BESE-135

Information and
Indira Gandhi
National Open University Communication
School of Education
Technology

Block

1
UNDERSTANDING ICT
UNIT 1
Meaning, and Nature of Information and 7
Communication Technology (ICT)
UNIT 2
Scope and Evolution of Information and 31
Communication Technology (ICT)
UNIT 3
Learning Theories: Implications for ICT 53
UNIT 4
Teaching-learning System 70
EXPERT COMMITTEE
Prof. I. K. Bansal (Chairperson) Prof. Anju Sehgal Gupta
Former Head, Department of Elementary Education School of Humanities
NCERT, New Delhi IGNOU, New Delhi
Prof. Shridhar Vashistha Prof. N. K. Dash (Director)
Former Vice-Chancellor School of Education
Lal Bahadur Shastri SanskritVidhyapeeth, New Delhi IGNOU, New Delhi
Prof. Parvin Sinclair
Prof. M. C. Sharma
Former Director, NCERT
Programme Coordinator- B.Ed.
School of Sciences
School of Education
IGNOU, New Delhi
IGNOU, New Delhi
Prof. Aejaz Mashih
Faculty of Education Dr. Gaurav Singh
Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi Programme Co-coordinator-B.Ed.
School of Education
Prof. Pratyush Kumar Mandal
IGNOU, New Delhi
DESSH, NCERT, New Delhi

SPECIAL INVITEES (FACULTY OF SCHOOL OF EDUCATION)

Prof. D. Venkateswarlu Prof. Amitav Mishra Ms. Poonam Bhushan
Dr. Eisha Kannadi Dr. M. V. Lakshmi Reddy Dr. Vandana Singh
Dr. Bharti Dogra Dr. Elizabeth Kuruvilla Dr. Niradhar Dey

PROGRAMME COORDINATORS
Prof. Saroj Pandey Dr. Gaurav Singh
School of Education School of Education
IGNOU, New Delhi IGNOU, New Delhi

COURSE COORDINATOR
Professor N.K. Dash, School of Education, IGNOU, New Delhi

COURSE PREPARATION TEAM

Unit 1 Adapted from Unit 1 of MES-031 Content Editing
Unit 8, 12 and 13 of BES-002 of IGNOU Prof. Chandra Bhushan
Formerly with CIET, NCERT, N. Delhi
Unit 2 Adapted from Unit 4 of ES-361, Unit-1 and
Unit 3 of MES-031 and Format Editing and Course
Unit-13 of BES-002 of IGNOU Coordination
Prof. N.K. Dash
Unit 3 Dr. Sutapa Bose SOE, IGNOU, New Delhi
Associate Professor
Language Editing
School of Education, IGNOU, New Delhi
Dr. Parmod Kumar
Unit 4 Dr. Hema Pant SOH, IGNOU, New Delhi
Deputy Director, Regional Service Division Proof Reading
IGNOU, New Delhi
Mr. Ajith Kumar, C
SOE, IGNOU, New Delhi
Material Production
Prof. Saroj Pandey Mr. S.S. Venkatachalam
Director A.R. (Publication)
School of Education School of Education
IGNOU, New Delhi IGNOU, New Delhi

March, 2018
© Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2018
ISBN-
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Further information on the Indira Gandhi National Open University courses may be obtained from the
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Printed and published on behalf of the Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi by Director,
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Laser Typeset by Tessa Media & Computers, C-206, A.F.E.-II, Okhla, New Delhi.
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BESE-135: Information and Communication
Technology
Block 1 UNDERSTANDING ICT
Unit 1 Meaning, and Nature of Information and
Communication Technology (ICT)
Unit 2 Scope and Evolution of Information and
Communication Technology (ICT)
Unit 3 Learning Theories: Implications for ICT
Unit 4 Teaching-learning Systems

Block 2 TEACHING AND LEARNING RESOURCES

Unit 5 Non-digital Teaching-Learning Resources
Unit 6 Digital Teaching-Learning Resources
Unit 7 Open Educational Resources
Unit 8 Educational Software Applications

