVITY 9.3
Look at the physical and political maps of India in an atlas. Given below are four
river. Find out the following informaiton and record in the table given below.

Notes
Rivers Main Origin States it Drains into
tributaries passes through
Ganga
Brahmputra
Indus
Satluj
Kaveri
Godavari
Krishna

ACTIVITY 9.4
Look at the Atlas and name all the cities situated along the Ganga and locate on
the physical India map.

9.6 KEEPING RIVERS CLEAN

Do you know that over 97% of all the water on Earth is salty and remaining 3%
is fresh water. This tiny amount has to provide the fresh water needed to support
the entire population of the world. Fresh water is a precious resource and the
increasing pollution of our rivers and lakes is a cause for alarm.
You must have seen a river either flowing through your town, village or elsewhere.
India has a large number of rivers that are lifelines for the millions of people living
along their banks. These rivers can be broadly categorized into four groups:
(i) Rivers that flow down from the Himalayas and are supplied by melting snow
and glaciers. This is why these are perennial, that is, they never dry up during
the year.

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ment, Resources and (ii) The Deccan Plateau rivers, which depend on rainfall for their water.
Development
(iii) The coastal rivers, especially those on the west coast, which are short and do
not retain water throughout the year.
(iv) The rivers in the inland drainage basin of west Rajasthan, which depend on the
rains. These rivers normally drain towards silt lakes or flow into the sand.
Notes Rivers have been given the pride of place in the way of life. Several cities as
well as holy shrines are on the banks of rivers, and indeed, rivers such as the Ganga
and the Yamuna are sacred to millions. Despite this, they are being polluted with
unaccountable and environmentally threatening practices. Only sewage claims for
about 70 percent pollution loads in Indian rivers. Heavy loads of biological and
chemical pollutants usually enter waterways to be consumed in some manner by the
downstream users. This affects the aquatic life and causes various health hazards.
Along with the pollutants, the insensitivity of people towards rivers is severely adding
to the problem. Urban dwellers identify vaguely with rivers. An example can be the
highly contaminated blackish water of Yamuna river in New Delhi which hardly draws
attention from capital’s citizens.
Since, water issues are assigned to provincial governments in India, each one of them
treats a river as its own, with little or no regard to the downstream effects. Ecologists
and conservationists have long demanded that rivers need to be treated as one entity
and work on a determined, time-specific combination of serious efforts. This could
lead to an improvement of water quality of the rivers. The government has come
up with ambitious river cleaning initiatives such as the Ganga Action Plan (GAP) and
the National River Conservation Plan (NRCP) in the hope of improving water quality.
Water harvesting is gaining popularity across the country, through which monsoon
waters could be retained in the river basins. Several civic organizations and people
movements are also contributing in raising awareness and sensitivity about the critical
condition of polluted rivers.

ACTIVITY 9.5
1. Find out the river or natural water source in your locality. Observe the kind of
activities that are happening there.
2. What kinds of human activities are causing damage to river systems?
3. Write a letter to the local authority suggesting what you and your friends like to
do to stop pollution. Also mention in the letter what help would you like to have
form them.
4. Organise a meeting with your friends to discuss what can be done to prevent
the negative effects of the human activities
There could be many ways of stopping pollution. Suggests the ways to check
the water pollution.

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INTEXT QUESTION 9.5
Answer the following question:
1. Mention the name of two tributaries joining Ganga from the north.
2. Which lake is located near Mahanadi? Notes

3. Write the names of the states drained by river Godavari.

4. Which river is tributary of Tunghabhadra?

WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT

l India is located between 8°4’ North and 37°6’ North lalitudes and 68°7’ East
and 97°25’ longitudes. India has land boundaries of 15,200 km and 6100km
long coast line. India’s landmass covers 3.28 million square kilometer of area.
l India can be divided into mainly six physical divisions: the Northern mountain,
The Northern Plain, the Peninsular Plateau, the Indian desert and the coastal
plains and Islands.
l The Himalayas may be divided into three parallel ranges: Greater Himalayas or
Himadari,Lesser Himalayas or Himachal and Outer Himalayas or Siwaliks.
l The northern plain spreads mainly in the states of Punjab, Haryana, Uttar
Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal. The soil here is rich in nutrients and hence good
for cultivation of varieties of crops.
l The Peninsular plateau stretches from the Aravali range till the southern tip of
India. It is a table land made of old and metamorphosed rocks.
l The Great Indian Desert spreads over the states of Gujarat and Rajasthan. This
region has semi-arid and arid weather conditions.
l The coastal plains in India run parallel to the Arabian sea & Bay of Bengal. They
are called Western coastal plains and the Eastern coastal plains.
l India has two main groups of Islands. There are 204 islands in Bay of Bengal
called the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and 43 islands in Arabian Sea i.e
Lakshadweep islands.
l Indian River System can be divided into two main categories: The Himalayan
Drainage System and The Peninsular Drainage System. The three main rivers
in Himalayan system are the Indus, Ganga, The Brahmaputra. The main
Peninsular rivers are Narmada, Tapi, Godavari, Krishna , Kaveri and Mahanadi.

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TERMINAL EXERCISES
1. Explain the location and extends of India.
2. Dercribe any three characteristics of the Indian Desert.
Notes
3. Explain any two paints each about the three parallel ranges of Himalayas.
4. Differentiate between Himalayan and Peninsular drainge system by giving any four
differences in each.
5. Give reasons:-
(i) Northern plans have fertile alluvial soil.
(ii) Indian desert has very less vegetation cover.

Project:
l Create a guidebook for visitors to your home region
1. It should describe your region’s unique physical and human characteristics.
2. List elements of the physical landscape, such as climate, landforms, plants,
animals, and elements of the human landscape, such as work opportunities,
economic activities, recreational activities, regional language, and foods.
3. The guidebook should include pictures/ drawings and should feature the
things that you feel are special about your locality.

ANSWERS TO INTEXT QUESTIONS

9.1
1. (i) Bangladesh, Myanmmar.
(ii) Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea.
(iii) Sri Lanka.
(iv) Pakistan, Bhutan.

9.2
1. (i) Kerala, Tamil Nadu.
(ii) Jammu and Kashmir, Arunachal Pradesh.
(iii) Nepal, Bhutan.
(iv) Daman and Diu, Dadar Nagar Haveli.

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9.3 ment, Resources and
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1. the Himadari The Himachal, and Siwalik.
2. A. Jammu and Kashmir.
B. (a) No
(b) No
Notes
(c) Yes
3. India, Nepal, Bhutan.
4. Patkoi, Mizo hills

9.4
1. (i) Due to volcanic erruption.
(ii) (i) Agriculture (ii) fishing (iii) trade and commerce (any two)
(iii) Because Islands have developed attractive tourist activities of under water
and water sports.
(iv) Satluj, Beas, Ravi

9.5
1. Gandak, Kosi.
2. Chilka.
3. Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh and Chattisgarh.
4. Krishna.

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10
Notes

CLIMATE

Mona and Raju were excited about proposed first trip to a hill station, Shimla with
their parents. While they were packing their clothes, their mother asked them to pack
some woolen clothes also. They reside in Chennai, a city and capital of Tamil Nadu,
a state in South India. They were really surprised as it was the month of May and
it’s very hot in Chennai. Their mother told that although India has monsoon climate
but in Shimla, it being a hill station the weather was cool. They were little confused
with a few questions in their mind like - what is weather? What is the difference
between the weather and the climate? Why do we find different climatic conditions
in India? You will find the answers to such questions in the following lesson.

OBJECTIVES
After completing this lesson, you will be able to:

 list the factors that influence the climate of India;

 explain the mechanism of monsoon and its various characteristics;
 recognize the cyclic system of seasons along with their unique features;
 describe the distribution of rainfall in India;
 analyse how our social and cultural life is deeply associated with the cycle of
seasons; and
 describe the global environmental changes and its impact on Indian climate.

10.1 FACTORS AFFECTING THE CLIMATE OF INDIA

When Mona and Raju were in the train along with their parents they asked the
questions to their parents about the difference between the weather and climate. One
of the fellow passengers was a teacher, Mrs. Rupa and she explained that climate

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is always for a large area like a country or a big region and generally it does not ment, Resources and
Development
change, like India has monsoon climate whereas weather is always for a smaller
area like that of your city or village where it may frequently change like raining in
the morning and sunny in the afternoon. Mrs. Rupa asked them to observe the
changes in the weather conditions along the way to Shimla. They realized the changes:
it was hot and humid weather in the southern regions and slowly it became hot and Notes
dry in the northern plains; and they felt cool on their way when they were close to
Shimla. They asked the teacher the reason for it and she explained that there are
many factors which affect the climate or weather.

Climate refers to the sum total of weather conditions and variations over large
area for a long period of time (more than 30 years).Weather is state of
atmosphere over an area at any point of time. Similarly weather conditions which
last for longer duration are responsible for making a season.

10.1.1 Factors Affecting the Climate of India

1. Location: The places which are closer to equator have high temperature. As
one moves towards the poles temperature decreases. As our country, India is
located in Northern hemisphere closer to equator at 8°4¢ and 23½° Tropic of
Cancer passes through the central part of India. So in south of this latitude we
find tropical climate and towards the north we find sub-tropical climate. For
example, Andhra Pradesh would be hotter than Haryana. Broadly speaking parts
lying south of the Tropic of Cancer receive more solar heat than those lying north
of it.
2. Distance from the sea: The southern half of India is surrounded by sea from
three sides: the Arabian Sea in the west, the Bay of Bengal in the east and the
Indian Ocean in the south. Due to moderating influence of the sea this region
is neither hot in summer nor very cold in winter. For example the area of North
India which is far away from the sea has extreme type of climate and the area
of south India which is nearer to the sea has equable type of climate. We can
see the variations in temperature and rainfall at different stations in the given
table 10.1.
3. Altitude: It means the height above the average sea level. The atmosphere
becomes less dense and we feel breathlessness as we go higher from the earth
surface and thus the temperature also decreases with the height. For example,
the cities located on the hills are cooler like Shimla whereas the cities lying in
the plains will have hot climate like Ludhiana.

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ment, Resources and 4. Mountain Ranges: Mountain ranges also affect the climate of any region to
Development
a great extent. The Himalaya Mountain is located in the northern part of our
country with an average height of 6000m. It protects our country from cold winds
of Central Asia. On the other hand, they check rain bearing South-West Monsoon
winds and compel them to shed their moisture in India. Similarly, Western Ghats
force rain bearing winds to cause heavy rain fall on the Western slopes of the
Notes
Western Ghats.
5. Direction of surface winds: The wind system also affects the Indian climate.
This system consists of monsoon winds, land and sea breeze, and local winds.
In winter the winds blow from land to sea so they are cold and dry. On the other
hand, in summer wind blow from sea to land bringing the moisture along with
them from the sea and they cause wide spread rain in most part of the country.
6. Upper air Currents: Besides surface winds, there are strong air currents called
Jet streams which also influence the climate of India. These jet streams are a
narrow belt of fast blowing winds located generally at 12,000 metre height above
the sea level. They bring western cyclonic disturbances along with them. These
cyclonic winds originate near the Mediterranean Sea and move eastwards. On
their way, they collect moisture from Persian Gulf and shed it in the North western
part of India during winter seasons. These Jet streams shift northwards during
summer season and blow in Central Asia. Thus helps in the onset of monsoons.

ACTIVITY 10.1
Temperature (T) and Rainfall (R) of some important stations

Stations Month

J F M A M J J A S O N D

Leh T –8 –7 –1 9 10 14 17 17 12 6 0 –6

R 10 8 8 5 5 5 13 13 8 5 0 5

Chennai T 25 26 28 31 33 33 31 31 30 20 26 25

R 4 13 13 18 38 45 87 113 119 306 350 135

(i) Write annual range of temperature between two places.

(ii) Which is the rainiest month of the year in each stations?

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64° 68° 72° 76° 80° 84° 88° 92° ment, Resources and
Development
32°
MAP FOR INTEXT QUESTIONS
32°

28°

iv(b)
(c) 28° Notes
24°

24°

20°

(a)
20°

16°
Winter Monsoon
16°

Arabian Bay of Bengal

12° Sea
ii(b)
12°

Andaman & Nicobar Islands

8° Lakshadweep
8°
200 0 200 400
Kilometres
72° 76° 84° 88° 92°

Figure 10.1

INTEXT QUESTIONS 10.1

Look at the map given above and answer the following questions:
(a) Name the important latitude drawn on the map which has divided India in two
heat zones. Also tell the degree of that latitude.
(b) Name the cities located on map which are influenced by the sea and cities which
are not influenced by the sea.
(c) Which mountain range protects our country from cold breeze of Central Asia?
(d) Observe the wind direction given on the map and tell why do we have dry winter
season?
Mona and Raju returned from Shimla after five days stay. They were very happy
and shared their experience with their friends. Few days later they were surprised
to see a news headline that monsoons are coming on time. What is the meaning of

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ment, Resources and monsoon? They wanted to know the answers of their questions with the help of their
Development teacher. Try to find out answers in the following section.

10.2 MECHANISM OF MONSOON

The word monsoon is derived from the Arabic word ‘Mausim’ which means season.
Notes Monsoon refers to the seasonal reversal in the wind direction during a year. During
summer, the interior parts of North Indian Plains covering Rajasthan, Punjab,
Haryana, and Western Uttar Pradesh are intensely hot. The daily maximum
temperature in some of these parts is as high as 45° to 47° C. Table 10.1 given
below indicates the climatic diversity in India. Try to understand the varying
temperature that different stations in India have.

Table 10.1: Temperature (in ° Celcius) and Rainfall (in cm) of some
important stations in India

STATIONS MONTHS
J F M A M J J A S O N D
LEH Temp. -8 -7 -1 9 10 14 17 17 12 6 0 -6
Rainfall 10 8 8 5 5 5 13 13 8 5 0 5
SHILLONG Temp. 10 11 16 19 19 21 21 21 20 17 13 10
Rainfall 14 29 56 146 295 476 359 343 302 188 36 10
DELHI Temp 14 17 23 29 34 35 31 30 29 21 20 15
Rainfall 21 24 13 10 10 68 186 170 125 14 2 9
JAISALMER Temp 16 20 25 30 33 34 32 31 30 28 22 17
Rainfall 0.2 0.1 0.3 0.1 0.5 0.7 0.9 86 14 01 0.5 0.2
MUMBAI Temp 24 24 24 28 30 29 27 27 27 28 27 25
Rainfall 4 2 2 2 18 465 613 329 286 65 18 2
CHENNAI Temp 25 26 28 31 33 33 31 31 30 28 26 25
Rainfall 4 13 13 18 38 45 87 113 119 306 350 135
THIRUVANA Temp 27 27 28 29 29 27 26 26 27 27 27 27
NTHAPURAM Rainfall 23 21 39 106 208 356 223 146 138 273 206 75

 Air has weight and this weight exerts pressure on us, which is known as air
pressure.
 There is an inverse relationship between temperature and air pressure, i.e. if
the temperature of any area is high then the air pressure will be low and vice-
versa.
 Difference in the air pressure is responsible for the attraction of the winds.

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The average maximum temperature is above 33°C in the month of May at Delhi and ment, Resources and
Jodhpur. Such high temperature heats up the air of that region. Hot air rises, low Development
pressure area is created under it. This low pressure is also known as monsoonal
trough. It lies between Jaisalmer in the west and Balasore in Odisha in the East.

64° 68° 72° 76° 80° 84° 88° 92°

Notes
32° INDIA

TEMPERATURE OF MAY 32°

28°

28°

Low Pressure Trough

24°

24°
46°C

45°C
20°

20°
42°C

16°

Arabian Bay of Bengal 16°

Sea
38°C
12°

12°

Andaman & Nicobar Islands

8° Lakshadweep
8°
200 0 200 400
Kilometres
72° 76° 84° 88° 92°

Figure 10.2 Temperature of May

On the other hand temperature over Indian Ocean is relatively low, as water needs
more time to get heated as compared to land. So a relatively high pressure region
is created over the sea. See the map 10.2 given above and try to understand the
given phenomenon.
Thus, there is a difference of temperature and resultant pressure over North Central
Indian Plains and Indian Ocean. Due to this difference, air from high pressure region
of the sea starts moving towards the low pressure region of North India. Thus, by
mid June the general movement of air is from equatorial region of Indian Ocean to
the Indian subcontinent and the direction of these winds in general is from South-
West to North-East. This direction is exactly opposite to that of the trade winds
(North – East to South-West) prevailing during winter in India. This complete reversal

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ment, Resources and of wind direction from North-East to South West and vice-versa is known as
Development monsoons.

64° 68° 72° 76° 80° 84° 88° 92°

32° INDIA
ADVANCING SOUTH-WEST MONSOON
Notes
32°
AND TEMPERATURE OF JUNE

28°

28°

24°
10
Ju
ne 24°

20° 46°
C

45°C 20°

42°C
16°
ne
Ju
10

16°
Arabian Bay of Bengal
Sea
38°C
12°
ne
Ju
5

ne

12°
Ju
5

Andaman & Nicobar Islands

8° Lakshadweep
ne

8°
Ju

200 0 200 400

1

Kilometres
72° 76° 84° 88° 92°

Figure 10.3 Temperature of June

These winds originate over warm seas. Therefore, they contain a lot of moisture.
When these moisture laden winds move over the Indian sub-continent they cause
wide spread rain throughout India and from June to September 80% to 90% of the
total rainfall in India is confined to these four months only.

10.2.1 Characteristics of the Monsoon

1. Monsoons are not steady winds. They are irregular in nature affected by different
atmospheric conditions i.e. due to regional climatic conditions. Sometimes
monsoon early or some times late.
2. Monsoons are not equally distributed. Coastal areas like Kerala West Bengal
and Odisha receive heavy rain fall, whereas interior regions like Haryana, Madhya
Pradesh, receive less rainfall.

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3. When monsoon arrives, it gives heavy rainfall which continues for several days. ment, Resources and
This is known as ‘burst of monsoon’. This occurs mainly at Kerala coast where Development
it reaches first.

ACTIVITY 10.2 Notes

Observe the picture and answer the following questions:

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 10.4

1. Identify the seasons in the given pictures (a), (b) and (c).
2. Arrange them on the basis of their occurrence.
3. Which season you like the most and why? Write answer in about 30 words.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 10.2

Look at maps (Fig. 10.2, Fig. 10.3) of advancing monsoon and answer the following
questions:
1. Name the states which lie within the low pressure regions.
2. As the monsoon winds are coming from south-west which state they will strike
first.
3. When the monsoon winds reach the Bay of Bengal, what is their direction?
4. Observe the rainfall data of the following cities and find out the average duration
of monsoon in four cities. Name of the cities are:
(a) Mumbai (c) Delhi
(b) Jaisalmer (d) Shillong
A few months later Mona and Raju’s father was transferred to Delhi. They were
excited to live in the capital of India. They shifted to Delhi. New home, new school,
new friends and new environment and everything was new for them. They realized

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India: Natural Environ-
ment, Resources and that now they were going to see the real changes of the seasons which they had read
Development in their book. Try to discover the various seasons and how they happen in the
following section.

10.3 CYCLE OF SEASONS

Notes Our country, India, enjoys variety of seasons due to geographical locations. Now
you will know about the seasons of India and their unique features. We have four
seasons:
(a) Cold weather season (December – February)
(b) Hot weather season (March – May)
(c) Advancing South – West monsoon season (June – September)
(d) Post or retreating monsoon season (October – November).
You will know more about each of them in the following section.
(a) Cold Weather Season: The duration of cold weather season is from December
to February. The temperature decreases from the South to the North. December

64° 68° 72° 76° 80° 84° 88° 92°

32° INDIA
COLD WEATHER SEASON
32°
MEAN TEMPERATURE OF JANUARY

°C
28° 12.5

28°
C
15°

24°
High Pressure
17°C 24°

20°

20°

22.5°C
16°

16°

Arabian Bay of Bengal

12° Sea

12°

27°
C Andaman & Nicobar Islands
8° Lakshadweep
8°
200 0 200 400
Kilometres
72° 76° 84° 88° 92°

Figure 10.5 Mean Temperature of January

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64° 68° 72° 76° 80° 84° 88° 92° ment, Resources and
Development
32° We INDIA
stern C
yclo
nic
COLD WEATHER WINDS OF
32°
Dist
urba JANUARY MONTH
nce

28°

28° Notes
24°

24°

20°

20°

16°

16°

Arabian Bay of Bengal

12° Sea

12°

Andaman & Nicobar Islands

8° Lakshadweep
8°
200 0 200 400
Kilometres
72° 76° 84° 88° 92°

Figure 10.6 Direction of winds in January

and January are the coldest months and the average temperature in North is
(12° to 15°C) and in South (25°C). Frost is common in the North and North-
West India. There is light rainfall in this region due to Western disturbances.
Higher slopes of the Himalayas experience snowfall. During the winter season,
North-East trade winds prevail over India. They blow from land to sea. Hence,
for most part of the country, it is a dry season. However, the Tamil Nadu coast
receives winter rainfall due to these winds. A part of North-East trade winds
blow over Bay of Bengal. They gather moisture which causes rainfall in the
coastal Tamilnadu while the rest of the country remains dry. In the northern part
of the country the weather is marked by clear sky, low temperatures and low
humidity. The winter rainfall is very important for the cultivation of ‘Rabi’ crops.
(b) Hot Weather Season: By the end of February the temperature starts rising.
So from March to May it is hot weather season. We find high temperature in
plains, western part of India and in the central part of peninsular India. In
Northern plains, thus, an elongated low pressure which is called monsoonal
trough created here, which extends from Jaisalmer in western Rajasthan to
Jharkhand and parts of Odisha to the East. However, over Indian Ocean south

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ment, Resources and of the equator high pressure belt begins to develop in this season. In North-
Development West India, afternoon dust storms are common. During summer, very hot and
dry winds blow over North Indian plains. They are locally called ‘Loo’.
Exposure to theses hot winds may cause heat or sun stroke. This is also the
season for localized thunderstorms, associated with violent winds, torrential
downpours, often accompanied by hail. In West Bengal, these storms are known
Notes as the ‘Kaal Baisakhi’ (calamity for the month of Baisakh). Towards the close
of the summer season, pre-monsoon showers are common, especially in Kerala
and Karnataka. They help in the early ripening of mangoes, and are often
referred to as ‘mango showers’.
(c) Advancing South West Monsoon Season: After the scorching heat of
summer season people eagerly wait for the rains which can give them relief.
Farmers wait for the rains so that they can prepare their fields for the next
cropping season Kharif. June to September are the months of advancing South-
West monsoon season. By the end of May the monsoon trough further intensifies
over north India due to high temperature in the region. The General direction
of the wind during this season is from South-West to north-east. These winds

64° 68° 72° 76° 80° 84° 88° 92°

32° INDIA

ADVANCING MONSOON 32°

28°

28°

24°

24°
10
Ju
ne
20°

20°
ne

16°
Ju
10

16°
Arabian Sea
Branch
ne

12° Bay of Bengal

Ju

Branch
5

ne

12°
Ju
5

Andaman & Nicobar Islands

8° Lakshadweep
8°
200 0 200 400
ne
Ju

Kilometres
1

72° 76° 84° 88° 92°

Figure 10.7 Advancing Monsoon of India

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are strong and blow at an average velocity of 30 km per hour. These moisture ment, Resources and
laden winds first hit at Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the last week of May Development
and Kerala coast in the first week of June with violent thunder and lightning.This
South-West monsoon that flows in to India brings about a major change in its
weather. Two branches of south-west monsoon originate from: (i) Arabian Sea
and (ii) Bay of Bengal.
Notes
The Arabian Sea Branch obstructed by Western Ghats gives heavy rainfall on the
Western side of Western Ghats. It reaches Mumbai by 10th June (See Fig. 10.7).
When this branch crosses the Western Ghats and reaches the Deccan Plateau and
parts of Madhya Pradesh, it gives less rainfall as it is a rain shadow region. Further,
this branch reaches in Northern Plain by 20th June.
The monsoon winds that move from Bay of Bengal strike Andaman and Nicobar
islands North-Eastern states and coastal areas of West Bengal and covers the whole
of India by the 15th of july. They cause heavy rainfall in the region. However, quantity
of rainfall decreases as they move towards West over the Northern plains. For
examples rainfall at Kolkata is 120 cm, Allahabad 91 cm and Delhi 56cm.You must
have seen that rainfall does not continue for several days. The monsoon tends to
have ‘breaks’ in its rainfall which causes wet and dry spells. This means that monsoon
rains occur only a few days at a time. Rainless dry spells occur in between. As the
monsoon comes after the hot and dry summer season, the rainfall brings down the
temperature. We can see this decline is from 5°C to 8°C between mid June and
mid July. This is the time when many parts of India face floods also. This is mainly
because of heavy rainfall and our inability to manage our water resources more
systematically. On the other hand there are many areas that experience drought
conditions during this season.

ACTIVITY 10.3
Collect the information from the newspapers and other sources and find out which
parts of India are regularly affected by the floods and droughts. Also paste the
newspaper cuttings as a sample. Identify name the reasons and collect the information
about the most recent.
(d) Retreating or Post Monsoon Season: October and November are the
months of post (or retreating) monsoon season. The temperatures during
September-October start decreasing in north India. Monsoonal trough also
becomes weak over North-West India. This is gradually replaced by a high
pressure system. The South-West monsoon winds weaken and start withdrawing
gradually from North Indian Plains by November. In October the weather
remains humid and warm due to continuing high temperature and moist land in

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ment, Resources and month of October. In Northern plains hot and humid weather becomes
Development oppressive at this time. It is commonly called ‘October Heat’. However,
towards the end of October, temperature starts decreasing, making nights
pleasant. This is also the time of cyclonic storms which develop in the Bay of
Bengal as the low pressure of North India shifts to this area. These storms create
havoc in coastal areas of Odisha, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu, especially
Notes in the deltas of Mahanadi, Godavari and Krishna rivers.

64° 68° 72° 76° 80° 84° 88° 92°

32° INDIA

RETREATING MONSOON 32°

28°

28°
r
be
em

24°
pt
Se
15

24°

20°

er
tob 20°
Oc
15

16°

16°
e r
Arabian mb Bay of Bengal
Sea ove
N
1
12°
r
be
m 12°
ove
N
15

Andaman & Nicobar Islands

8° Lakshadweep
8°
200 0 200 400
Kilometres
72° 76° 84° 88° 92°

Figure 10.8 Retreating Monsoon

INTEXT QUESTIONS 10.3

Choose the correct answer:
(i) The hot and dry wind blowing in the northern plain in the summer are called—
(a) Kaal Baisakhi (c) Trade winds
(b) Loo (d) All of the above

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(ii) Which mountain range acts as a barrier in the path of the Arabian Sea branch? ment, Resources and
Development
(a) Aravallis (c) Western Ghats
(b) Eastern Ghats (d) Raj Mahal hills
(iii) The tropical cyclones of the Bay of Bengal usually occurs during
(a) South-west monsoon (c) Retreating monsoon season Notes
(b) Hot weather season (d) Cold weather season
(iv) Which place would be the hottest one in March?
(a) Delhi (c) Deccan Plateau
(b) Shillong (d) Punjab
(v) Monsoons are called ........................
(a) Seasonal winds (c) Permanent winds
(b) Temporary winds (d) Local winds
Seasons, its cycle, causes and effects were now clear to Mona and Raju. Only one
question remained unanswered. If the monsoons came in a particular area for certain
duration so it means the rainfall distribution in India was uneven? Try to find the answer
with the help of Rainfall distribution map.

10.4 DISTRIBUTION OF RAINFALL

Rainfall in India is highly uneven over a period of time in a year. As we move
from East to West in Northern plains, we observe that in central India rainfall
decreases. In peninsular region, India’s rainfall decreases from coast to interior
parts. In North-East India, the rainfall increases with altitude. India is the unique
example of rainfall distribution with marked contrasts. Both, one of the rainiest
and driest places of the world are located in India itself. Can you think why?
Spatial variations in rainfall in India can be shown under the following headings.
Observe the given map and find out the states under the given categories –
(a) Areas of heavy rainfall (more than 200cm): Maximum rainfall in India occurs
in the western coast, sub Himalayan regions of north-east and Garo, Khasi and
Jaintia hills of Meghalaya.
(b) Area of Moderate rainfall (100-200cm): Areas receiving 100 to 200cm rainfall
in India include some parts of the Western Ghats, West Bengal, Odisha and
Bihar and many states.
(c) Areas of Low rainfall (60 to 100cm): This is the region of low rainfall, which
includes parts of Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, interier deccan plateau.
(d) Areas of Inadequate rainfall (Less than 60cm): This is region of scanty rainfall.
The western part of Rajasthan and Gujarat, Laddakh and south central part
receives a rainfall of less than 20cm.

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ACTIVITY 10.4
List out the festivals of India in the table given below. Also find out which season
is economically significant in your area and why?

Notes List of the Areas where Date and Season Economically

festivals celebrated month Significant

Do you see co-relation between seasons of festivals and harvest seasons. Please
provide one reason.

INDIA
ANNUAL RAINFALL

Arabian Bay of Bengal

Sea
RAINFALL IN (cm)
Above 200
100 - 200
60 - 100
Below 60

200 0 200 400

Kilometres

Figure 10.9 Annual Rainfall of India

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10.5 SOCIO-CULTURAL LIFE Development
You are now well aware about the cycle of seasons but a second thought comes
to our mind what do the relationship between the seasons and our life? Are they
so important that they affect our life? The answer is ‘yes’. They do affect our social
and cultural life. As India is an agricultural country the main economic activity of
agriculture is totally dependent on the cycle of seasons. The time of Kharif crop Notes
is advancing monsoon season and harvesting is post monsoon season. Rabi crop
is grown in winter and zaid crop is at the end of winter season. Floods and droughts
are hindrances in the economic growth of the nation as our economy is agro based
economy.
All our activities are related with the seasons. As winter season comes the days
become shorter and we start purchasing woolen clothes. Groundnuts, almonds and
calorie rich food become very important in our diet. In spite of cold weather people
celebrate many festivals like Makar Sankranti in many states, Lohri in Punjabi and
Pongal in Tamil Nadu in the month of January. Basant Panchami is also celebrated
in the month of February in which people pray for good harvest.Summer season is
very dry but it reminds us of juicy fruits, ice creams and variety of drinks. What are
the fruits available in this season? Holi and Baisakhi are the main festivals of the
season.By the end of summer farmers start preparing their fields so that they can
welcome the rains. This is the time when people of Kerala celebrate Onam which
coincide with their harvest season. Post Monsoon is the harvesting time. It is also
a festival time of Dushera, Durga Pooja and Diwali which are celebrated all over
India.

10.6 GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGES AND ITS

IMPACT ON INDIAN CLIMATE
After studying this lesson you must have understood that India is fortunate to have
four clear seasons’ summer, winter, spring and monsoon. However, these days one
can notice disturbance in the cycle of seasons. This is due to global warming which
is a burning topic of today’s world. It has a significant political, social and economic
impact that may affect almost every aspect of our lives and lifestyles. The global
warming has a serious impact on world’s climate and India cannot escape it. Don’t
you think that it is important for everybody to know about it and think how each
one of us can contribute in reducing its extent?
Let us understand what is global warming. During the last decades of urbanization,
industrialization and population growth the atmosphere has been polluted. Human
activities increase the amount of carbon dioxide, Chloro Floro Carbon (CFC) and
other dangerous gases. About 51% of the solar energy is absorbed by the earth’s
surface, which increases its temperature. The rest of the heat is reflected back in
to the atmosphere. This helped in maintaining temperature. But now due to pollution
some of the reflected heat is trapped by green house gases (GHGs), mainly carbon

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ment, Resources and dioxide. It has increased the temperature of the Earth’s surface. There is evidence
Development to show that CO2 levels are still increasing. Many countries have signed a convention
to reduce GHGs under the U.N. framework. However, the current international
agreements are still not effective enough to prevent the significant changes in climate.
We already know that 70% of Indians are working in agriculture sector. Any change
Notes in temperature will have an adverse effect on agriculture. This will have a serious
social and economic impact on India. After reading the chapter we can clearly see
that climate plays a very important role in Human life. Our food, our festivals, and
our economy everything is closely linked with the cycle of seasons. If the seasons
are favourable, human life will be good and comfortable. Since the state of the
weather affects agriculture, health, transportation etc it is important that all of us make
some change in our lifestyle to reduce CFC and other harmful gases.

ACTIVITY 10.5
Keep a diary of events about natural calamities such as earthquakes, cyclones and
geographical events. Record them with name of the event, date and their impact.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 10.4

1. Why do we find the rainfall distribution in India highly uneven?
2. Name the three regions of India receiving lowest rainfall.
3. Name the months of Kharif and Rabi season.
4. When do we have the zaid season?
5. Which human activities are responsible for global warming?

WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT

 Climate of India is affected by many factors like location, distance from the sea,
altitude, mountain ranges, direction of surface winds and upper air currents.
 India has a special system of reversal of winds which is known as monsoon and
it comes with a system.
 India has a cyclic system of season and it has four main seasons. They are winter,
summer, advancing monsoon and retreating monsoon.
 Seasons play an important role in our day to day life and affect our activities
and eating habits.
 Global warming influences Indian climate also.

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TERMINAL EXERCISES
1. Describe any five factors which are responsible for affecting the climate? Explain
with the help of examples for each factor.
2. Differentiate between climate and weather. Notes
3. How are winds and their directions responsible for affecting the climate? Explain
by giving examples.
4. Define monsoon. Identify the main reason which is responsible for moving trade
winds in opposite direction?
5. Mention any four characteristics of cold weather season.
6. List any four main features of hot weather season?
7. By giving examples explain the effects of the global warming in India. What are
the causes behind it?

ANSWERS TO INTEXT QUESTIONS

10.1
(a) Tropic of cancer, 23½° N
(b)
Incluenced by sea
(i) Mumbai
(ii) Chennai
Not incluenced by sea
(iii) Lucknow
(iv) Delhi
(c) Himalayan Mountain Ranges
(d) Winds are coming from North-East. Since they are coming from land, they are
dry and unable to give rain to the country.

10.2
1. Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, West Bengal,
Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh and parts of Odisha.
2. Kerala.

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Development
4. (a) Mumbai: 4 months (c) Delhi: 4 months
(b) Nagpur: 4 months (d) Shillong: 6 months

10.3
Notes
1. (i) (b) Loo
(ii) (c) Western Ghats
(iii) (c) Retreating monsson season
(iv) (c) Deccan Plateau
(v) (a) Seasonal Winds

10.4
1. When monsoon winds enter from the coast, they give the maximum rain there.
When they reach the central or northern regions, they become dry, resulting less
rainfall.
2. Regions of low rainfall –
1. Northern leh-ladakh region
2. Western Rajasthan
3. South-Central part
3. Kharif – June and July Rabi – October and November
4. From the end of the winter season i.e. March to May.
5. Urbanization, Industrialization, Deforestation, burning of fossil fuels, etc.

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11
Notes

BIO-DIVERSITY

You must have seen variety of grass, plants, bushes, trees, insects, birds, animals
or beautiful landscape around you. We rely on this diversity of plants and animals
to provide us food, fuel, medicine and other essentials without which we cannot live.
These species are the product of more than four billion years of evolution. This rich
bio diversity is being lost at an alarming rate largely because of human activities.
However, there are many things that each one of us can contribute in preserving these
species, plants, animals and other living organisms. There are lots of things which
you can help in saving these precious diversities. It is very important for us to know
about diversity of plants, animals and micro-organisms. In this lesson, we will learn
about some of these plants, animals, their importance and distribution in India and
need for their conservation.

OBJECTIVES
After studying this lesson you will be able to:
l explain the concept of bio-diversity;
l explain the status of bio-diversity in India;
l establish the significance of biodiversity;
l describe natural vegetation and wildlife in India;
l locate forests, wildlife sanctuaries, national parks, biosphere reserves and
wetlands in an outline map of India; and
l recognise our role in conserving natural vegetation and wildlife in our region.

11.1 BIO-DIVERSITY
Biodiversity is a short form of biological diversity. In simple terms biodiversity is the
total number of genes, species and ecosystems of a region. It includes (i) genetic

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ment, Resources and diversity, (ii) species diversity and (iii) ecosystem diversity. Plants and animals
Development
constitute only a small component of biodiversity. Do you know that the invisible
micro-organisms constitute a large component of bio-diversity.

Notes

Figure 11.1 Biodiversity

Genes: The basic biological unit of heredity. Genes of an individual belonging

to the same species are similar and genes control the characteristics of particular
species.
Species: A group of very similar having some common characteristics or qualities
and capable of interbreeding.
Ecosystem – Any segment of the landscape that includes biotic (living) and abiotic
(non-living) components is known as ecosystem.

11.1.1 Status of biodiversity in India

Biodiversity increases as we move from the poles towards the equator. India is
located between 8°4′ North and 37°6′ North latitudes and 68°7′ East and 97°25′
East longitude. Due to this position India has such rich biodiversity. Although India

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has only 2.42% of the world’s land area but its contribution to the world’s biodiversity ment, Resources and
Development
is approximately 8% of the total number of species which is estimated to be 1.75
million (As per Global Biodiversity Assessment of UNEP of 1995). 6% of the world
species are found in India. 45000 plants species comprising about 12 % of world’s
flora are found in Indian forests. Two of the twelve biodiversity hotspots in the world
are in India. They are the North-Eastern region and the Western Ghats. Notes

l A biodiversity hotspot is a region with a high level of endemic species.

Endemic species are those species that are found in a certain limited area.

l Mega biodiversity: A unique combinations of different plants and animal

species which is not available anywhere else.

11.2 SIGNIFICANCE OF BIODIVERSITY

Biodiversity is fundamental to the existence of life on the earth. Its significance cannot
be underestimated. There are varieties of living things that exist in a given physical
environment. These are interdependent and interrelated in the form of an ecosystem.
Do you know that plants occur in distinct groups of communities in areas having
similar climatic conditions? The nature of vegetation in any area determines the animal
life. When the vegetation of a place is altered, animal life also changes and
simultaneously it affects mankind. Loss of any component in the system adversely
affects other components of the system. We are an integral part of the ecosystem.
By cutting trees and killing animals, human beings lead to ecological imbalance. How
does the ecosystem get influenced by human beings? Collect some articles from the
newspaper and magazines which will help you in understanding human impact on
ecosystem. We must understand that all plants and animals in an area are
interdependent and interrelated in their physical environment? Ecosystem is extremely
valuable in different facets of human life which includes the following:

l Providing food, water, fiber, fuel etc.

l Regulating of climate and disease (For example: people are suffering from cold
and cough in winters and stomach infections in monsoon etc.

11.2.1 Causes of Loss of Biodiversity

Increasing population and changing lifestyle leads to extenssive commercial exploitation
of the natural resources. This results in loss of biodiversity. Consequently it is
adversely affecting the ability of the nature to continue delivering the goods and
services for human existence. The loss of biodiversity affects not only the physical
environment but also the social, cultural, religious and spiritual well being of human
life.
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Notes

Figure 11.2 Causes of Loss of Biodiversity

l United Nations had proclaimed the year 2010, the International Year of
Biodiversity.
l According to IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature), by
2010 around 18,788 species out of 52,017 so far assessed are threatened
with extinction. Of the world’s 5,490 mammals, 78 are extinct, 188 critically
endangered, 540 endangered and 492 vulnerable. Amphibians are also in
danger of extinction, 1,895 of the planet’s 6,285, are the most threatened
group of species.
l Extinction of individual species, destruction of natural habitats, land-use conversions,
climate change, pollution and degradation is continuing at an alarming rate. Do
you think this has anything to do with the extinction of various species.