Block 3 ICT AND PEDAGOGY

Unit 9 ICT Mediated Teaching-learning Environment
Unit 10 Selection and Integration of ICT Resources
Unit 11 ICT and Assessment
Unit 12 Collaboration, Co-creation and Sharing of Knowledge

Block 4 SUPPORT SYSTEMS, LEGAL AND ETHICAL ISSUES

Unit 13 ICT for Educational Management
Unit 14 Learning Support Systems
Unit 16 ICT for Inclusive Classroom
Unit 17 ICT: Social, Legal and Ethical Issues
BESE-135 INFORMATION AND
COMMUNICATION
TECHNOLOGY
Introduction to the Course
The main objective of teaching-learning process is to optimize student learning.
A teacher interacts with students to transact a given content. In order to transact
a given content, a teacher makes use of different methods or techniques. Methods
or techniques alone may not help a teacher to transact the given content. He/she
has to take the help of a number of information and communication technologies
(ICTs) to enhance student learning. Of late, ICTs are becoming an integral part
of not only teaching-learning process, but also of other activities of a schooling
system such as management and administration of a school. Therefore, there is a
need to study and understand ICT in its entirety so that it is used optimally to
enhance student learning as well as to increase the overall productivity of the
schooling system. The Course BESE-135: Information and Communication
Technology attempts to provide you with a broad overview of information and
communication technology in education. It intends to explain the meaning, nature,
scope and evolution of Educational Technology and ICT in education; integrate
ICT into teaching-learning process, evaluation, administration and other learning
support systems; help you to participate in collaborative networks for learning,
sharing and co-creating knowledge; and use ICT for making classroom processes
more inclusive and address multiple learning disabilities.

Block 1 deals with the concept of Educational Technology, differences between

Technology in Education and Technology of Education, classification of
educational technology, meaning and nature of ICT, a brief introduction to
different audio mediums and audio-visual mediums, and computer. The concept
of E-learning, its goals and the concept of Internet, its advantages and
disadvantages are explained. It describes the scope and evolution of educational
technology and Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in education;
compares satellite technology with terrestrial technology; and discusses
teleconferencing, mobile learning, social networks in education, OER, online
learning and u-learning. The Block also briefly presents learning theories and
discusses their implications for use of ICT in education. At the end, it explains
three teaching-learning systems, namely, formal, informal and non-formal, their
emergence, characteristic features and design and development of ICT mediated
teaching learning system.

Block 2 focuses on non-digital teaching learning resources like chalkboard,

textbooks, workbook programmed learning materials (PLM), self-instructional
module, charts, maps, models, poster, OHP, slides and filmstrips. It describes
digital teaching learning resources like radio, television, computer, Internet, web
radio, Web 2.0 technologies, E-book, chat rooms, E-conference, and search
engine. It explains Open Educational Resources (OER), their uses, how to create
and share OER and OER repositories. At the end, educational software, their
uses for classroom learning, special learners and assessment have been discussed.

Block 3 begins with ICT mediated teaching-learning environment, physical

constituents of ICT mediated teaching-learning environment, layout of the
learning space, shift from non-digital to digital technology in the teaching-learning
process, social autonomy and responsibility of learners in the choice of
technology, synchronous and asynchronous interaction and adapting learning
environment to make classroom inclusive. It elaborates selection and integration
of ICT resources. It describes Technology Pedagogy and Content Knowledge
Framework (TPACK) to demonstrate how technology can be integrated with
content and pedagogy. The role of ICT in student assessment and various Online/
Web-based assessment tools for both objective and subjective types of test have
been described. The Block ends with discussion on various ICT tools for
collaboration, co-creation , and sharing of knowledge..

Block 4 explains the concept of educational management and discusses various

applications of ICT in school governance, administrative activities, and financial
management. It discusses different learning support systems, and ICT based
learning systems like digital library, virtual laboratories, virtual world, simulation,
electronic mail and discussion forum. The role and use of ICT in inclusive
classroom has been explained in the Block. In the end, we discuss social, legal
and ethical issues pertaining to the use of ICT. Ethical issues like intellectual
property, copyright in the digital world, plagiarism, privacy policy, etc. are
discussed. The impact of ICT on different socio-cultural issues like cyberbullying,
Internet addiction, etc. has been analysed.