ACTIVITY 11.1
Can you mention the names of three species of plants and animals/birds found in
your locality and their importance for the residents of your locality? One example
has been done for you.

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Sr. No. Plants Importance Sr. No. Animals/Birds Importance
Development
1. Neem Give us medicine, 1. Vulture Keeps environment
wood ,oxygen and free of carcasses and
shade waste, restrict
spread of diseases,
help control a
number of pest like Notes
rats

2. 2.
3. 3.

4. 4.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 11.1

1. “Bio-diversity is fundamental to the existence of life on the earth” Justify the
statement by giving any two reasons.
2. Explain hotspots in 30 words.

11.3 NATURAL VEGETATION AND WILDLIFE

In our ecosystem, vegetation and wildlife are valuable resources. We all know that
plants provide us with timber, give shelter to man and animals, produce the oxygen
we breathe, prevent soil erosion and natural calamities such as floods, high speed
winds and help in storage of underground water, give us fruits, nuts, latex, turpentine
oil, gum, medicinal plants and also the paper that is so essential for our studies. These
are some of the innumerable uses of plants. Wildlife includes animals, birds, insects,
reptiles as well as the aquatic life forms. They provide us milk, meat, hides and wool.
Insects like bees provide us honey, help in pollination of flowers and have an important
role to play as decomposers in the ecosystem. The birds feed on insects and act
as a decomposers as well. Vulture due to its ability to feed on dead livestock is a
scavenger and considered a vital cleanser of the environment. So life forms, big or
small, all are integral in maintaining a balance in the ecosystem.

11.3.1 Natural Vegetation in India

As in any other part of the world, natural vegetation of India is also determined by
climate, physiographic and soil factors. If we look at the figure 11.3, we find that
based on factors of temperature, rainfall and topographic conditions, India has diverse
vegetation patterns as summarized below. Dense natural vegetation found in North-
Eastern region, Western Ghats and Andaman Nicobar. The Northern plain and
North-Western Region supports very scanty vegetation and is under cultivation. The

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ment, Resources and Deccan region is full of scrubs and mixed deciduous forests. Natural vegetation of
Development
India can broadly be divided into the following groups:
(i) Tropical Evergreen Forests
(ii) Tropical Deciduous Forests

Notes (iii) Thorn Forests

(iv) Tidal Forests
(v) Himalayan Forests

(i) Tropical Evergreen Forests

Trees in these forests remain green all the year round as the climate of the region
is warm and wet throughout the year. The leaves of these trees do not fall in any
particular season. Hence, they are evergreen. These forests are found in the areas
having more than 200 cm of rainfall with a short dry season. The trees reach a
height up to 60 meters or even more. It has a dense and mixed vegetation of
all kinds including trees, shrubs, climbers, creepers, epiphytes and ferns giving it a
multilayered structure. Hence, their economic exploitation is not viable. The number
of species of trees is very large in a small area. Rosewood, ebony, mahogany,
rubber, jack wood and bamboo are the important species of trees found in
Tropical Evergreen Forests. In India, this type of vegetation is found in the areas
of heavy rainfall in Western Ghats, upper parts of Assam and islands of
Lakshadweep, Andaman and Nicobar. Hardwood from these forests is used for
furniture, handicraft etc. They prevent landslides and soil erosion.

ii) Tropical Deciduous Forests

Trees in these forests shed their leaves once in a year. That is why they are called
tropical deciduous forests. These are most widespread forests of India. These forests
are found in the areas receiving annual rainfall between 75 to 200 cms. As far as
the physical distribution of this type of forests is concerned they are found in the entire
country excluding some parts of Deccan Plateau, North-Eastern Region, Western
Ghats and Eastern coast. These forests have been subject to extensive clearance by
man for the purpose of cultivation. Still some patches of natural vegetation are found
along the foothills of Himalayas, hilly regions of peninsular and central part of the
country. On the basis of the availability of rainfall these forests are further divided
into moist deciduous and dry deciduous.
(a) The moist deciduous forests are found in the areas of rainfall between 100
to 200 cm. These are distributed mainly in the eastern parts of the country,

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Northeastern states along the foothills of Himalayas, Jharkhand, Odisha ment, Resources and
Development
and Chhattisgarh, and eastern slopes of Western Ghats. Teak, Bamboo,
Sal, Shisham, Sandalwood, Khair, Kusum, Arjun, Mahua, Jamun and
Mulberry are the important species of trees found in these forests.
(b) The dry deciduous forests are spread in the areas receiving annual rainfall
between 75 to 100 cms annually. These forests are found in the interior parts Notes
of the Peninsular plateau and the plains of Uttar Pradesh, Madhya
Pradesh and Bihar. Tree species of these forest are Teak, Sal, Peepal,
and Neem.

(iii) Thorn Forests

The areas with less than 75 cm of annual rainfall are characterized by the natural
vegetation of thorny trees and bushes. Climate of this part is mainly dry with
occasional wet period, so it does not support dense vegetation. They are mainly found
in North-Western India, interior parts of the Peninsular India including semi

64° 72° 76° 80° 84° 88° 92°

32° INDIA
NATURAL VEGETATION 32°
200 0 200 400
Kilometres
28°

28°

24°

24°

20°

20°

16° ARABIAN BAY OF BEGAL

SEA

16°

12°
Tidal Forest
Tropical Evergreen 12°

Tropical Deciduous
Thorn Forest Andaman & Nicobar
Islands
8° Lakshadweep Himalayan Vegetation
8°

I N D I A N O C E A N

72° 76° 84° 88° 92°

Figure 11.3 Natural Vegetation of India

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ment, Resources and arid areas of Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Uttar
Development
Pradesh, Haryana, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra. Vegetation
of these forests is widely distributed in the form of small trees and bushes with deep
roots. The stems are succulent to conserve water. Leaves are mostly thick and small
to minimize evaporation. Acacia, euphorbias, babul, cacti, khair, date and palms
are common variety of trees in this type of vegetation.
Notes

(iv) Tidal Forests

As suggested by the name, these forests are found in tidal creeks and swamps
influenced by the tides and wetland topography. These areas are characterized by
mud, silt and water accumulated on the surface. Roots and branches of the trees
are submerged under water for specific period of time. They are also called mangrove
forests. Mangroves are practically evergreen with thick leathery leaves. Such types
of forests are found in the deltas of Sundarbans, Mahanadi, the Godavari, Krishna,
Kaveri rivers and in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Mangrove or Sundari is the
common tree in sunderbans while palm, coconut, keora, and agar are other important
species of tidal forest. It is interesting to know that this type of forests have remained
away from the large scale commercial exploitation. These forests are located along
the coasts. They provide protection against cyclones.

(v) Himalayan Forest

As is evident by the name that these forests are mainly found in the mountainous
region of the Himalayas. The decreasing in temperature and increasing in altitude lead
to varied types of vegetation depending upon the factors like slope of the mountain
and sunrays receiving side. The ecosystem is highly fragile. Himalayan forests have
been exploited in many ways in recent decades. Areas with relatively low altitude
up to 1000 meters, warm climate and good amount of rainfall are characterized by
dense vegetation cover. These areas look like tropical forest. Sal and Bamboo are
main species in these areas. Between the elevation of 1000 to 2000 meters
evergreen broad leave Oak and Chestnut are the common species found in
these forests. In eastern Himalayas the same elevation is occupied by sub tropical
Pine forests. Chir is common species found in this part. Moist temperate forest in
Himalayas are found between the elevation 1500 to 3500 meters which receives
annual rainfall in the range of 100 to 250 cm. Oak, laurel, chestnut, cedar,
Silver, Fir, spruce rhododendron and deodar are the main species found in this
part of Himalayas. They have been widely exploited for their timber. Alpine forest
found in Himalayas at the height of between 3000 to 3800 mts with large and
extensive highland grassland and sparsely distributed pine, birch, sliver, fir
and rhododendron trees.

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INTEXT QUESTIONS 11.2
1. Why are the tropical rain forests called evergreen forests? Explain in 30 words.
2. Give reasons
(i) Tidal Forest areas along the eastern coast experienced severe destruction Notes
during cyclones in recent years because
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
(ii) Himalayan Forests have been economically more exploited in comparison
to Tropical Evergreen Forests because
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................

11.3.2 Wildlife in India

You have studied earlier in the lesson that due to its unique geographical position,
India is rich in wildlife. Wildlife of India is a great natural heritage. It is estimated
that about 80 percent of all known plant and animal species on the earth are found
in India. Many plants synthesize substances that are useful to the maintenance of health
in humans and other animals. In recent decades, human encroachment has posed
a threat to India’s wildlife. In response to this, the system of National parks, Wildlife
sanctuaries and protected areas, first established in 1935, has substantially expanded
through wildlife protection Act 1972. Efforts are being made to protect and
preserve biological diversity of our country under various programs. India has
preserved vast tracts of natural habitats, birds and plants in its 551 Wildlife
Sanctuaries, 96 National Parks, 25 Wetlands and 15 Biosphere Reserves
spread almost in all the states of India. Besides this, there are 33 Botanical Gardens,
275 Zoological Parks, Deer Parks, Safari Parks , Aquaria etc. to make people
aware conservation of threatened and endangered wildlife species in their respective
areas. In India, for the purpose of effective conservation of natural habitat of wildlife,
special schemes like Project Tiger 1973 and Project Elephant 1992 have been
launched. These are very important as many species are at the brink of extinction.
However, none of these efforts will be truly successfull unless all Indian recognize
their role in conserving bio-diversity.
(i) Wildlife Sanctuaries: The main objective of the wildlife sanctuaries is to ensure
maintenance of viable population of wildlife and their desired habitat. The wildlife
sanctuaries in India are home to around 2000 different species of birds, 3500

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ment, Resources and species of mammals, nearly 30000 different kinds of insects and more than
Development
15000 varieties of plants. These sanctuaries and forest reserves are home to
several endangered species of animals and birds like the Asiatic Elephant, the
Royal Bengal tiger, the Snow Leopard and the Siberian Crane. Many of the
forest reserves and wildlife sanctuaries of India are famous for particular species
of animals. For instance, the Kaziranga in Assam is known for the Indian
Notes Rhinoceros, Periyar in Kerala is famous for its elephants. India is also home
to several migratory animals and birds like Olive Ridley Sea Turtles, Siberians
Cranes and Flamingos.
(ii) National Parks: The purpose of establishing national parks is “to conserve the
natural and historic objects and the wild life and to provide for the enjoyment
of the same in such manner and by such means as will leave them unimpaired
for the enjoyment of future generations.” By 1970, India only had five national
parks. In 1972, India enacted the Wildlife Protection Act to safeguard the
habitats of conservation reliant species. The two main objectives of the Act are;
to provide protection to the endangered species listed in the Act and to provide
support to the conservation area of the country classified as national park.
Table 11.1 Rare Species of Animals Found in National Parks

National Parks Rare species of wild

(wild life sanctuaries) animals protected
1. Dachigram (J&K) Hangul , Musk deer
2. Corbett (Uttrakhand) Tiger, Elephant, Panther , Deer
3. Dudhwa (U.P.) Elephants and Tiger
4. Kanha (M.P.) Tiger, Barasingha
5. Badipur (Karnataka) Tiger and Barasingha
6. Periyar (Kerala) Elephants
7. Bharatpur (Rajasthan) Different types of water birds
8. Deset Park (Rajasthan) Desert wolf, Fox
9. Gir (Gujarat) Lion, Panther, Chital
10. Kaziranga (Assam) Rhino, Wild Buffalo
11. Manas (Assam) Elephant, Rhino, Wild Buffalo
12. Nam Dafa (Arunachal Pradesh) Tiger, Gaur, Wild buffalo
13. Sundarbans (West Bengal) Royal Bengal Tiger

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64° 72° 76° 80° 84° 88° 92°
ment, Resources and
Development
32°
Dachigam INDIA
32°
WILD LIFE RESERVES

28° Rajaji

Corbet
Banbasa 28° Notes
Sariska Dudwa
Mahanad Gorumara
Bharatpur Kaziranga
24° Manas
Ranthambhor
Shivpuri Chandra
Prabha 24°

Rajdewra
Kanha Kisli
20° Gir
Simlipal
Sanjay Gandhi Tadoba Chandoka 20°
Kanheri
Kawal Pocharam
16°
ARABIAN BAY OF BEGAL
Eturnagaram
SEA
16°

12°
Ranganthittu Wild Sanctuary
Bird Sanctuary 12°
Bandipur
Mudumalai National Park

8°
200 0 200 400
8°
Kilometres

I N D I A N O C E A N
72° 76° 84° 88° 92°

Figure 11.4 National Park, Wildlife Sanctuaries and Bird Sanctuaries in India

(iii) Wetlands: A wetland is an area of land where soil is saturated with moisture
either permanently or seasonally. Such areas may also be covered partially or
completely by shallow pools of water. Wetlands include swamps, marshes, and
bogs, among others. The water found in wetlands can be saltwater, freshwater,
and brackish. Most importantly wetlands also serve as natural wastewater
purification systems. Wetlands are considered as biologically the most diverse
of all ecosystems. Plant life found in wetlands includes mangrove, water lilies,
cattails, sedges, tamarack, black spruce, cypress, gum, and many others. Animal
life includes many different amphibians, reptiles, birds, insects, and mammals.
Wetlands perform two important functions in relation to climate change. They
have mitigation effects through their ability to sink carbon, and adaptation effects
through their ability to store and regulate water. The Convention on Wetlands
of International Importance (Ramsar Convention), is an international treaty
designed to address global concerns regarding wetland loss and degradation.
The primary purpose of the treaty is to list wetlands of international importance
and to promote their wise use with the ultimate goal of preserving the world’s

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ment, Resources and wetlands. Methods include restricting access to the majority portion of wetland
Development
areas, as well as educating the public to combat the misconception that wetlands
are wastelands.

Notes
About 25 wetlands or Ramsar sites have been identified of significance in India.

Table 11.2 Wetlands in India

No. Name State Area(km²)
1. Ashtamudi Kerala 614
2. Bhitarkanika Mangroves Odisha 650
3. Chilika Lake Odisha 1165
4. East Calcutta Wetlands West Bengal 125
5. Kolleru Lake Andhra Pradesh 901
6. Loktak Lake Manipur 266
7. Point Calimere Tamil Nadu 385
8. Pong Dam Lake Himachal Pradesh 157
9. Sambhar lake Rajasthan 240
10. Tsomoriri Jammu and Kashmir 120
11. Upper Ganga canal Uttar Pradesh 266
12. Vembanad-Kol Wetland Kerala 1512
13. Wular Lake Jammu and Kashmir 189
14. Harike Lake Punjab 41
15. Bhoj Wetland Madhya Pradesh 32

(iv) Biosphere Reserves

Biosphere Reserves are multipurpose protected areas to preserve the genetic
diversity in representative ecosystems. The Indian government has established 15
Biosphere Reserves, which protect larger areas of natural habitat (than a National
Park or Wildlife Sanctuary), and often include one or more National Parks and/or
preserves along buffer zones that are open to some economic uses. Protection is
granted not only to the flora and fauna of the protected region, but also to the human
communities who inhabit these regions. The main objectives to establish them are:
(i) to conserve diversity and integrity of the life of plants, animals and micro-
organisms, (ii) to promote eco friendly sustainable life in the areas, and (iii) to promote

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ecological conservation, research, education, awareness and training in the life of such ment, Resources and
Development
areas.

64° 72° 76° 80° 84° 88° 92°

32°
INDIA
32°
BIOSPHERE RESERVES Notes
28°
Nanda Devi
Dibang
wa
ho
S aik
ru
24° Manas Dib

24°
Runn of Kachchh

Achanakmar
20° Sunderban
Panchmarhi
Simlipal
20°

16°
ARABIAN BAY OF BEGAL
SEA
16°

12°

Port Blair
12°
Biosphere Reserve

Andaman & Nicobar Islands

(INDIA)
8° Lakshadweep
Agastyamalai Marine
(INDIA) 200 0 200 400
8°
SRI
Kilometres
LANKA
Great Nicobar Island
I N D I A N O C E A N
72° 76° 84° 88° 92°

Figure 11.5 Biosphere Reserves in India

Table 11.3 Biosphere Reserves

No. Name State
1. Nilgiri Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Karnataka
2. Gulf of Mannar Tamil Nadu
3. Sundarbans West Bengal
4. Nanda Devi Uttarakhand
5. Dihang-Dibang Arunachal Pradesh
6. Pachmarhi Madhya Pradesh
7. Simlipal Odisha
8. Achanakmar Amarkantak Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh

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Development
10. Kanchenjunga Sikkim
11. Agasthyamala Kerala
12. Great Nicobar Andaman & Nicobar Islands
13. Nokrek Meghalaya
Notes
14. Dibru-Saikhowa Assam
15. Rann of Kachchh Gujarat

11.4 NEED OF CONSERVATION OF BIO-DIVERSITY

In section 11.1 we have described bio-diversity as the total number of genes, species
and ecosystems of a region. We have also learnt that biodiversity is fundamental to
our existence on the earth. We look for food, water, shelter and fibre in nature. All
these are interrelated and interdependent. If any one component is disrupted, it would
have multiple impacts on other components of biodiversity. If we want to conserve
our natural vegetation and wildlife we need to relook at the way we exploit these.
It is time to re-look at our lifestyle and bring it in harmony with nature. Vegetation
is an integral part of our life. Let’s see how plant life and vegetation impacts us:
(i) Vegetation is a key component of biodiversity. Without vegetation, the animals
and some micro-organisms would die for lack of habitat, food and oxygen.
(ii) Plant’s root systems hold the soil together, protecting it from being blown away
by the wind or washed away by water.
(iii) Vegetation plays a major role in the water cycle. Plants provide a link between
the ground and the atmosphere by drawing water up from the ground and
releasing it through the leaves into the air as water vapour.
(iv) Vegetation is a natural barrier and slows down the flow of water over the surface
of the ground.
(v) Through photosynthesis, vegetation removes carbon dioxide from the air and
replaces it with oxygen. Other pollutants can also be filtered out of the air by
vegetation.
(vi) Vegetation acts as a stabilising influence in the greenhouse effect. Conversely,
clearing of vegetation releases high amounts of carbon dioxide – the main
greenhouse gas.
(vii) Wildlife plays an important role in maintaining balanced food. This role helps
in maintaining ecological balance resulting in healthy biodiversity.
(viii) The invisible micro-organism play an important role of scavengers, improving
soil fertility and are of immense medicinal value.
You can now feel that conservation of biodiversity is of great significance not only
to the world or national heritage but also for the survival of local people in any part

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of the globe. We as a responsible citizen of the world need to understand our positive ment, Resources and
Development
role in making responsible living choices. This would be our contribution in conserving
biodiversity.

Peoples Participation in Conserving Biodiversity

(A Case Study) Notes
Twenty-five years old Rajender Singh left his job and committed himself to rural
development. With four companions he boarded a bus and travelled to a desolate
village near Alwar. By this time Alwar had been opened to miners and loggers,
who decimated its forests and damaged its watershed. Its streams and rivers dried
up, then its farms. Dangerous floods now accompanied the monsoon rains.
Overwhelmed by these calamities, villagers abandoned their Johads (water
bodies). As men shifted to the cities for work, women spirited frail crops from
dry grounds and walked several kilometers a day to find water. This was Alwar
when Rajendra Singh first arrived in 1985. Before that he worked with nomadic
tribes and tried to understand issues of natural resources management in rural
areas.
Upon advice of a local village elder, he began organizing villagers to learn how
to repair and deepen old johads. He initiated an awareness campaign for Gram
Swawlamban, which is organised every year during the summer months for forty
days in different hundreds of villages. In this campaign discussion on Gram
Swawlamban, soil conservation, improved seeds, collection of herbal medicine
and shramdan were the activities undertaken. Singh coordinated all these activities
to mesh with the villager’s traditional cycle of rituals. He played a catalyzing role
in the building of 8600 johads (water harvesting structures) in 1058 villages spread
over 6500 sq.km. Out of these 3500 were built by TBS and as an after effect
of these the community was motivated to build the remaining 5100 structures.
Through his determination, vision, hard work and dedication, he has transformed
the life of people in 1058 villages of Aravali hills. He has turned the arid land
into cultivable, densely afforested large tracts making a wild life sanctuary by water
management, made the dry rivers flow throughout the year. Aquatic life and bird
sanctuary have flourished. Animal life has become lively, with desert beaming with
life all around.