In this Course, you may find discussion on the use of same ICT devices/tools/
softwares in different units. However, they have been discussed in a particular
unit in the light of the requirement of the unit.
Understanding ICT
BLOCK 1 UNDERSTANDING ICT

Introduction to the Block

Block 1 of the course provides you an introduction to the understanding of the
concepts of educational technology and information and communication
technology (ICT). It serves as an advance organizer to the entire course. Apart
from explaining the concepts of educational technology and ICT, the Block
introduces you to various types of educational technologies and ICTs used for
educational purposes.

Unit 1 explains the concept of Educational Technology and differentiates between

Technology in Education and Technology of Education. Technology in Education
is also known as hardware approach to educational technology, whereas
Technology of Education is known as software approach to educational
technology. It provides a classification of educational technology into eight broad
categories on the basis of the senses that are stimulated by educational
technologies. We explain meaning and nature of ICT. A brief introduction to
audio mediums like radio, audio CD/DVD, Podcast and audio-visual mediums
like television, video CD/DVD has been made in the Unit. Similarly, a brief
introduction to computer, its components, and types has also been made. The
concept of E-learning, its goals, how E-learning caters to the 21st century skills
and competencies and communication technologies used in E-learning are
discussed. Differences between E-learning and traditional learning are explained.
At the end, the concept of Internet, its advantages and disadvantages are explained.

Unit-2 focuses on the scope and evolution of educational technology and

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in education. The four phases
of evolution of educational technology and ICT in education, namely, audio-
visual, cybernetic, psycho-sociological and information and communication
technology have been discussed. A comparison between satellite and terrestrial
technologies has been made. We also discuss teleconferencing, its types, mobile
learning, social networks in education. OER, its features, how to use OERs
optimally, its advantages and disadvantages have been described. At the end, we
explain the concept of online learning and u-learning.

Unit 3 is concerned with learning theories and their implications for use of ICT
in education. In this Unit, learning theories coming under three major schools of
thought on learning, namely, behaviourism, cognitivism and constructivism have
been briefly presented followed by their implications for use of ICT in education.
The Unit also discusses how to use information and communication technologies
optimally for teaching-learning purposes.

Unit 4 deals with teaching-learning systems. We discuss three categories of

teaching-learning systems, namely, formal, informal and non-formal, their
emergence, characteristic features and impact on the individuals. Basic
components, steps and process in the design development of ICT mediated
teaching learning systems have been discussed. Various uses of ICTs for classroom
teaching have been described. Virtual Learning Environment (VLE) and its
features. collaborative learning, its features and use of ICT for collaborative
learning have been presented in this Unit.
6
 Meaning, and Nature of
UNIT 1 MEANING AND NATURE OF Information and
Communication Technology
INFORMATION COMMUNICATION (ICT)

TECHNOLOGY(ICT)

Struture
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Objectives
1.3 Concept of Educational Technology
1.3.1 Technology in Education: Hardware Approach
1.3.2 Technology of Education: Software Approach
1.4 Classification of Educational Technology
1.5 Meaning and Nature of ICT
1.6 Audio Medium
1.6.1 Radio
1.6.2 Audio CD/DVD
1.6.3 Podcast
1.7 Audio Visual Medium
1.7.1 Television
1.7.2 Video CD/DVD
1.8 Computer
1.8.1 Basic Components of a Computer
1.8.2 Types of Computer
1.9 E-learning
1.9.1 Goals for E-learning
1.9.2 E-learning and 21st Century Skills and Competencies
1.9.3 Communication Technologies used in E-learning
1.9.4 E-learning and Traditional Learning
1.10 Internet in Education
1.10.1 Advantages of Internet in Education
1.10.2 Applications of Internet in Education
1.11 Let Us Sum Up
1.12 Suggested Readings and References
1.13 Answers to Check Your Progress

1.1 INTRODUCTION
You may be aware of the use of different technologies such as radio, television,
computer, etc., in the teaching-learning process. In fact, all these technologies
have transformed the teaching and learning process. Radio, television and newer
digital technologies such as computers, mobile and the Internet constitute
Information and Communication Technologies,. They have been visualized as
powerful teaching- learning tools for optimizing learning outcomes of learners.