There is so much we can do to save nature.

Think what we give back to nature in lieu of what we take away. If we cut down
a tree, we should plant two small ones in its place. Buy only those products which
have not been tested on animals. Do not waste paper. Try to use recycled paper.

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ACTIVITY 11.2
Find out if there is any wetlands in your locality and its distance from your place
of residence.

Notes

INTEXT QUESTIONS 11.3

1. Fill in the blanks correctly from the alternatives provided in the bracket:-
(i) At present there are .................... wild life sanctuaries (441/551)
(ii) .................... in Assam is known for the Indian Rhinoceroses.
(Manas/Kaziranga)
(iii) HarikeWetlands is located in .................... (Punjab/ Himachal Pradesh)
(iv) .................... biosphere reserve is in the state of Tamil Nadu.
(Gulf of Mannar/Pachmarhi)
2. Define Wetlands
......................................................................................................................
3. Make a list of any three efforts you can make to safeguard Biodiversity of your
surroundings.
(i) ............................................................................................................
(ii) ............................................................................................................
(iii) ............................................................................................................

WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT

l We are fortunate to have such a great biodiversity on the planet we live on.
l Being an integral part of nature, it is important for us to save it.
l People all over the world are working to safeguard this irreplaceable natural
wealth and biodiversity.
l Natural vegetation and wildlife are important aspects of biodiversity.
l India is among the twelve mega biodiversity countries of the world having rich
wildlife heritage and great range of natural vegetation.
l It is really important to know about the threats and the need of conservation of
this natural wealth.

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TERMINAL EXERCISES
1. Define biodiversity. Explain the interrelationship between natural vegetation,
wildlife and micro-organisms.
2. Describe in brief the characteristics and distribution of Tropical Evergreen Forests Notes
in India.
3. Give any two differences between the moist deciduous forests and the dry
deciduous forests in India.
4. State three objectives for establishment of biosphere reserves in India.
5. What are the main causes of loss of biodiversity? State any four.
6. Justify the need for conservation of natural vegetation, wildlife and micro-
organisms with suitable reasons.
7. Study the table given below and answer the following questions.

Natural Parts/Wild life Sanctuary Protected Wild Animals

1. Kaziranga 1. Tiger
2. Manas 2. Elephant
3. Periyar 3. Musk Deer
4. Corbett 4. Lion
5. Dachigram 5. Rhino
6. Wild Buffalo
7. Panther
8. Beer

(a) Match the name of the animal to the national park in which they are
protected?
(b) Encircle the animal which are not protected in any national park?
(c) Write the name of the animal which is protected in more than one National
Park?
8. Refer to Figure No.11.3
(a) Find out the type of vegetation in your state.
(b) Which areas have thorn forests?
(c) Which areas have tidal forests and why are they restricted to those areas?

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ANSWER TO INTEXT QUESTION

11.1
1. Biodiversity is fundamental to the existence of life on the earth because this is
Notes extremely valuable in different facets of life which includes providing of food,
water, fiber, fuel etc. and regulating of climate and diseases.
2. A biodiversity hotspot is a region with a high level of endemic species. Endemic
species are those species that are found in a limited area.

11.2
1. Trees in these forests remain green all the year round as the climate of the region
is warm and wet throughout the year. The leaves of the trees do not fall in any
particular season. Hence they are evergreen.
2. (i) Tidal forests along the eastern coast provide protection against cyclones.
But in recent years due to massive deforestation, these areas have been
experiencing severe destruction during cyclones in recent years
(ii) Tropical evergreen forest has a dense and mixed vegetation of all kinds
and hence, their economic exploitation is not viable whereas species in
Himalayan vegetation are less dense and found in pure stand.

11.3
1. (a) 551
(b) Kaziranga
(c) Punjab
(d) Gulf of Mannar
2. A wetland is an area of land where soil is saturated with moisture either
permanently or seasonally. Such areas may also be covered partially or
completely by shallow pools of water.
3. Some of the efforts you can make to safeguard Bio diversity of your surroundings
are: (i) stop cutting trees; (ii) plant more trees; (iii) protect all animals; (iv)
establishment of hospitals for injured birds or animals; (v) stop throwing garbage
and polluting environment.

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Development

12
Notes

AGRICULTURE IN INDIA

In the previous lessons, we have studied physiography, climate and natural vegetation
in India. Now, we will study about agriculture which is the backbone of Indian
economy. In India around 70% of the population earns its livelihood from agriculture.
It still provides livelihood to the people in our country. It fulfills the basic need of
human beings and animals. It is an important source of raw material for many agro-
based industries. India’s geographical condition is unique for agriculture because it
provides many favourable conditions. There are plain areas, fertile soil, long growing
season and wide variation in climatic condition etc. Apart from unique geographical
conditions, India has been consistently making innovative efforts by using science and
technology to increase production.
In this lesson we will discuss about various types of farming, cropping patterns and
establish their relationship with various geographical factors. We will also discuss
some of the major issues and challenges faced by Indian Agriculture in this lesson.

OBJECTIVES
After studying this lesson you will be able to:
l explain various types of farming in India;
l describe salient features of Indian agriculture;
l list the major crops grown in India along with their utility;
l establish relationship of crops with the types of soil and climatic conditions;
l locate major crop producing areas on the outline map of India, and
l analyse challenges faced by farmers in Indian agriculture.

12.1 TYPES OF FARMING IN INDIA

You know that India has diversified topography. You have already learnt about it in
the lesson on physiography of India. The country has Himalayan mountain ranges

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ment, Resources and extending from Jammu and Kashmir in the west to Arunachal Pradesh in the North-
Development
East. They have hill ranges in the form of Eastern Ghats and Western Ghats. Do
you know India has one of the largest plain areas of the world in the form of Indo-
Ganga plain? Central part of India is dominated by plateau area. Apart from variation
in landform, the country has varieties of climatic conditions, and soil types. These
physical variations along with other factors like availability of irrigation, use of
Notes machinery, modern agricultural inputs like High Yielding Varieties (HYV) of seeds,
insecticides and pesticides have played their respective roles in the evolution of
different farming practices in India. Some of the major types of farming are discussed
below.
1. Subsistence and commercial farming: Majority of farmers in India practises
subsistence farming. This means farming for own consumption. In other words,
the entire production is largely consumed by the farmers and their family and they
do not have any surplus to sell in the market. In this type of farming, landholdings
are small and fragmented. Cultivation techniques are primitive and simple. In other
words there is a total absence of modern equipments like tractors and farm inputs
like chemical fertilizers, insecticides and pesticides. In this farming, farmers mostly
cultivate cereals along with oil seeds, pulses, vegetables and sugarcane.
Commercial farming is just the opposite to subsistence farming. In this case,
most of the produce is sold in the market for earning money. In this system,
farmers use inputs like irrigation, chemical fertilizers, insecticides, pesticides and
High Yielding Varieties of seeds etc. Some of the major commercial crops grown
in different parts of India are cotton, jute, sugarcane, groundnut etc. Rice farming
in Harayana is mainly for commercial purpose as people of this area are pre-
dominantly wheat eaters. Howevr in East and North-Eastern states of India, rice
cultivation would be largely of subsistence type.
2. Intensive and Extensive Farming: The basic difference between these two
types of farming is the amount of production per unit of land. In comparison with
temperate areas of USA, Canada, and former USSR, India does not practise
extensive cultivation. When we use large patch of land for cultivation then we
call it extensive farming. Here, total production may be high due to larger area
but per unit are production is low. Intensive Farming records high production
per unit of land. Best example of intensive cultivation is in Japan where availability
of land for cultivation is very limited. Similar kind of situation can be observed
in the state of Kerala in India.
3. Plantation Farming: It is an estate where a single cash crop is grown for sale.
This type of agriculture involves growing and processing of a single cash crop
purely meant for sale. Tea, coffee, rubber, banana and spices are all examples
of plantation crops. Most of these crops were introduced in India by the Britishers
in the 19th Century.

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4. Mixed Farming: It is a situation in which both raising crops and rearing animals ment, Resources and
Development
are carried on simultaneously. Here farmers engaged in mixed farming are
economically better of than others.
All classifications are based on nature and purpose of farming. It may overlap.
For example: Banana is a plantation type of farming. It can also be classified
as commerical farming. Notes

Green Revolution: It stands for a major technological breakthrough in India

based on (i) improved seeds of high yielding varieties, (ii) adequate and assured
supply of water for irrigation, and (iii) increased and appropriate application of
chemical fertilizers for increasing agricultural production.
White Revolution: It stands for remarkable increase in milk production and
establishment of a national milk grid, removing regional and seasonal imbalances.
Among the technological inputs are (i) crossbreeding of indigenous cows with high
milk yielding European breed; (ii) pasteurization of milk for keeping it for a longer
duration; (iii) collection of quality milk from members in rural areas; and (iv)
refrigerated transport system which helps sending milk to far off metropolitan
centres both by road and rail.
Blue Revolution: It refers to big rise in catching of fresh water and marine fish.
Yellow Revolution: It refers to remarkably steady and assured supply of poultry
products.
Pink Revolution: It refers to a considerable rise in the production of quantity
of apples particularly in the states of Himachal Pradesh and J&K.

ACTIVITY 12.1
Conduct a survey within 1 km radius of your residence and find out which types
of crops are grown in that specific area. Record your findings in the table given below
and give reasons for the same.
Name of the crop State Type of farming Reasons
Hint: Apple HP Commercial Suitable climatic
conditions, grown in large
quantities for high demand
in the market

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12.2 SALIENT FEATURES OF INDIAN AGRICULTURE
(a) Subsistence Agriculture: As mentioned earlier, most parts of India have
subsistence agriculture. This type of agriculture has been practised in India for
several hundreds of years and still prevails in a larger part of India in spite of
the large scale change in agricultural practices after independence.
Notes (b) Pressure of population on Agriculture: Despite increase in urbanization and
industrialization, about 70% of population is still directly or indirectly dependent
on agriculture.
(c) Mechanization of farming: Green Revolution took place in India in the late
sixties and early seventies. After more than forty years of Green Revolution and
revolution in agricultural machinery and equipments, complete mechanization is
still a distant dream
(d) Dependence upon monsoon: Since independence, there has been a rapid
expansion of irrigation infrastructure. Despite the large scale expansion, only
about one third of total cropped area is irrigated today. As a consequence, two
third of cropped areas is still dependent upon monsoon. As you know, monsoon
in India is uncertain and unreliable. This has become even more unreliable due
to change in climate.
(e) Variety of crops: Can you guess why India has a variety of crops? As
mentioned in the beginning of the lesson, India has diversity of topography,
climate and soil. Since India has both tropical and temperate climate, crops of
both the climate are found in India. There are very few countries in the world
that have variety comparable to that of India. You would realize that when we
would discuss the different type of crops in detail. Look at the table No.1 to
get an idea.
(f) Predominance of food crops: Since Indian agriculture has to feed a large
population, production of food crops is the first priority of the farmers almost
everywhere in the country. However, in recent years, there has been a decline
in the share of land used for food crops due to various other commercially most
advantageous uses of these land.
(g) Seasonal patterns: India has three distinct agricultural/cropping seasons. You
might have heard about kharif, rabi and zaid. In India there are specific crops
grown in these three seasons. For example rice is a kharif crop whereas wheat
is a rabi crop.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 12.1

1. Differentiate between intensive and extensive farming by giving two points of
difference each.

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2. Based on the salient features studied above, identify the one applicable in your ment, Resources and
area. (example : The farming is largely mechanized in Harayana and well Development
irrigated. So that there is less dependance on monsoon.)

12.3 MAJOR CROPS OF INDIA

India grows almost each and every crop. Can you think why? If we consider the
varieties of crop grown from Kashmir to Kanyakumari and western coast of Gujarat Notes
to extreme north eastern states of Arunachal Pradesh, there would be hundreds of
crops. We group all these crops into four broad types. Let us discuss the main crops
under each type in detail:
Table 12.1
Sl. No Types of Crops Meaning Major Crops
1. Food grains Crops that are Rice, Wheat, Maize,
used for human Millets, Pulses and
consumption Oil seeds

2. Commercial Crops Crops which are grown Cotton, Jute,

for sale either in raw form Sugarcane, Tobacco
or in semi-processed form and Oilseeds

3. Plantation Crops Crops which are grown Tea, Coffee,

on Plantations covering Coconut and
large estates Rubber
4. Horticulture Sections of agriculture in Fruits and
which Fruits and Vegetables
Vegetables are grown

1. Food grains
(i) Rice: Rice is the most important food crop of India. It is predominantly a Kharif
or summer crop. It covers about one third of total cultivated area of the country
and provides food to more than half of the Indian population. Maximum
population of India is of rice consumers. Do you know what types of
geographical conditions are required for rice cultivation? If you look at rice grown
areas of India, you should find that this is the only crop in India which is grown
in varied conditions as illustrated below..
Some of the geographical conditions are as follows:
(a) Temperature: Rice requires hot and humid conditions. The temperature
should be fairly high i.e. 24°C mean monthly temperature with average
temperature of 22°C to 32°C.

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ment, Resources and (b) Rainfall: Rainfall ranging between 150-300 cm is suitable for its growth
Development
in areas of Punjab, Haryana and Western Uttar Pradesh where rainfall is
less than 100 cm, rice is cultivated with the help of irrigation.
(c) Soil: Rice is grown in varied soil conditions but deep clayey and loamy
soil provides the ideal conditions. Rice is primarily grown in plain areas.
Notes It is also grown below sea level at Kuttinad (Kerala), hill terraces of north
eastern part of India and valleys of Kashmir.
64° 68° 72° 76° 80° 84° 88° 92° 96°

36° 36°

INDIA
RICE PRODUCTION
32° 32°

CHINA
N
A

TIBET
T
S
I
K

28° NE 28°
PA
A

L
P

BHUTAN

24° 24°
BANGLADESH

MYANMAR
20° 20°

Arabian Bay of Bengal

Sea 16°
16°

Major Area

12° Other Area 12°

Andaman & Nicobar Islands

Lakshadweep
8°
8°

SRI
LANKA
km. 50 0 50 100 150 200 250 km.

I n d i a n O c e a n

72° 76° 80° 84° 88° 92° 96°

Figure 12.1: India: Rice Producing Areas

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(d) Labour: Rice cultivation requires easily available cheap labour because ment, Resources and
Development
most of the activities associated with it are labour orientated and are not
very well suited for mechanization.
(e) Distribution: Rice is grown in almost all the states of India. The main rice
producing states are Tamilnadu, West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar,
Jharkhand, Uttarakhand, Chhatisgarh, Punjab, Odisha, Uttar Pradesh, Notes
Karnataka, Assam and Maharashtra. It is also grown in Haryana, Madhya
Pradesh, Kerala, Gujrat and Kashmir Valley (See figure 12.1).
(ii) Wheat: Wheat is the second most important food crop of India next to rice.
It is a Rabi or winter crop. It is sown in the beginning of winter and harvested
in the beginning of summer. Normally (in north India) the sowing of wheat begins
in the month of October-November and harvesting is done in the month of
March-April. This is the staple food of millions of people particularly in the
northern and north-western regions of India. Unlike rice, wheat is grown mostly
as a rabi or winter crop.
Some of the geographical conditions are as follows:
(a) Temperature: It is primarily a crop of mid-latitude grassland. It requires
cool climate. The ideal temperature is between 10°C to 15°C at the time
of sowing and 21°C to 26°C at the time of ripening and harvesting.
(b) Rainfall: Wheat thrives well in areas receiving annual rainfall of about
75cm. Annual rainfall of about 100cm is the upper limit for wheat
cultivation. As you know areas receiving more than 100cm of rainfall are
suitable for rice cultivation. Like rice, wheat can also be grown by irrigation
method in areas where rainfall is less than 75cm. But on the other hand,
frost at the time of flowering and hailstorm at the time of ripening can cause
heavy damage to the wheat crop.
(c) Soil: Although wheat can be grown in a variety of soils but well drained
fertile loamy and clayey loamy soil is best suited for wheat cultivation. Plain
areas are very well suited for wheat production.
(d) Labour: Wheat is highly mechanized and requires less labour.
(e) Distribution: The main regions of wheat production in India are U.P.,
Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Gujrat,Maharashtra. U.P.,
Punjab and Haryana together produce more than 66% of the total wheat
of the country (See figure 12.2).
(iii) Millets: Millets are short duration warm weather crops. These are coarse grain
crops and are used for both food and fodder. These are kharif crop. These

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ment, Resources and are sown in May-August and harvested in October-November.Today millets
Development
are mostly consumed by poor people as their staple food. In India, lots of millet
is grown and these are known by various local names. Some of these are Jawar,
Bajra, Ragi, Korra, Kodon, Kutki, Hraka, Bauti, Rajgira. In India, Jawar,
Bajra and Ragi are grown.on large areas But unfortunately area under these
crops has drastically reduced over the years.
Notes

Figure 12.2: India: Wheat Producing Areas

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Some of the geographical conditions for growing these crops are as follows: ment, Resources and
Development
(a) Temperature: These crops are grown where the temperature is high
which ranges between 27°C to 32°C.
(b) Rainfall: As mentioned earlier that millets are ‘dry land crops’, therefore,
rainfall ranging from 50 to 100cm is ideal for their cultivation.
Notes
(c) Soil: Millets are less sensitive to soil deficiencies. They can be grown in
inferior alluvial or loamy soil.
(d) Distribution: Jawar, Bajra, is grown both in north and south India
whereas ragi is generally concentrated in the southern India. Jawar, Bajra,
is grown in Madhya Pradesh, Gujrat, Rajasthan, Maharastra, Karnataka,
Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Haryana and Punjab. Ragi is generally
concentrated in the southern India i.e. Tamilnadu, Karnataka and Andhra
Pradesh.
(iv) Pulses: It includes a number of crops which are mostly leguminous and provide
invaluable proteins to the vegetarian population of India. As they have fewer
sources of proteins in comparision to those who consume meat and fish. They
also serve as excellent forage and grain concentrates in the cattle feed. Apart
from that these leguminous crops have the capacity to fix atmospheric nitrogen
in the soil and are normally rotated with other crops to maintain and restore
soil fertility. A large variety of pulses are found in India. These are gram, tur
or arhar (Pigeon Pea or Red Gram), urd (black gram), mung (green gram),
masur (lentil), kulthi (horse gram), matar (peas) etc. But among these above
mentioned varieties only gram and tur or arhar are more important pulses.
Gram: It is the most important of all the pulses. It accounts for about 37% of
the production and about 30% of the total area of pulses in India. It is a rabi
crop which is sown between September and November and is harvested
between February and April. It is either cultivated as a single crop or mixed
with wheat, barley, linseed or mustard.
Some of the geographical conditions are as follows:
(a) Temperature: It is grown in a wide range of climatic condition. Mild cool
and comparatively dry climate with 20°C-25°C temperature.
(b) Rainfall: 40-45 cm rainfall is favourable for gram cultivation.
(c) Soil: It grows well on loamy soils.
(d) Distribution: Although gram is cultivated in several parts of the country,
however, 90% of the total production comes from five states. These states
are Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Haryana and Maharashtra.

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Development

1. In India there was a strong tradition of eating various millets as staple food.
But over the years majority of the population uses either rice or wheat as
staple food.
Notes
2. As lifestyle related diseases become pandemic in nature, various millets are
now prescribed as an essential food to control these diseases as they contain
a lot of fibers.

ACTIVITY 12.2
1. Find out the areas/states where rice, wheat, and millets are staple foods in India.
Mention the staple foods (rice, wheat, millets) in each of the following states of
India
States Staple food
Rajasthan wheat, Bajara
Karnataka
Your state
2. On an outline map of India show the states (in two different shades) where rice
and wheat are staple foods.

2. Commercial Crops
As mentioned in the beginning of the lesson, commercial crops are those crops which
are grown for sale either in raw form or semi processed form. In this section we
will learn more about selected cash crop i.e. sugarcane, cotton and jute; two
beverages- tea and coffee; three oil seeds i.e. groundnut, mustard and rapeseed.
(i) Sugarcane: Can you think life without sugar in your everyday life? It is almost
impossible to think of life without sugar. Do you know sugarcane belongs to
bamboo family of plants and is indigenous to India? It is a Kharif crop. It is
the main source of sugar, gur and khandsari. It also provides raw material
for the manufacturing of alcohol. Bagasse, the crushed cane residue, has also
multiple uses. It is used for manufacturing of paper. It is also an efficient substitute
for petroleum products and a host of other chemical products. A part of it is
also used as fodder.

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Some of the geographical conditions for the growth of sugarcane are as ment, Resources and
Development
follows:
(a) Temperature: It requires hot and humid climate with an average
temperature of 21°C to 27°C.
(b) Rainfall: 75-150 cm rainfall is favourable for sugercane cultivation. Irrigation
is required in those areas where rainfall is less than the prescribed limit. Notes

64° 68° 72° 76° 80° 84° 88° 92° 96°

36° 36°

INDIA
SUGARCANE PRODUCTION
32° 32°

CHINA
N
A

TIBET
T
S
I
K

28° NE 28°
PA
A

L
P

BHUTAN

24° 24°
BANGLADESH

MYANMAR
20° 20°

Arabian Bay of Bengal

Sea 16°
16°

SUGARCANE
Major Parts
12° 12°

Andaman & Nicobar Islands

Lakshadweep
8°
8°

SRI
LANKA
km. 50
km. 50 00 50
50 100
100150
150 200
200250
250 km.
km.

I n d i a n O c e a n

72° 76° 80° 84° 88° 92° 96°

Figure 12.3: India: Major Sugarcane Producing Areas

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ment, Resources and (c) Soil: It can grow in a variety of soils. In fact sugarcane can tolerate any
Development
kind of soil that can retain moisture. But deep rich loamy soil is ideal for
its growth. The soil should be rich in nitrogen, calcium and phosphorous
but neither it should be too acidic nor alkaline. Flat, plain and level plateau
is an advantage for sugarcane cultivation because it facilitates irrigation and
transportation of cane to the sugar mills. Sugarcane cultivation requires
Notes
heavy manures and fertilizers because it exhausts the fertility of soils quickly
and extensively.
(d) Labour: It is a labour orientated cultivation and requires cheap labour.
Ample human hands are required at every stage i.e. sowing, hoeing,
weeding, irrigation, cutting and carrying sugarcanes to the factories
(e) Distribution: India has the largest area under sugarcane cultivation in the
world and the second largest producer next to Brazil. As far as distribution
of sugarcane cultivation in India is concerned, there are three distinct
geographical regions in the country. These regions are:
(i) The Satluj-Ganga plain from Punjab to Bihar containing 51% of the
total area and 60% of the country’s total production.
(ii) The black soil belt from Maharashtra to Tamil Nadu along the eastern
slopes of the western Gahats.
(iii) Coastal Andhra Pradesh and Krishna river valley.
(ii) Cotton: Cotton is the most important fibre crop not only of India but also of
the entire world. It not only provides a raw material for cotton textile industry
but also its seed is used in Vanaspati oil industry. The cotton seed is also used
as part of fodder for milch cattle for better milk production. Cotton is basically
a kharif crop and grown in tropical and sub-tropical areas.
Some of the geographical conditions are as follows:
(a) Temperature: Cotton is the crop of tropical and sub-tropical areas and
requires uniformly high temperature varying between 21°C and 30°C.
(b) Rainfall: It grows mostly in the areas having at least 210 frost free days
in a year.
It requires modest amount of rainfall of 50 to 100cm. However, cotton
is successfully grown with the help of irrigation in the areas where rainfall
is less than 50 cm.High amount of rainfall in the beginning and sunny and
dry weather at the time of ripening are very useful for a good crop.
(c) Soil: Cotton cultivation is very closely related to Black soils of Deccan
and Malwa plateau. However, it also grows well in alluvial soils of the
Satluj-Ganga plain and red and laterite soils of the peninsular region.

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(d) Labour: As picking of cotton has not been made mechanized till now, ment, Resources and
Development
therefore a lot of cheap and efficient labour is required at the time of picking.
(e) Distribution: India has the largest area under cultivation and third largest
producer of cotton next only to China and the USA. Within the country
two third of total area and production is shared by four states. The main
states for cotton production are Panjab, Maharashtra, Gujarat and Haryana. Notes

64° 68° 72° 76° 80° 84° 88° 92° 96°

36° 36°

INDIA
COTTON PRODUCTION
32° 32°

CHINA
N
A

TIBET
T
S
I
K

28° NE 28°
PA
A

L
P

BHUTAN

24° 24°
BANGLADESH

MYANMAR
20° 20°

Arabian Bay of Bengal

Sea 16°
16°

COTTON
Major Parts
12° 12°

Andaman & Nicobar Islands

Lakshadweep
8°
8°

SRI
LANKA
km. 50 0 50 100 150 200 250 km.

I n d i a n O c e a n

72° 76° 80° 84° 88° 92° 96°

Figure 12.4: India: Major Cotton Producing Areas

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ment, Resources and (iii) Oilseeds: It is one of the important groups of commercial crops in India. In
Development
fact, India has the largest area and production of oilseeds in the world. Oil
extracted from oilseeds not only forms an important item of our diet but also
serves as raw material for the manufacturing of hydrogenated oils, paints,
varnishes, soaps, lubricants etc. Oil-cake (the residue after the oil is extracted
from the oilseeds) forms an important cattle feed and manure.
Notes
Groundnut: It is the most important oilseed of India. Groundnut is grown both
as kharif and rabi crop but 90-95% of the total area is devoted to kharif crop.
Some of the geographical conditions are as follows:
(a) Temperature: It thrives best in the tropical climate and requires 20°C
to 30°C temperature.
(b) Rainfall: 50-75 cm rainfall is favourable for groundnut cultivation. It is
highly susceptible to frost, prolonged drought, continuous rain and stagnant
water. Therefore dry winter is needed at the time of ripening.
(c) Soil: Well drained light sandy loams, red, yellow and black soils are well
suited for its cultivation.
(d) Distribution: It is the most important oilseed of India and accounts for
about half of the major oilseeds produced in the country. India is the largest
producer of groundnut in the world and accounts for about one third of
the world’s to the production. Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Gujarat
are three main producer of groundnut in India and account for about 60%
of the total production. Another 30% of the total production comes from
Maharashtra, Karnataka and Odisha.

3. Plantation Crops
(i) Tea: India is famous for its tea gardens. You must have heard about tea gardens
of Assam and Darjeeling in West Bengal. It is being said that tea plantation in
India was started by the Britishers in 1923 when wild tea plants were discovered
by them in the hilly and forest areas of Assam. Tea is made from tender sprouts
of tea plants by drying them. At present, India is the leading tea producing
country in the world. China and Sri Lanka are respectively second and third
largest producers of tea.
Some of the geographical conditions for the growth of tea are as follows:
(a) Temperature: It requires hot and wet climate. The ideal temperature for
the growth of tea bushes and leaf varies between 20°C to 30°C. If
temperature either rises above 35°C or goes below 10°C, it would be
harmful for the growth of tea bushes and leaves.

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(b) Rainfall: As mentioned above tea requires a good amount of rainfall ment, Resources and
ranging between 150-300 cm and the annual rainfall should be well Development
distributed throughout the year. Long dry spell is harmful for tea.
(c) Soil: Tea bush grows well in well drained, deep, friable loamy soil.
However, virgin forest soils rich in humus and iron content are considered
to be the best soils for the tea plantation. Tea is a shade loving plant and
Notes
grows better when planted along with shady trees.

64° 68° 72° 76° 80° 84° 88° 92° 96°

36° 36°

INDIA
TEA PRODUCTION
32° 32°

CHINA
N
A

TIBET
T
S
I
K

28° NE 28°
PA
A

L
P

BHUTAN

24° 24°
BANGLADESH

MYANMAR
20° 20°

Arabian Bay of Bengal

Sea 16°
16°

Major Areas

12° Other Areas 12°

Andaman & Nicobar Islands

Lakshadweep
8°
8°

SRI
LANKA
km. 50 0 50 100 150 200 250 km.

I n d i a n O c e a n

72° 76° 80° 84° 88° 92° 96°

Figure 12.5: India: Tea Producing Areas

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ment, Resources and (d) Labour: Cheap and efficient labour is required for tea production
Development
(e) Distribution: Assam is the leading producer that accounts for more than
50% of tea production of India. Tea producing areas of Assam are the
hill slopes bordering the Brahmaputra and Surma valleys. West Bengal is
the second largest producer of tea where tea is mostly grown in the districts
Notes of Darjeeling, Siliguri, Jalpaiguri and Cooch Bihar districts. Tamil Nadu
is the third largest producer where tea growing areas are mostly restricted
to Nilgiri hills.
(ii) Coffee: Do you know from where coffee was brought to India? It is the
indigenous crop of Ethiopia (Abysinia Plateau). From Ethiopia, it was taken to
Yemen in 11th Century. From Arabia, the seeds were brought by Baba Budan
in 17th Century and were raised in Baba Budan hills of Karnataka. But it was
British planters who took keen interest and large coffee estates were established
in the hills of Western Ghats.
Some of the geographical conditions for the growth of coffee are as follows:
(a) Temperature : It requires hot and humid climate with temperature varying
between 15°C and 28°C. It is generally grown under shady trees.
Therefore, strong sun shine, high temperature above 30°C, frost and
snowfall are harmful for coffee cultivation. Dry weather is necessary at the
time of ripening of berries.
(b) Rainfall: Rainfall between 150 to 250 cm is favourable for coffee
cultivation.
(c) Soil: Well drained, rich friable loamy soil containing good deal of humus
and minerals like iron and calcium are ideal for coffee cultivation. The soil
must be properly manured to retain and replenish fertility and to increase
productivity.
(d) Labour: Like tea, coffee cultivation also requires plenty of cheap and
skilled labour for various purposes like sowing, transplanting, pruning,
plucking, dying, grading and packing of coffee.
(e) Distribution: Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu are the main states of
coffee production in India.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 12.2

1. Explain any three geographical conditions required for the cultivation of cotton?
2. How will India cloth its billion + population if cotton crop fails for successive
number of years?

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12.4 MAJOR CHALLENGES FACED BY INDIAN Development
AGRICULTURE
If we look at the challenges faced by Indian agriculture, we can broadly group them
into two categories. One category belongs to the problems that have been long
standing. Second category of problems is new and has been emerging from the
prevailing agricultural practices, system, changing climate and economy. Let us Notes
discuss the major challenges in detail:
1. Stagnation in Production of Major Crops: Production of some of the major
staple food crops like rice and wheat has been stagnating for quite some time.
This is a situation which is worrying our agricultural scientists, planners and policy
makers. If this trend continues, there would be a huge gap between the demand
of ever growing population and the production. Nobody wants India to go back
to a situation that was prevailing in our country prior to Green Revolution. Try
to find out what was the situation during pre-Green Revolution period.
2. High cost of Farm Inputs: Over the years rates of farm inputs have increased
manifold. Farm inputs include fertilizer, insecticide, pesticides, HYV seeds, farm
labour cost etc. Such an increase puts low and medium land holding farmers at
a disadvantage.
3. Soil Exhaustion: On one hand green revolution has played a positive role in
reducing hunger from India. On the other hand it has also led to negative
consequences. One of which is Soil exhaustion. Soil exhaustion means loss of
nutrients in the soil from farming the same crop over and over again. This usually
happens in the rain forest.
4. Depletion of Fresh Ground Water: The second major negative consequence
of green revolution is depletion of fresh ground water. You would remember
that areas where green revolution was successful, it was due to the use of chemical
fertilizers and irrigation. Most of the irrigation in dry areas of Punjab, Haryana
and Western Uttar Pradesh was carried out by excessive use of ground water.
Today fresh ground water situation in these states is alarming. In the coming few
years if this type of farming practice continues, these states are going to face water
famine.
5. Adverse impact of Global Climatic Change: Among various challenges,
global climatic change is the recent one. It has been predicted that its impact
on agriculture would be immense. Since, 70% of Indian population is engaged
in agricultural activities, you can imagine the consequences. It is predicted that
due to climate change, temperature would increase from 2°C to 3°C, there would
be increase in sea level, more intense cyclones, unpredictable rainfall etc These
changes would adversely affect the production of rice and wheat. Specifically,
rise in temperature in winter would affect production of wheat in north India.

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ment, Resources and Production of rice would be affected in coastal areas of India due to ingress of
Development
saline water and increase of frequency of cyclones.
6. Impact of Globalisation You can see the effect of globalisation on the farm
sector in India. All developing countries have been affected by it. The most
evident effect is the squeeze on farmer’s income and the threat to the viability
Notes of cultivation in India. This is due to the rising input costs and falling output prices.
This reflects the combination of reduced subsidy and protection to farmers.
Trade liberalization exposes these farmers to competition from highly subsidized
production in the developed world.

Globalisation refers to the increasingly global relationships of culture, people

and economic activity. Subsidy: A subsidy is money given by government to
help support a business or person. Liberalization: liberty to establish any kind
of economic activity at any time any where in the country without anticipating
any kind of so called private or public restrictions.

7. Providing Food Security: Before the introduction of green revolution in India,

we were not self sufficient in terms of our food grain production. Due to partition
of India in 1947 the network of canal irrigation system, cotton belt and wheat
bowl meant to West Pakistan which is now Pakistan. Similarly the jute belt and
rice bowl was awarded to East Pakistan, which is now Bangladesh. With the
introduction of green revolution, production of food grains increased substantially
and India became self sufficient. However, during the last one decade the total
production has become stagnant. On the other hand we have added another 16
to 18 million population over this period. Although India has become self sufficient
in good it is yet to ensure food security which is dependent upon accessibility,
affordability as well nutritional value of the food available. One of the biggest
challenges facing India is Providing Food Security to its population.
8. Farmers Suicide: Every suicide has a multiple of causes. But when you have
nearly 200,000 of them, it makes sense to seek broad common factors within
that group. The suicides appear concentrated in regions of high commercialization
of agriculture and very high peasant debt. Cash crop farmers seemed far more
vulnerable to suicide than those growing food crops. Yet the basic underlying
causes of the crisis remained untouched. Commercialization of the countryside
along with massive decline in investment in agriculture was the beginning of the
decline. Withdrawal of bank credit at a time of soaring input prices and the crash
in farm incomes compounded the problems. Shifting of millions from food crop
to cash crop cultivation had its own risks. Privatization of many resources has
also compounded the problems.
The devastation lies in the big 5 States of Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka,
Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh. These states accounted for two-thirds of all farm
suicides during 2003-08.Some of the major factors responsible are indebtedness,

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India: Natural Environ-
crop failure and deterioration in economic status. Decline in social position, exorbitant ment, Resources and
charges by local money lenders for the vulnerable farmers, chronic illness in the family, Development
addiction etc. have made life of farmers difficult.

ACTIVITY 12.3 Notes

If you are assigned political leadership of the country, what measures would you adopt
to address the challenges that are mentioned above? Which two changes would you
address and how?
............................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................

INTEXT QUESTIONS 12.3

1. How would climate change would affect agriculture in India? Explain any two
situations.
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................

WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT

l There are different types of farming practised in India. Some of these practices
are subsistence and commercial farming, intensive and extensive farming,
plantation farming and mixed farming.
l The major salient features of Indian agriculture are subsistence agriculture, highly
dependent on monsoon and animals, variety of crops and predominance of food
crops.
l Major crops in India can be broadly divided into four categories i.e. food crops,
cash crops, plantation crops and fruits.

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 MODULE - 2 Agriculture in India
India: Natural Environ-
ment, Resources and • Some of the major challenges faced by Indian agriculture are Stagnation in
Development production, high cost of farm inputs, soil exhaustion, depletion of fresh ground
water, climatic change, globalization and liberalization of economy, food security
and farmer’s suicide.

Notes
TERMINAL EXERCISES
1. Explain any four salient features of Indian agriculture.
2. Compare the geographical conditions required for the growth of rice and the
growth of wheat cultivation.
3. Identify and write any four similar geographical conditions required for both tea
and coffee.
4. Analyse any four major challenges confronted by Indian Agriculture.
5. Explain the concept of food security. How is it different from self sufficiency in
food.
6. On the outline map of India locate the production areas of:
(i) Two labour intensive crops
(ii) Two crops that are grown in varied terrains

ANSWERS TO INTEXT QUESTIONS

12.1
1. The basic difference between these two types of farming is the amount of
production from per unit of land. USA, Canada, former USSR are the major
countries where extensive farming is practiced whereas Japan is the leading
example of intensive farming.
2. As per the learners experience.

12.2
1. (i) Uniformly high temperature varying between 21°C and 30°C (ii) It grows
mostly in the areas having at least 210 frost free days in a year; (iii) It
requires modest amount of rainfall of 50 to 100cm. However, cotton is
successfully grown by the help of irrigation in the areas where rainfall is
less than 50 cm (iv) high amount of rainfall in the beginning and sunny and
dry weather at the time of ripening are very useful for a good crop; (v)
cotton cultivation is very closely related to Black soils. However, it also

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grows well in alluvial soils of the Satluj-Ganga plain and red and laterite ment, Resources and
soils of the peninsular region; (vi) as picking of cotton has not been made Development
mechanized till now, therefore a lot of cheap and efficient labour is required
at the time of picking (Any three)
2. As per the learners’ experience.
Notes
12.3
1. Due to climatic change, temperature would increase by 2 to 3 degree Celsius,
increase in sea level, more intense cyclone, unpredictable rainfall etc These
changes would adversely affect the production of rice and wheat. Specifically
rise in temperature in winter would affect production of wheat in north India.
Production of rice would be affected in coastal areas of India due to ingress of
saline water and increase of frequency of cyclone.

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 MODULE - 2 Transport and Communication
India: Natural Environ-
ment, Resources and
Development

13
Notes

TRANSPORT AND
COMMUNICATION
Rakesh and his wife lived in a small village. One evening there was heavy rain and
thunder storm. His wife had severe stomachache. The village nurse advised him to
take her to the nearest hospital. Since there was no communication facility available,
it was not possible for Rakesh to contact any doctor, hospital or ambulance. Rakesh
requested his friend to take them to the nearest hospital. Unfortunately their tractor
couldn’t go beyond a few hundred metres as the road was broken and submerged
in rain water. What should Rakesh do? What would have been the solution to the
problem?This incident highlights the importance of transport and communication in
our life. In this lesson, we plan to bring before you the various modes of transport
and communication and their importance for the development of a nation.

OBJECTIVES
After completing this lesson, you will be able to:
 establish that modes of transport and communication help in connecting people
and facilitate the socio-economic growth of a region;
 classify roads on different parameters and appreciate the role and importance
of road transport in our daily life and national development;
 examine the factors affecting the distribution and density of railway network in
India and recognise the technical advancement that has taken place in this sphere;
 explain the importance of various means of water transport;
 recognize the growing importance of air transport and its ever growing economic
significance; and
 realise the role of communication in connecting people and reducing distance

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13.1 TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATION – Development
LIFELINES OF A COUNTRY
Transport and means of communication are integral part of our life today. Can we
imagine our life without them? Just imagine if one day you come to know that all
the modern means of transport and communication have been stopped due to
unavailability of fuel. Also imagine the problems you are going to face! Notes

ACTIVITY 13.1
List your problems:
 ......................................................................................................................
 ......................................................................................................................
 ......................................................................................................................
 ......................................................................................................................
 ......................................................................................................................

13.1.1 The Role of Transport and Communication

Transport facilitates trade and commerce by carrying goods from the areas of
production to that of consumption. Goods from the areas that have surplus are shifted
to those areas which are deficient in those items. Movement of people from one place
to another place in search of job, education and emergency through transport facility.
Communication keeps us informed about the world’s events and trends. It brings
in positive changes in the life of the people and thereby enhancing their economic
conditions.

13.2 THE MODES OF TRANSPORT

The modes of transport on which the countries depend for connecting people, growth
and development are as under:

Modes of Transport

Land Water Air

Roadways Railways Oceanic Inland Domestic International

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 MODULE - 2 Transport and Communication
India: Natural Environ-
ment, Resources and 13.2.1 Land Transport can be broadly divided into two types:
Development
1. Roadways
2. Railways
1. Roadways

Notes Look at the pictures in Fig. 13.1. Can you imagine the changes in the manner we
have moved from ancient to modern time from these pictures? Suppose, you have
to go to your friend’s house just 500 metres away from your house, or a visitor
or a relative living 200 km away from your house. A villager has to catch a bus to
come from a village to a city. Of course, the roads will be used. Now, you must

Figure 13.1 Modes of Transport

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have understood that roads are most commonly used means of transport. Roads play ment, Resources and
an important role in connecting people and also in ensuring socio-economic growth Development
of a country as under:
 Roads provide door to door service by means of a rickshaw, car, bicycle, bus,
scooter or a truck.
 The construction, repair and maintenance cost is less than other means of Notes
transport.
 It is the cheapest and the most convenient mode of transportation for a few people
and relatively smaller amount of goods over shorter distances.
 It is through roads that we reach railway stations, airports and seaports.
 Perishable goods like milk, fruits and vegetables are quickly carried from nearby
villages to the cities or metropolis or to other destinations.
 Roads connect rural areas to the urban areas and can be constructed in all types
of terrains like hills, deserts, mountain and plateaus.

Classification of Roads
Do you find same kind of roads everywhere? Obviously not, some roads may be
kuchcha, and others pakka, then narrow while others broad. Roads are classified
on the basis of:
(i) Materials used for construction.
(ii) Constructing and maintaining authority.
(i) Material used for construction
Roads can be classified on the basis of materials used for construction as metalled
and un-metalled roads. Metalled roads are usually made by bricks, concrete, cement
and charcoal. Un-metalled roads are made of sand, mud and straw.

ACTIVITY 13.2
Identify the materials used for the construction of the roads.

Metalled Roads (Pucca Roads) Un-metalled Roads (Kuchha Roads)

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ment, Resources and (ii) Constructing and maintaining authority
Development
Have you ever wondered as to who constructed these roads and where did they
get the money from? They are constructed by using public money paid as taxes by
people. Various government authorities are responsible for balanced development of
roads and better management.
Notes  The development of village roads are undertaken by the scheme known as
Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojna launched by the Central government.

64° 68° 72° 76° 80° 84° 88° 92° 96°

36° 36°

INDIA
GOLDEN QUADRILATERAL
32° 32°

CHINA
N
A

Delhi TIBET
T
S
I
K

28° NE 28°
PA
A

L
P

BHUTAN

24° 24°
Ahmedabad BANGLADESH

Kolkata

MYANMAR
20° 20°

Mumbai

Arabian Bay of Bengal

Sea 16°
16°

12° Chennai 12°

Andaman & Nicobar Islands

Lakshadweep
8°
8°

SRI
LANKA
km. 50 0 50 100 150 200 250 km.

I n d i a n O c e a n

72° 76° 80° 84° 88° 92° 96°

Figure 13.2 India: Goldern Quadrilateral

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These provide links from village to village and village to main road in the rural ment, Resources and
areas. About 80% of the total road length in India is categorize as rural roads. Development

 Zila Parisad has been made responsible for constructing roads that connect
district headquarters with other cities and towns of the district. These District
Roads account for 14% of the total road length in India.
 State Public Works Department (SPWD) constructs and maintains roads that Notes
link state highways, state capitals with district headquarters. They constitute 4%
of the total road length in the country.
64° 68° 72° 76° 80° 84° 88° 92° 96°

36° 36°

Uri INDIA
Srinagar
NORTH-SOUTH AND EAST WEST
32° CORRIDORS 32°

CHINA
N
A

TIBET
T
S
I
K

28° NE 28°
PA
A

L
P

BHUTAN

24° 24°
BANGLADESH Silcher

Porbandar MYANMAR
20° 20°

Arabian Bay of Bengal

Sea 16°
16°

12° 12°

Andaman & Nicobar Islands

Lakshadweep
8°
8°

Kanniyakumari SRI
LANKA
km. 50 0 50 100 150 200 250 km.

I n d i a n O c e a n

72° 76° 80° 84° 88° 92° 96°

Figure 13.3 North-South and East-West corridors

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 MODULE - 2 Transport and Communication
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ment, Resources and  National Highway Authority of India constructs and maintains the National
Development
Highways [NH], important roads linking different parts of the country and
connecting state capitals to the main cities of India. They constitute only 2% of
the total road length but carry 40% of the road traffic. The government has
launched a major road development project linking north, south, east and west
Notes India.This will reduce time and fuel. Then it will also help to maintain fast flow
of traffic between mega cities of India. It is implemented by National Highway
Authority of India. The major super highways are:
(a) Golden Quadrilateral connects Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai and Kolkata
which forms a geometrical figure of Quadrangle.
(b) North-South Corridor links Srinagar to Kanyakumari.
(c) East-West Corridor connecting Silchar in the east to Porbandar in the
west.
 Border Roads are constructed along the bordering areas of the country for easy
accessibility of goods and other requirements of defence personnels during the
time of war and emergency and for the benefit of people living in those areas.
They are constructed and maintained by Border Road Organization (BRO).

The oldest and the longest road in India was built across Gangetic plain from the
north-west to the east on orders of Pashtun emperor, Sher Shah Suri in 16th
century which was renamed as Grand Trunk Road. It is presently divided into
NH-1 (Amritsar to Delhi)and NH-2(Delhi to Kolkata).Today India has about 330
lakh kms of road network whereas in 1947 it was only 4 lakh kms.

ACTIVITY 13.3
Look at the maps (Fig. 13.2 and 13.3) and find out which super highway is nearest
to your home and which organization maintains it.

2. Railways
“This has become an easy way to place their demands and there is no strict
punishment” said Anu’s father while reading the newspaper. Anu asked, “what had
happened”. Father replied, “Nothing new, a group of protestors have blocked the

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railway tracks. They stopped the trains and have burnt two bogies on Agra Delhi ment, Resources and
Development
route”. Anu asked her father “why he was upset’’. Father said, “Don’t you know
that millions of rupees, efforts of thousands of people and many years are spent in
building railway tracks and manufacturing railway coaches. This is for our convenience
and quick movement of passengers and freights. Such an act causes inconvenience
to the passengers, loss of millions of rupees, and affects business.”Anu has realized Notes
the importance of railways as stated below:

 This is the cheapest transport by which thousands of people can travel together
from one corner of the country to another for the purpose of education, business,
siteseeing, pilgrimage or visiting friends or relatives.

 People of all income groups can travel by train as it has different types of coaches
like General, Sleeper and AC chair car.

 One can have comfortable night journey as it has berths and washrooms in sleeper
coaches.

 It carries country’s largest amount of bulky goods like coal, cement, food grains,
fertilizer, petroleum, automobiles etc. from mines to industries and from industries
to the areas of consumption.

That is why we should all help in maintaining this important resource of country.
Railways facilitate the movement of both freight and passengers and contribute to
the growth of our economy.

Indian Railways started in 1853 from Bombay to Thane covering a distance of

34 km.
At present, Indian Railway network is the largest in Asia and the fourth largest
in the world with the length of more than 64000 kms.
It is the largest government undertaking employing 1.6 million people and a
separate budget is presented for it.
It has been divided into 16 zones for better administration and management of
work.

When Anu and her father were talking about the importance of railways, one of her
friends Jiya came to her house. She was studying in Delhi University but her native
state was Sikkim. Jiya understood the logic, but question in her mind was why Sikikim

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 MODULE - 2 Transport and Communication
India: Natural Environ-
ment, Resources and never be well connected with the other parts of the country. She stood for a while
Development
and said, “Uncle, why are there few railway lines in my state whereas other states
have good network of railways?” He explained the factors which are responsible
for the development of railways:

 The construction of railways is very difficult and costly in mountainous region

Notes whereas it can be easily done in areas of flat land. Therefore, India has dense
railway network in the Gangetic plain where as desert, hills, marshy regions, flood
prone areas, dense forest, areas with rapids and rivers have not been developed
much.

 The states of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Punjab and Haryana, are well
connected by railways because these states are located in the plains. He also
told that these areas are food bowl of India and most of the crops grown here
are taken to other parts of the country through railways.

 Areas where mining and industries are more developed tend to have better
facilities of railways for easy transportation of goods. Areas with less industrial
development cannot compensate the cost of construction of railways, therefore
have less railway network.

 Regions which are densely populated and have more movements are definitely
well connected with railways.

 Urban areas or large cities attract more people for jobs, business, education,
trade, banking have high density railway network for quick movement of people.

Anu’s father smiled and said “No Jiya, the government is aware of the importance
of connecting different part of the country specially in remote areas. This is being
done on priority now”. Jiya understood that any one can be connected anywhere
in the world on the internet.

Technical advancement provided by Indian Railways

There is a direct rail link available from the north to the south of the country (i.e.
from Jammu to Kanya Kumari) covering a distance of 3751 km in 71 hours.Facilities
to travel in 1st A.C., 2nd A.C., 3rd A.C., A.C. Chair Car, 2nd Class sleeper and
General class are available to cater to the needs of the people of different economic
strata.Only diesel and electric locomotives are used on broad gauge providing
pollution free journey.The passengers can avail the facility of booking electronic-
tickets easily from home.The trucks loaded with goods are delivered directly to the
consumers or factories in special rail wagons.

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Development
ACTIVITY 13.4
Search the headquarters of the major railway zones in the grid given below.

P O R I T S M
Notes
U P N K J O U
K L M T R P M
Q U W A I T B
K O L K A T A
J A I P I N I
Z V D U X Y R
C H E N N A I
T K L J Q R J
I T H Q X Z U
N P I T O J K

INTEXT QUESTIONS 13.1

1. Complete the following statements;

(a) East-West corridor links ...................... and ...................... as ......................

(b) Super Highway connecting four metro-cities is known as ......................

as it forms ......................

2. (a) Explain briefly the main factor affecting density of railways. Identify the
following two groups of states where there is high and low density of
railways and give reasons for your answer.

(b) Identify two advantages and two disadvantages in each roadways and
railways transport.

3. “A few states of India lack a good railway network”. Justify the statement in 30
words.

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Development
ACTIVITY 13.5
Show the railway reservation form given below to your family. Try to fill it up
discussing the meaning and the importance of the columns given below:
(a) Medical Practitioner
Notes
(b) Senior Citizen
(c) Choice of berth
(d) Meals available in some trains

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13.2.2 Water Transport ment, Resources and
Development
Have you ever wondered why people in ancient times settled down near the rivers?
How was trading possible between far off lands? Yes, it was through rivers and seas.
From olden days till now waterways had been an important means of transportation.
It is because:
Notes

Figure 13.4 Mode of Water Transport

 It is the cheapest means as compared to other means of transport because it

involves no expenditure on construction other than maintenance.
 It is very useful for transporting heavy and bulky goods. A ship can carry lakhs
of tonnes of goods at a time.
 It is a better mode of transportation for petroleum and its products as it involves
cross-continental transfers. India lacks in petroleum deposit and most of it is
imported from Middle East countries.
 It is fuel efficient and environment friendly means of transportation.
Water ways have been classified into two types – Do you know them? Find out
why are they called Inland waterways and Ocean routes?
1. Inland Waterways: India has inland navigable waterways measuring 14,500 km
which include canals, rivers, backwaters and narrow bays etc. But only 3,700
km of river length is suitable for mechanized boats in river Ganga and
Brahmaputra in the north and Godavari, Krishna and Kaveri in the south. A good
network of inland waterways is able to reduce the traffic on the highways. It also
helps transportation of goods.
Inland Waterways Authority of India was constituted in 1986 and looks after
the development, maintenance and management of inland water ways in the
country. The following three waterways have already been declared as National
Waterways,
NW 1 – River Ganga from Allahabad, Uttar Pradesh to Haldia, West Bengal
(1620 km)
NW 2 – River Brahmaputra from Sadiya to Dhubri in Assam (891 km)
NW 3 – Kollam to Kotapuram stretch of canal in Kerala (205 km)

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 MODULE - 2 Transport and Communication
India: Natural Environ-
ment, Resources and 2. Oceanic Waterways: If you look at the map of India, you will find that India
Development
is surrounded on three sides by the Arabian Sea, the Bay of Bengal and the Indian
Ocean with a coastline of 7516 km India had only 49 ships in 1946 with a
capacity of 1,27,083 tonnes. After independence, the Government has taken
various measures resulting in procurement of 616 ships in 2004 with a gross
tonnage of 700,000 tonnes of carrying capacity.
Notes
64° 68° 72° 76° 80° 84° 88° 92° 96°

36° 36°

INDIA
MAJOR PORTS
32° 32°

CHINA
N
A

TIBET
T
S
I
K

28° NE 28°
PA
A

L
P

BHUTAN

24° 24°
BANGLADESH
Kandla
Kolkata
Haldia
MYANMAR
20° 20°
Paradip
Mumbai
Jawaharlal Nehru

Arabian Bay of Bengal

Sea Vishakapatnam
16°
16°
Marmagaon

Mangalore Chennai
12° 12°

Kochi
Andaman & Nicobar Islands
Lakshadweep Tuticorin
8°
8°

SRI
LANKA
km. 50
km. 50 00 50
50 100
100150
150 200
200250
250 km.
km.

I n d i a n O c e a n

72° 76° 80° 84° 88° 92° 96°

Figure 13.5 Major Ports of India

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The two categories of Indian Sea Waterways are: ment, Resources and
Development
(a) Coastal shipping: Transporting passengers and cargo between the ports
located along the coast of the country is done by coastal waterways. Ships
of about 100 navigation companies are engaged in coastal waterways
handling about 7 lakh tonnes of cargo through 12 main ports and 189 small
and medium class ports. Notes
(b) International shipping: Most of the shipping capacity of India is used
in international trade. Through the ports of the east coast to Myanmar,
Malaysia, Indonesia, Australia, China, Japan and from the west coast ports
to the U.S.A., Europe and Asia, are used for export and import.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 13.2

1. (a) Complete the given table with the help of the map given below.

Port State Coast

Mumbai Maharashtra Western

(b) Point out the areas where there are no ports. Give one reason for the same.

13.2.3 Air Transport

Do you wish to fly like a bird? By airways, you can reach at the destination quickly
and without encounter any cring traffic. Our modern day airplane was designed by
the Wright Brothers in 1903. Air transport in India began in 1911. Today it is one
of the important means of transportation like roadways and railways. India has
facilities of both domestic as well as international airways. Let us discuss its
importance in the modern age.

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Development

Notes

Figure 13.6 Mode of Airways

 Air transport is considering that world is becoming a global village. It is the fastest
means of transport and one can reach the destination in a few hours covering
the distance of hundreds of kilometers.
 It is free from surface hindrances such as inaccessible mountains, dense forests,
marshy lands or flooded areas.
 It is most important due to its utility in national defence.
 It also connect countries of different continents making earth a global village.
 It is suitable for transporting fruits, vegetables or high value goods like costly drugs
and sophisticated machines in desired time frame.
 It is very useful at the time of natural or any other calamities for saving people
or supplying goods of their basic requirements immediately.
The only drawback is the high cost of travelling or transportation. That is why, it
is still out of reach for the common man. In the last few years, the use of air transport
has recorded a rapid increase.
Air transport services in India can be classified into the following categories:

13.2.4 Domestic and International Services

Domestic and International services are provided by government and private
provider. Pawanhans Helicopter Ltd. (government undertaking) – This Company
provides air transport to the Oil and Natural gas Corporation, Indian Oil and in the
North-Eastern part of the country.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 13.3

1. Which states has more than one international airport?
2. Mention two states which do not have international airport?
3. Which is the closest or nearest Domestic and International airport from your
house?

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13.3 COMMUNICATION AND ITS IMPORTANCE ment, Resources and
Development
Your sister’s marriage has been fixed and you want all your relatives and friends to
be present at the wedding. How would you like to inform them? Suddenly, your
grandfather suffered from a heart attack and your father is in his office. How will
you inform him immediately? How did you come to know about tsunnami in Japan
or about the incident where millions of people were protesting against the President Notes

64° 68° 72° 76° 80° 84° 88° 92° 96°

36° 36°

INDIA
INTERNATIONAL AIRPORTS
32° 32°
Raja Sansi
Amritsar
CHINA
N
A

TIBET
T

Indira Gandhi
S

International
I
K

28° Delhi NE 28°

PA
A

L
P

BHUTAN

Lok Nayak Jayaprakash

Patna
24° 24°
BANGLADESH
Indore
Ahmedabad Devi Ahilya Bai Holkar
Sardar Vallabh Kolkata
Bhai Patel Netaji Subhash
Chandra Bose
Nagpur
MYANMAR
20° Dr. B.R. Ambedkar 20°

Mumbai Chhatrapati
Shivaji

Arabian Hyderabad
Rajiv Gandhi
Bay of Bengal
Sea 16°
16°

Bengaluru
Chennai
12° Meenam Bakkam 12°

Andaman & Nicobar Islands

Lakshadweep
8°
8°
Tiruvanantapuram
Nedimbacherry SRI
LANKA
km. 50
km. 50 00 50
50 100
100150
150 200
200250
250 km.
km.

I n d i a n O c e a n

72° 76° 80° 84° 88° 92° 96°

Figure 13.7 Major International Airports of India

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 MODULE - 2 Transport and Communication
India: Natural Environ-
ment, Resources and in Egypt? Your response to the above situations must have classified the importance
Development
of communication in everyday life, its need and various means of carrying it out. Thus,
communication is a system of carrying messages to exchange thoughts, ideas and
information and also to share your sorrows and pleasures with your family members
or friends.
Notes
Now you must have understood that the means of communication change suiting the
purpose of communication. There are various means of communication. People
communicate with each other by writing letters, sending telegrams, radio, T.V.,
computer technology, newspapers, magazines and pamphlets; messages can be sent
by telegram, facsimile machine (FAX) and E-mail (Electronic mail) for business trade
and other services. E-mail has emerged as the fastest means of communication and
is almost free.

It is also important to know that the choice of a particular means of communication

depends on purposes.

Now, let us classify different means of communication into two groups:

1. Means of Personal Communication

2. Means of Mass Communication

1. Means of Personal Communication: We classify means of personal

communication into two parts:

(i) Postal Service

(ii) Telephone Service

(i) Postal Service: Postal service is a very old means of communication.

Though letter writing is not that popular any longer, it is still important even
today. Indian Postal Network is the largest in the world. In 2001, India
had 1,55,000 post offices providing different services like – letters, money
orders, parcels, postal saving schemes, etc.

(ii) Telephone Service: It has emerged as one of the most important and
widely used means of communication in today’s world. It is quick and
affordable, serving our need seamlessly.

2. Means of Mass Communication: The means by which information can be

communicated to a very large number of people are called Media or Mass
Communication, such as radio, television, newspaper, cinema, books, magazines,
traditional folk modes and satellite communication.

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(i) Radio: Radio transmission in India started in 1927 from Mumbai and ment, Resources and
Development
Kolkata to entertain, educate and apparise the people of the country with
important information. Today the program of All India Radio (AIR) are
available to 90% parts of the country to 98.8% of our people.

(ii) Television: The national television transmission service of India started

Notes
in 1959 is one of the biggest ground transmission organizations of the
world. Today, 87% of population can watch it. Television program telecast
by National, Regional and local Doordarshan and a large number of private
channels are available for education, information and recreation.

(iii) Computer (Information Technology): Today, computer has become the

basis of communication and economic development as it is used everywhere
from homes, offices to shops, hospitals, railways, airports, banks, educational
institutions, etc.

13.3.1 Newer communication Technology

In recent years, there is revolution of new technology that has helped people in much
better way such as:

(a) Internet: It provides access to several kinds of information.It connects all types
of computers across the world to obtain information at the click of a button.

(b) Video Conferencing: People sitting at far off places can talk and express their
views with the help of telecommunication and computer.

(c) E-Commerce: Facility available for sale and purchase of goods through internet
and fax.

(d) Internet Telephony: It is a software programme which makes a computer to

work like telephone. This facility has reduced the call rates drastically.

(e) E-Mail: It is a method of sending letters or information through internet to

anyone in the world in the blink of an eye.

(f) Tele-Medicine: Using this technology, doctors can advise his patients sitting
at a distance of thousands of kilometers from them.

Thus, scientific advancement and technology has revolutionized the system of

communication and brought people very close to each other, to be in touch all the
time and making the world a global village.

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ment, Resources and
Development
ACTIVITY 13.6
Take a pack of old playing cards. Cut pictures of various modes of communication
from old newspapers or magazines. Stick one picture on each card. On the back
side write one question about it. Now you have your own set of Communication
Notes
Cards. Play it with your friends and family.

Hints: Which communication aid can deliver one message at the same time
throughout the country? (Ans. T.V.).

INTEXT QUESTIONS 13.4

1. Categorize the following into personal communication, Mass Communication and

others;

Electronic monitor, utility van, tractor, telegram, metro rail, mobile, postcard,
fax, news bulletin, radio, ambulance, facebook, twitter and magazine, bulk SMS.

2. Give one word for each of the following statement:

(a) A system of carrying messages to exchange thoughts, ideas and information.

(b) The service through which letters, parcels and money-orders are sent.

(c) A system of writing letters through internet.

(d) The authority responsible for transmission of programs through radio in

India.

(e) The most common and popular means of personal communication in India
at present.

WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT

 Need and importance of means of transport and communication
 Types of roads constructed in India

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 Role of railways in the development of a country ment, Resources and
Development
 Types of waterways and their importance in a country’s trade

 Need of airways and its importance in a country like India

 Modern means of communication and their relevance in our lives Notes

TERMINAL EXERCISES

1. Why are the means of transport and communication regarded as the lifelines of
a country and its economy?

2. State three merits and three demerits of roadways?

3. What is the importance of water ways for India?

4. Study the map of Major Ports and answer the following questions:

(a) Count and tell how many ports are there on the eastern coast.

(b) List the states that have two ports.

(c) Name the state in which Paradeep port is located.

(d) Name the port located in Goa.

(e) Name the southernmost port of India.

5. What are the benefits of airways over other means of transport?

6. State the importance of communication in your day-to-day activities?

7. Differentiate between personal communication and mass communication.

8. List five problems that you faced during your last journey by train. Suggest at
least one remedy for each of the problems you faced.

9. On the outline map of India, identify the states of high, moderate and low rail
density and name them. Why do they have such density?

(Hints: Difficult terrain, climatic conditions, economy, etc)

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ment, Resources and
Development

Notes

India: Railway Zones

Project:
Interview at least five people in your locality who have been staying there for the
last ten years, and ask them what changes have occurred over a period of time due
to construction of new roads/railways.
OR
In your area, find the authority responsible for the construction of roads. You may
need to go to that office to find the details of it.

ANSWERS TO INTEXT QUESTIONS

13.1
1. (a) Silchar, Porbander, they are located in the eastern and western edge of
the country

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(b) Golden quadrilateral, a geometrical quadrilateral, of various types of relief ment, Resources and
Development
features across the country
2. (a) These regions have a high railway density due to the following reasons,
Punjab and Haryana – due to agricultural productions
Maharashtra and Gujarat – due to industrialization
Notes
Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh – due to mineral deposits
(b) Both are important means of transport of the masses.
Both are essential for the development of a region.
Railways are generally used for long distances.
Roadways are generally preferred over shorter distances.
Railways can carry very large volumes.
Roadways can carry lesser volume.
Railways involve high construction and maintenance cost.
Roadways involve lesser cost in construction and maintenance.
3. Because of high mountains and rugged topology. For example, Sikkim and
Arunachal Pradesh.

13.2
1. (a) Table
Port State Coast
Kandla Gujarat Western
Mumbai Maharashtra Western
Jawaharlal Nehru Maharashtra Western
Marmagao Goa Western
New Mangalore Karnataka Western
Kochi Kerala Western
Tuticorin Tamil Nadu Eastern
Chennai Tamil Nadu Eastern
Vishakapatnam Andhra Pradesh Eastern
Paradip Orissa Eastern
Haldia West Bengal Eastern
Kolkata West Bengal Eastern

(b) Rajasthan, Haryana, Punjab, Bihar etc. donot have any port as those states
are far away from the ocean.

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ment, Resources and 13.3
Development
1. Maharashtra
2. Haryana and Rajasthan
3. As per the learners’ experience

Notes
13.4
1. Means of transport: Utility van, tractor, metro rail, ambulance, trolley, bicycle.
Means of communication: Telegram, mobile, postcard, fax, facebook, twitter.
2. (a) Communication
(b) Postal service
(c) Email
(d) All India Radio (AIR)
(e) Mobile Phones

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India: Natural Environ-
ment, Resources and
Development

14
Notes

POPULATION: OUR GREATEST

RESOURCE
All of us hear many people saying that the population of India is a great problem.
You also may be feeling the same. You may be aware that the population of India
is more than a billion and it is still growing. It may overtake the population of China
within the next couple of decades, eventually making India the most populous nation
of the world. It is in this way the population is quite often seen as a liability, a major
hindrance to development and quality of life of the people. But is it true? Let’s think
and understand. Has population not been an asset, a resource for the country? Today,
India is considered as a leading nation in the world in terms of human power. One
of the major contributory factors for this global standing has been the young, educated
and productive people of our country. They are contributing to the development of
not only our country, but many of the foreign countries also. In this context, population
is an asset for the economy, the greatest resource of the country rather than a liability.
In this lesson, you shall know how population of our country can be viewed as the
greatest resource.

OBJECTIVES
After studying this lesson you will be able to:

l analyze population not in terms of simple numbers and a problem, but as the
greatest resource of the country;
l explain factors that make population a human resource;
l identify areas of high, moderate and low density of population and locate the
same on the outline map of India;
l analyze the factors affecting the distribution and density of population;
l examine the implications of the population change and population composition,
rural-urban composition, age composition, sex composition and literacy;

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ment, Resources and l appreciate needs of adolescents as a critical population group and the growing
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potential human resource;
l recognize the need for empowerment of women in India; and
l evaluate population policies adopted by the Government of India, especially in
the context of human resource development.
Notes
14.1 POPULATION AS A RESOURCE
Generally, we understand that population means a collection of people. Let us go
through the meanings of population stated in the box below. This term has been
defined differently in different
contexts. You may find that the What does population mean?
meaning of population stated in a l Total number of people inhabiting a
science or biology textbook is specified area or territory (e.g.
different from how it has been used population of a village, city, state,
in a social science, geography, country, world).
economics or sociology textbooks.
l Total number of people of a particular
You will learn later on that in statistics
group, race, class or category (e.g.
this term has yet another meaning.
population of Scheduled Castes,
Will you like to find out what it is?
Scheduled Tribes, or religious groups
You may do it by consulting books on
like Hindus, Muslims, Christians,
Statistics. However, in the present
Sikhs)
lesson we will be using population to
mean the collection of people living in l In biology, collection of inter-breeding
a given geographic area or territory. organisms of a particular species (e.g.
This is how it is used in the census. population of tigers, deer, etc.)
The collection of people is seen and
understood primarily in terms of number. But population is also considered as a
resource, a human resource.

What is resource? It is something that can be used and reused. Let us look around
the room. We find things like furniture, books, notebooks, pen, cups and others. We
consider them as our resources and use and reuse them in our daily life.

Now, let us try to trace their origin. These are made out of the resources which we
get from nature. The furniture is made from timber that we obtain from the forest.
Books and notebooks are made from the wood pulp which comes from the forest.
The pen is made up of plastic which is the by-product of petroleum. The cup is made
of clay found in the soil. These and many more things which are part of our daily
life are extracted, processed or manufactured from the natural resources. It is the
people who with their physical and mental efforts convert the natural resources into
various goods of utility.

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The Government of India created a Ministry of Human Resource Development

in 1985, in place of its earlier Ministry of Education and Culture. Some of the
States also have done so. This suggests that the idea of people being a human
resource has gained acceptance. Notes

If resources are things that are used and reused, how can population be considered
a resource? We all know that the grains which are cultivated in the fields, the minerals
that are mined and the goods which are manufactured in factories are all produced
by people. People of the country produce and develop various facilities and services
to make their lives comfortable. The facilities, whether these are means of transport
and communication, schools, colleges, hospitals, electricity producing units,
infrastructure for irrigation and others, play a significant role in the development of
a country.
For producing and developing all such facilities and converting them into useful
resources, human beings play the role of the best resource. Without human beings,
other resources cannot be developed and utilized properly. Therefore, the number
as well as the quality of people, collectively, is the real and ultimate resource of a
country.
In view of the above, the sheer number of people, which is determined by census
conducted at periodic intervals, may be a liability, but the qualitative population
becomes the human capital of a country. For converting the number into capital, the
country has to invest a lot in the form of improving the health and nutritional status
of the people, their education and specialized training and their overall quality of life.
The investments for improving the quality of the people made by the state as well
as the society matter a lot. It is essential that every individual develops to the fullest
capability and is engaged in the development process of the country. It is therefore
important to understand that people as human resource are both an object of
development and also a participant in development. As we discussed earlier the
number of people may not be called resource, but there are certain factors which
convert these numbers into a useful resource.

Human capital: Over the years, the terms used to describe staff and employees
in businesses have changed. We have moved from ‘personnel’ to ‘human
resources’ to ‘human capital’. Human capital represents attributes of a person
that are productive in the economic context. It refers to the stock of productive
skills and technical knowledge embodied in labour.

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Census: The procedure of systematically acquiring and recording information
about the members of a given population. The term is used mostly in connection
with ‘national population and door to door censuses’ to be taken every 10 years.
The Government of India, with the assistance of States, has been conducting
census to collect data about various demographic and socio-economic aspects
Notes of our population.

Factors making population a Human Resource

What are the factors that influence the role of population as the human resource?
You may infer from the above discussion that the education, health and nutritional
status of the people, and their specialized training determine the quality of population
as a human resource. But besides these, there are key socio-demographic factors
that have significant impact on the role of population as a resource. These are: (i)
Distribution of Population; (ii) Growth of Population; and (iii) Population Composition.
We shall try to understand these three factors. Let us begin with Distribution of
Population.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 14.1

1. What is meant by resource?
2. Enumerate qualities that are essential for making human beings a resource.

14.2 DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION

You may be knowing that resources, whether natural or any other, are not
evenlydistributed. For example, natural resources like forests or iron ore or coal are
not found evenly in the world and also within our own country. The same is the case
with human resources. They are not evenly spread everywhere in the world and their
numbers keep on changing. The spread of population over an area, may be in a state
or the entire country, is known as the distribution of population.
You will find it very interesting when you look at the following map of India (Figure
14.1). It shows how the population of India is spread across various States and Union
Territories (UTs). This has been shown through dots. Each dot represents five lakh
persons. As you see, in some States, the number of dots is less, even if the area
is substantially large. It means that the population in these States is either widely
spread or moderately spread. But in some other States, the dots are very close to
one another, so close that those parts in the map look almost painted. In them, the
spread of population is very dense. Let us prepare a list of sparsely populated,
moderately populated and densely populated States and Union Territories (UTs)
of India.

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Notes

Figure 14.1: Distribution of Population in India

14.3 DENSITY OF POPULATION

Based on the above figure, a comparison of population distribution in any two States
will be quite interesting. Let us look at the States of Maharashtra and West Bengal
in the map (Figure 14.1). The patterns of the spread of population in them are
different. From the simple look at the map, it appears that West Bengal has more
population than Maharashtra. But it is not true. Maharashtra has more population
than West Bengal, but Maharashtra is thinly populated because its land area is larger
than that of West Bengal. Hence, we can not compare the population situation of
two States in terms of only the number without considering their areas. That is why,
the comparison of population of regions and countries is done through density of
population.

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Density of Population: The density of population is the number of persons living

per unit of an area. It is usually expressed as number of people per square
kilometre (sq km). The formula for its computation is:
Notes Number of people in a defined area unit
Density of population =
Total area in square km of that particular area

For determining the density, the number of people living in a specific territory is
divided by the total area of that territory. This provides an average number of persons
living per sq km in the territory. For example, let us assume that the population of
a district is 250,000 and its area is 1000 square km. The density of population of
this district can be calculated as follows:

Density of Population = = 250 persons per sq km.

INDIA
POPULATON DENSITY
2001
250000 persons
1000 sq km area

No. of person’s per Sq. km

100 and less
101-250
251-500 National average
501-1000
1001 and above

Figure 14.2: Density of Population in India

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The map (Fig. 14.2) shows that the density of population in India is uneven. It varies ment, Resources and
Development
from one state to another.

ACTIVITY 14.1
Notes
Look at the Figure 14.2. Identify and name the States having high
(more than 500 persons per sq km), moderate (100-500 persons
per sq km) and low (less than 100 persons per sq km) density.
States having high density
States having moderate density
States having low density
Can you state the reasons for such a variation in density among
States?
Hints: Unfavorable/harsh climatic conditions, rugged terrain and
poor soil fertility are mainly responsible for the low density. Rich
soil, abundance of rainfall, developed irrigational facilities, moderate
climate and urbanization support high density of population. The
areas of average fertility, modest rainfall, less developed irrigational
facilities and, to some extent, stony/sandy surface sustain moderate
density of population.

It also keeps on changing. As you may find in figure 1.3 the

density of population in India was as low as 77 persons per sq
km in 1901. It has steadily increased from 90 persons per sq
km in 1931 to 325 persons per sq km in 2001. You would be
interested to know, which is the most densely populated State/
UTs of India. For that you may have to see the Census Reports.
According to Census 2001, the NCT of Delhi has the highest
density of population (9340 person per square km) followed by
UT of Chandigarh (7900 persons per sq km). Arunachal Pradesh
has the lowest density, 13 persons per sq km. Among the States,
West Bengal has the highest density of population, i.e., 903
persons per sq km.

Figure 14.3: Density of Population in Decades (1901-2001)

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Why is the distribution of population uneven? It is human nature that people like to
live in the areas where resources are easily available. These resources may be fresh
water, fertile soil, food and shelter, opportunities of work and others. The availability
of these resources is influenced by geographical features which cause uneven
Notes distribution. And therefore, density and distribution of population are also uneven.
We can divide the factors which affect distribution and density of population into two
broad categories: Physical and Socio-economic.

A. Physical Factors
Three important physical factors influence the distribution and density of population,
namely relief, climate and soil.
(i) Relief: you may have visited a mountainous area or a valley and also a plain
area and observed that the mountains are less populated than the plains. Relief
which represents the differences in elevation and slope between the higher and
lower parts of the land surface of a given area, directly affects the accessibility
of the area. The areas, which are easily accessible, are most likely to be inhabited
by people. that is why, we find that the plains are densely populated and areas
of rugged relief like mountains and plateaus are not. If you compare the density
and distribution of population in northern plain and those in Himalayan areas,
you can find the effects of relief.

Figure 14.4 : Factors affecting Distribution of Population

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Relief : Elevations of land; the variations in height of a land surface and Development
its being shaped into hills and valleys.

(ii) Climate: Climatic condition is one of the most important factors which affects
density and distribution of population. Favourable climate provides convenient
living conditions for human beings. The higher density of population is found
Notes
in the areas where the climate is favorable. But areas with harsh climate, i.e.,
areas that are too hot, too cold, too dry or too wet have lower density of
population. In India, the area having dry climate such as Rajasthan and the areas
with extreme cold climate such as the Valley in Jammu and Kashmir, or Himachal
Pradesh and Uttarakhand have low density of population.
(iii) Soil: Human beings depend upon the quality of soil for agriculture. Areas of
fertile soil can, therefore, support larger population. That is why, the regions
of fertile soil such as the alluvial plains of North India and coastal plains have
higher density of population. On the other hand, the areas with less fertile soils
like parts of Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Chhattisgarh have lower density
of population.

B. Socio-economic Factors
The density and distribution of population also depend on the following socio-
economic conditions of the area:
(i) Industrialization and Urbanization: As you always find, large number of
people reside in the area having industries. They also prefer to live in the urban
areas, towns and cities. The areas which are rich in mineral resources also attract
large population. The mining areas in Jharkhand are very densely populated.
This is so because these areas support several economic activities and offer lots
of employment opportunities. Moreover, the education and health facilities are
better in these areas. We are aware that all large cities of India like Delhi,
Mumbai, Bangalore, Hyderabad, Chennai, Kolkata and many more have high
density of population.
(ii) Transport and Communication: Some parts of the country have better
transport and communication facilities and other public utility services than the
other parts. Areas of northern plain are very well connected, whereas north
eastern areas have comparatively poor connectivity. All such areas where the
public facilities are well developed have a comparatively higher density of
population. Sometimes we find that the places of cultural and religious
significance are also densely populated.
All the above mentioned factors operate in combination. We can take the example
of the high density population in the Ganga plain. It is caused by a combination of
factors: level land, fertile soils, a favorable climate, industrialisation and urbanisation,

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ment, Resources and and comparatively well developed means of transport and communication. On the
Development
other hand, factors like rugged hilly terrain, unfavorable climate, poor means of
transport and communication together cause low density of population in areas like
those in Arunachal Pradesh.

Notes
ACTIVITY 14.2
Study the maps of physiographic divisions of India, the great northern mountains and
the peninsular plateau of India in lesson 11. The smiling face of our Mother Land.
Read these maps along with the data given in the figure numbers 14.1, 14.2 and
14.4 showing the distribution and density of population, respectively.
Co-relate and analyze the maps and identify the areas where physical conditions are
favourable for people.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 14.2

1. Which one of the following States has the highest density of population according
to 2001?
A. West Bengal B. Kerala
C. Tamil Nadu D. Uttar Pradesh
2. The population of a district is 3, 00,000 and its area is1000 square km. What
would be the density of population?
A. 150 persons/sq. km B. 200 persons/sq. km
C. 250 persons/sq. km D. 300 persons/sq. km
3. Mention four important factors that are responsible for high density of population
in big cities like Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata and Chennai.
4. Why is density of population of Uttarakhand low? Give two reasons.

14.4 GROWTH OF POPULATION

The quality of population as a human resource in any country is greatly influenced
by the pattern of population change. The change can be in terms of population growth
or population negative growth. Although the population of the world is still growing,
there are countries where it is declining. Both the situations of population change have
their impact on the quality of human resources. If population grows at a faster rate,
it results into an imbalance between population growth and resources of a country.
This situation has an adverse impact on the quality of human resources.

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The Indian population has been growing since long. From a population of 238 millions ment, Resources and
Development
in the year 1901, it increased to 1028 millions in 2001and is still growing. This
increase in population is more than four times within a span of a century. On the
other hand there are countries in Western Europe where population is declining. Why
it is so? Let us identify those factors which are responsible for population growth.

Notes
Factors of Growth of Population
Population of any country increases or decreases because of three main demographic
factors: (a) birth rate, (b) death rate, and (c) migration. A number of socio-economic
factors also influence birth rate and death rate which ultimately affect population
change. However, you may find in figure 14.5 that in our country the main reason
for rapid increase in population is high birth rate and low death rate. The migration
as a factor has rather negligible influence on population growth at the national level.
However, it has influence at local and regional level.

Figure 14.5 : Growth of Population

If you study figure 14.5 carefully, you will find that death rate has been declining since
1921. The birth rate also started declining during the same period. However, the
decline in death rate has been faster than that of the birth rate. That is why, the gap
between birth rate and death rate has been widening, leading to increase in population.

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ment, Resources and The population growth is also visible when you look at the decadal growth given
Development in figure 14.6. The decadal growth rate have declined marginally between 1981 and
1991 and again between 1991-2001. It is a happy sign. But you may be surprised
to know that in spite of decreasing growth rates, the absolute population has been
increasing continuously over the successive years. Based on the outcome of birth
rate and death rate, the entire period since 1901 to 2001 has been divided into four
Notes groups – stagnant, steady, rapid and slowing down stages of population growth.

Birth Rate: The number of births per thousand of population in a given year
under a particular territory is called Crude Birth Rate (popularly known as birth
rate). Thus,

Birth Rate =

Suppose in a district, the total live births are 800 in a year and its mid-year
population is 25000. So,

800
Birth Rate = 1000
×No. of =live
32births in a yearofunder
per thousand an area
population
25,000 × 1000
Mid-year population of that area
Death Rate: The number of deaths per thousand of population in a given year
under a particular territory is called Crude Death Rate (popularly known as death
rate). Thus,

No. of deaths in a year under ab

on area
Death Rate = × 1000
Mid-year population of that area

Suppose in a district, the total deaths are 600 in a year and its mid-year population
is 25000. So,

600
Death Rate = × 1000 = 24 per thousand of population
25,000

Natural Growth Rate: Natural growth rate is the difference between birth rate
and death rate. Therefore, natural growth rate = birth rate - death rate.
Suppose the birth rate of a particular year within an area is 32 and death rate
is 24. Therefore, natural growth rate is 32 – 24 = 8 per thousand of population.

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Notes

Figure 14.6 : Decadal Population Growth of India (1901-2001)

As we find right from the beginning of the 20th century, the population of India has
been increasing in absolute numbers except during 1921 when there was a decline
in absolute number. After 1921, there has been a continuous rising trend. That is why,
the census year of 1921 is called the year of “The great divide” in the demographic
history of India.
Let us try to understand the reasons for the fast rate of population growth in India.
The most significant factors are illiteracy and low level of education, unsatisfactory
health and nutritional status and poverty. There are some other crucial socio-cultural
factors like preference for male child, early marriage, religious beliefs and low status
of women.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 14.3

1. If in an area, birth rate is 45 per thousand and death rate is 25 per thousand,
what would be the natural growth rate?
A. 15 per thousand B. 18 per thousand
C. 20 per thousand D. 25 per thousand
2. Which one of the following is the main reason for rapid increase in population
of India?
A. High birth rate and high death rate
B. Low birth rate and low death rate
C. High birth rate and low death rate
D. Low birth rate and high death rate
3. Why is 1921 called the year of “The great demographic divide”?

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14.5 POPULATION COMPOSITION
We have studied the distribution, density and growth of population so far. You would
have been able to understand that the net effect of the difference between birth rate
and death rate determines the pace and trend of population change. This net effect
also demonstrates the composition of population which is an important factor
Notes influencing not only the pace of population growth but also the quality of population
as a human resource. What is population composition? Population composition is
the description of population defined by characteristics such as age, sex, rural-urban
or literacy status. We shall, therefore, try to understand the following aspects of the
population composition in India:
(i) Age composition,
(ii) Sex composition,
(iii) Rural-urban composition, and
(iv) Literacy

(i) Age Composition

The age composition of population has significant implications for the current and
future development of a country. Population has been traditionally divided into three
broad age groups: children (0-14 years), adults (15-60 years) and old (more than
60 years). Figure 14.7 shows age composition of Indian population in the above
mentioned groups. If we compare the data from 1971, it is obvious that the child

Figure 14.7 : Age Composition

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population is declining and the population of adults has been increasing. However, ment, Resources and
Development
population of the old is also increasing. In this way, the share of dependent population
is increasing. Population of the old and children put together constitutes the dependent
population. When the number of dependent population increases, the dependency
ratio goes up. As a result, the country has to invest more on the growth and
development of children and welfare of the old people; otherwise the same resources
can be used for other productive purposes. Notes

Dependency Ratio
Dependent population (0-14 yrs. plus more than 60 yrs. old)
Dependency Ratio = × 100
Working population (15-59 years)

Suppose in a district, dependent population (0-14 years plus more than 60 years)
is 7000 and working population (15-59 years) is 18000. Thus,

7000
Dependency Ratio = × 100 = 38.89
18,000
That means out of every 100 persons, 39 are dependent and 61 are working
persons.

Think and Ponder

Your grandparents, being in the age-group of 60 years and above, belong to the
dependent population group. Do you think they are a burden? Are they not
contributing towards the welfare of the family and society? If ‘yes’, how are they
contributing? If ‘no’ why are they not contributing?

Adolescents as a Distinct Population Group

The latest approach to understand the age composition emphasises the need to treat
adolescents as a distinct population group. Traditionally, we have been dividing
population in three phases: childhood, adulthood and old age. But as we observe,
there are many individuals who are neither children nor adults. If you yourself are
in that phase of life, you must have experienced your parents or other adults telling
you, “Why are you doing this? You are no longer a child”. On another occasion the
same adults would be telling, “How can you do this? You are not an adult”. In fact,
the phase of life between childhood and adulthood, say between 10 years and 19
or a few more years, is known as adolescence and the persons in this age group
are identified as adolescents. You may go through the text in the Box to understand
meaning of adolescent better.

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What does Adolescent Mean?

United Nations definitions are based on number of years as follows:
l Adolescents: 10-19 years olds
Notes
l Youth: 15-24 years olds
l Young People: 10-24 years olds
But adolescents as a population group may not be seen only in association with
the precise number of years, as its periodicity varies from person to person.
Adolescents belong to “a developmental period which extends from the end of
childhood to the beginning of adulthood”.
Adolescence is defined as the period of physical, psychological and social
maturation from childhood to adulthood, the period extending from puberty to
the attainment of full reproductive maturity.

As shown in Table 1.1, adolescents as a distinct population group constitute almost

22.0 per cent of total population of India. This was their share in 2001. Their number
is still growing and currently (in 2009) their percentage share has increased. The
National Population Policy 2000 identifies them as an “under-served population
group”, because their needs have not been specifically addressed so far. The Policy
describes various strategies to address different needs of adolescents. These are:
(i) provide accurate information about physical, physiological, psychological and
social changes and developments that take place during adolescence; (ii) develop
the needed life skills to empower them to avoid risky situations and to attain sound
physical, mental and social health; (iii) provide food supplements and nutritional

Figure 14.8(a) : Trends in Sex Ratio in India

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services; and (iv) make available the needed health and counselling services available ment, Resources and
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to them.
Table1.1 : Adolescents (10-19 Years) by Sex (in thousands) in India, 1991
and 2001

Census Total No.of % of Total Male % of Female % of Notes

Year Adolescents Population Total Total
Male Female

1991 181,419 21.4 95,969 21.9 85,450 21.0

2001 225,061 21.9 119,571 22.4 105,490 21.2

ACTIVITY 14.3
Look into the data given in Table 1.1 and search answers for the following:
1. Why is the number of adolescent girls less than adolescent boys, though
biologically the number of girls should have been more?
2. What is the trend in terms of percentage of male and female adolescents during
1991 and 2001?
3. Why are the adolescents considered as under-served population group?
4. Can you prepare a list of the needs of adolescents that must be addressed by
the society?

(ii) Sex Composition

Sex composition is a very significant indicator of the quality of population of a country
as a human resource. In fact, primarily it is understood on the basis of sex ratio.
Sex ratio is defined as the number of females per 1000 males. It is an important

Figure 14.8 (b) : Trends in Sex Ratio in India

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ment, Resources and social indicator to measure the extent of prevailing equity between males and females
Development
at a given point of time. Sex ratio should be favourable. But in our country, sex ratio
has always remained unfavorable to females, and the matter of concern is that it has
been declining. In the year 1901, there were 972 females per 1000 males. In 2001,
it has come down to 933 only. This trend is shown in figure 14.8 (a) and (b).

Notes

Sex Ratio is calculated as follows:

Total number of females in a particular area

Sex Ratio = × 1000
Total numbers of the male in same area

Suppose in a district, the total number of females is 12000 and total number of
males is 13000. Thus,

12,000
Sex Ratio = × 1000 = 923 females per thousand male
13,000

Let us think why sex ratio is unfavorable in our country? It is primarily because of
the prevailing discrimination against the females in our society. The favourable sex
ratio is available only in one State and one Union Territory. It is 1058 in the State
of Kerala and 1001in the Union Territory of Pondichery, now known as Puducherry.

Child Sex Ratio

The trend of decline in child sex ratio in the country is a matter of great concern.
The sex ratio in 0-6 year population (child population) is continuously decreasing.
Whereas the 1991 and 2001 Census Reports showed some improvement in overall
sex ratio, the sex ratio of 0-6 year population has decreased sharply. Out of 28 States
and 7 Union Territories, only in four States, namely Kerala, Mizoram, Sikkim, Tripura
and Union Territory of Lakshadweep the child sex ratio is in tune with the overall
sex ratio. The worst affected States are Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Gujarat, Punjab,
and Uttarakhand, and the Union Territory of Chandigarh and National Capital Region
of Delhi. This decline in child sex ratio suggests the prevalence of the practices of
female foeticide and female infanticide in these States. These practices are against
the norms of a civil society.

(iii) Rural-urban Composition

India has been a land of farmers and a country of villages. At the beginning of the
twentieth century nine out of ten persons used to live in villages. More than three-

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fourths of our population still lives in rural areas. The urban area in India is defined ment, Resources and
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as one, in which three-fourth of the population depends directly or indirectly on non-
agricultural pursuits, with a minimum of 5000 population and the density being not
less than 400 persons per sq. km and should have muciplaity town area or Municipal
Corporation.
It seems, (see figure 14.9) we are moving rather fast towards urbanization along with Notes
its consequences such as shortage of housing, water, electricity, and encroachment
on environment.

Rural Urban Rural Urban

Figure 14.9: Rural - Urban Change

(iv) Literacy
Literacy is an indicator of
development of any society. As
defined in the Census Report, ‘a
(1951-2001)
person aged seven and above,
who can both read and write with
understanding in any language is
treated as literate’. Literacy rate
in our country was 18.33 percent
in 1951. It has increased to 65.37
percent in 2001. Among various
States of our country, Kerala has
the highest literacy (90.86
percent) followed by Mizoram
(88.49 percent) and Lakshdweep
(87.52 percent). But the literacy
rate, in general, is lower among
females as compared to males
(figure 14.10) Figure 14.10: Literacy

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 MODULE - 2 Population: Our Greatest Resource
India: Natural Environ-
ment, Resources and
Development
ACTIVITY 14.4
Collect the following information from your vicinity for about 10-15 households:
1. Name of the person interviewed .......................
Notes 2. Age ....................... Years .......................
3. Academic Qualification .......................
4. Number of persons earning in the family .......................
5. Total no. of members M ....................... F .......................
6. Members of family in the age groups
(a) Up to 14 years .......................
(b) 15 years to 60 years .......................
(c) More than 60 years .......................
7. Based on the data collected above, compute and analyze :
(a) Sex-ratio
(b) Dependency ratio .......................
(i) Below 14 years ....................... and its percentage .......................
(ii) More than 60 years ....................... and its percentage .......................

We have been thus able to understand that the population of any country cannot
become its greatest resource only by virtue of its number. The country has to invest
to improve the quality of demographic characteristics and convert the number into
a resource. For converting the number into human resource, India like many other
countries of the world has been adopting and implementing policies and programmes.
In the next section, therefore, we shall try to understand policies of Government of
India in respect of population and empowerment of women.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 14.4

1. According to 2001 census, the sex ratio of India is:
A. 920 B. 927
C. 933 D. 943
2. The percentage of urban population, according to 2001 census is:
A. 27.8 B. 26.7
C. 25.7 D. 24.0
3. What would be the result if the dependency ratio is more?
4. State any two reasons responsible for unfavourable sex ratio in India.

314 SOCIAL SCIENCE

Population: Our Greatest Resource MODULE - 2
India: Natural Environ-
ment, Resources and
14.6 POPULATION POLICIES IN INDIA Development
Do you know that discussions on population growth and the need to adopt a
population policy had begun in India even before Independence? A Sub-Committee
on population was set up by the National Planning Committee appointed in 1938
by the Interim Government. This Committee, in its resolution in 1940 said, “in the
interest of social economy, family happiness and national planning, family planning Notes
and a limitation of children are essential”.
In 1952, India was the first country in the world to launch a national population
programme emphasizing family planning. The aim of the programme was to reduce
birth rates “to stabilize the population at a level consistent with the requirement of
national economy”. Since then India has been reformulating its population policy from
time to time, the details of which you can get from relevant books or when you study
in higher classes. At present we shall try to understand the latest population policy
which was adopted by Government of India in 2000.

National Population Policy (NPP) 2000

The National Population Policy 2000 has made a qualitative departure in its approach
to population issues. It does not directly lay emphasis on population control. It states
that the objective of economic and social development is to improve the quality of
lives that people lead, to enhance their well-being, and to provide the opportunities
and choices to become productive assets (resources) in the society. Stabilizing
population is an essential requirement for promoting sustainable development. The
immediate objective of the NPP 2000 is to address the unmet needs for
contraception, health care infrastructure, and health personnel, and to provide
integrated service delivery for basic reproductive and child health care. The medium-
term objective is to bring the total fertility rate (TFR) to replacement levels by 2010
through vigorous implementation of inter-sectoral operational strategies. The long-
term objective is to achieve a stable population by 2045 with sustainable economic
growth, social development, and environmental protection.

Total Fertility Rate at Replacement Level: It is the total fertility rate at which
newborn girls would have an average of exactly one daughter over their lifetimes.
In more familiar terms, every woman has as many babies as needed to replace
her. It results into zero population growth.
Stable Population: A population where fertility and mortality are constant over
a period of time. This type of population will show an unvarying age distribution
and will grow at a constant rate. Where fertility and mortality are equal, the stable
population is stationary.

SOCIAL SCIENCE 315

 MODULE - 2 Population: Our Greatest Resource
India: Natural Environ-
ment, Resources and Women Empowerment in India
Development
The empowerment of women is very crucial for improving the quality of population
as a human resource. Women, in India, although making up almost 50% of the total
population, have been looked down upon and subjected to discrimination. By simple
logic, this has deprived the nation of the contribution of half of its population as human
resources. This is quite opposite of what is seen and observed in the developed world.
Notes
The role of women in our country has been limited to looking after their families,
also being mute spectators to all kinds of discrimination, ill treatments and crimes
against them.
If you go through the Indian Constitution, you will find that in its Articles14, 15, 16,
19, 39, 42, 51e provisions have been made to ensure justice and equality to all. Many
laws have been passed like Special Marriage Act 1954, Medical Termination of
Pregnancy Act 1971 and Child Marriage Restraint Act (Amendment) 1978. Yet the
status of women continues to be a matter of great concern.
Some steps have been taken and it is hoped that there will be qualitative change
in the status of women. The empowerment of women received a major boost when
the 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendments providing 33 percent reservation of
seats for Women in Panchayati Raj institutions and Urban Local Bodies were passed
by the Parliament. Another Constitution Amendment Bill has been introduced, which
aims at providing 33 percent reservation for women in the House of the People and
State Legislative Assemblies. A National Commission for Women came into existence
in 1992, through an Act passed in 1990. Wide ranging functions have been assigned
to the Commission to look into and investigate into any ill treatment brought to their
notice against women and to safeguard their interest.
The ultimate objective is to facilitate the advancement, development and empowerment
of women and to eliminate all forms of discrimination. These steps will also ensure
their active participation in all spheres of life and activities. You can read, learn and
understand about the need of women empowerment and its efforts made more in
detail in the lesson ‘Socio –Economic Development and Empowerment of
Disadvantaged Groups’.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 14.5

1. Suppose a particular district has an area of 200 square Km. The same district
records the total number of persons as 17400, 26200, 36200, 47200, 59800,
75200 according to 1951, 1961, 1971, 1981, 1991 and 2001 census,
respectively.
A. Calculate the density of population for all six censuses.
B. Find out the decadal change in density.
C. Can you find any trend from your calculation of population density?

316 SOCIAL SCIENCE

Population: Our Greatest Resource MODULE - 2
India: Natural Environ-
ment, Resources and
Development
WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT
l Population is the total number of people living in a country at a given time. The
data regarding various socio-economic and demographic aspects of our population
is collected by the Government of India at the beginning of each decade and
Notes
it is called census.
l The total population of India according to the 2001 census is 1028.7 millions
which is more than four times to that of 1901 (238.3 millions). The difference
between the birth rate and death rate is called natural growth rate.
l Density of population is defined as the number of persons per square kilometer.
Its distribution in India is highly uneven. NCT of Delhi has the highest density
of 9294 persons/sq. km. and Arunachal Pradesh has the lowest 14 persons/sq.
km.
l Sex ratio is defined as the number of females per 1000 male in the total
population. Sex ratio is unfavorable in India. It is 933 according to the census
of 2001. The sex ratio can be improved by empowering women.
l Population of India is divided mainly into three age-group; (i) children (0-14
years), (ii) adults (15-60 years) and (iii) old (60+years). Children and old form
the dependent population and their percentage in the total population is about
43.
l For an awakened society, literacy is an important indicator. As per the census
‘a person aged seven and above should be able to read and write with
understanding’. Literacy rate in our country has improved a lot. It was only 18.33
in 1951 which has gone up to 65.37% in 2001. Kerala has the highest literacy
rate 90.86 percent.
l The main objective of the National Population Policy is to improve the quality
of life of the people by reducing birth and death rates, family welfare, stabilizing
population, economic growth, social development and environmental protection.
By making appropriate investment in improving the quality of life, our large
population can be transformed into a productive resource of our country.

TERMINAL EXERCISES
1. Define sex-ratio. Why is the sex-ratio in India unfavorable?
2. Define population growth rate and explain how it is arrived at.
3. What inferences can we draw from the age composition data of India?
4. How can we turn our huge population into a resource?

SOCIAL SCIENCE 317

 MODULE - 2 Population: Our Greatest Resource
India: Natural Environ-
ment, Resources and 5 Define the following terms
Development
(i) Density of population
(ii) Birth rate, Death rate and Growth rate.
(iii) Literacy

Notes 6 Explain the National Population Policy?

7 What is meant by women empowerment? How does women empowerment
empower the whole society/community?

ANSWER TO INTEXT QUESTIONS

14.1
1. Something that can be used or reused by us.
2. Education, health and nutrition, specialized training.

14.2
1. A. West Bengal
2. D. 300 persons/square km
3. Industrialization; (ii) Urbanization; (iii) Employment opportunities; (iv) Means of
transport and communication.
4. (i) Rugged topography
(ii) Harsh climatic condition

14.3
1. C. 20 per thousand
2. C. High birth rate and low death rate
3. The year 1921 shows decline in population but after that it has been increasing
continuously.

14.4
1. C. 933
2. A. 27.8
3. Government has to invest more for the welfare of dependent population and
hence less available fund for greater developmental works in country.
4. (i) Discrimination against females.
(ii) Female foeticide and infanticide.

318 SOCIAL SCIENCE

Population: Our Greatest Resource MODULE - 2
India: Natural Environ-
14.5 ment, Resources and
Development
1. Year A B C
Density Decade change
in density

1951 87 — Continuously Notes

increasing trend in the
density of population
1961 131 44
1971 181 50
1981 236 55
1991 299 63
2001 376 77

SOCIAL SCIENCE 319

Confidence and Hardwork
is the best medicine to kill
the disease called failure
it will make you a
Successful Person
- APJ ABDUL KALAM...