This Unit has been adapted from Unit 1 of MES-031: ET: An Overview, Unit 8,12 and 13 of
BES-002: Teaching-Learning and Assessment of IGNOU.
7
Understanding ICT Different ICTs have potentiality to expand the access to education, strengthen
the process of education and enhance the quality of education. The present Unit
is an attempt to give you an understanding of the concepts of educational
technology and information and communication technologies (ICT) as well as
to introduce you to various ICTs briefly.

1.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through the unit, you will be able to:
• explain the concept of ‘educational technology’;
• differentiate between technology in education and technology of education;
• classify various types of educational technology;
• explain the meaning and nature of ICT;
• describe various audio and audio-visual media;
• describe the various components and types of computer;
• explain the meaning of E-learning;
• discuss various communication technologies used in E-learning;
• differentiate between E-learning and traditional learning;
• explain the meaning of Internet; and
• discuss the advantages and applications of Internet in education.

1.3 CONCEPT OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

You, as a teacher, must be using technology in your classroom teaching to make
your presentations more effective. But to most people, the term ‘educational
technology’ is associated only with the equipment or the hardware part, which
they use such as overhead projector, television, computers, etc. But the concept
of educational technology should not to be confused with the electronic gadgetry;
it has a wider meaning as wide as education itself. By this it means that educational
technology is concerned with the design and evaluation of the curriculum and
learning experiences to be provided and also with the problems of implementing
it.
Let us understand the meaning of the term ‘educational technology’ by splitting
it into education and technology, Technology, as we understand, refers to the
systematic application of techniques and principles to achieve an objective.
Technology results in new designs and devices to improve human productivity.
Education is the process of acquiring and imparting knowledge crucial to the
development of a learner, Therefore, it can be concluded that the educational
technology would be the application of the principles of education to improve
human learning.
There have been a number of definitions of educational technology which have
been produced over the years; let us go through them to get the better
understanding of the term ‘Educational Technology’.
“Educational Technology is the development, application and evaluation of
systems, techniques and aids to improve human learning.” (National Council
8 for Educational Technology for the United Kingdom” (NCET, 1967)
Another definition by National Center for Programmed Learning, has put the Meaning, and Nature of
Information and
term of Educational Technology as “Educational Technology is the application Communication Technology
of the scientific knowledge about learning, and conditions of learning, to improve (ICT)
the effectiveness and efficiency of teaching and training. In the absence of the
scientifically established principles, educational technology implements
techniques of empirical testing to improve learning situation”.

Derik Unwin (1969) has also defined educational technology as ‘the application
of modem skills and techniques to the requirements of education and training.’

G.O.M. Leith (1975) defined “educational technology” as “an application of

scientific knowledge about learning and conditions of learning to improve the
effectiveness and efficiency of teaching and learning”.

According to UNESCO, “Educational technology is a communication resulting

from the application of the scientific methods to the behavioral science of teaching
and learning. This communication may or may not require the use of media such
as television broadcasts, radio, cassettes etc.”

The main components of this communication process as given by UNESCO are

as follows:
a) Goals or the behavioral objectives,
b) Analysis of the characteristics of learners,
c) Selection and organization of content,
d) Selection of media,
e) Evaluation, and
f) Feedback.
After going through all the above definitions of the educational technology, you
can conclude that the chief role of educational technology is to improve the
effectiveness and efficiency of the teaching and learning process. Educational
technology as it exists today is the result of the integration of the technological
devices with the newly explored psychological principles of learning, teaching,
behavioral modification, etc.

In short, educational technology, in its widest sense can be understood to be

including the development, application and evaluation of systemic knowledge
about learning and instruction to teaching and training with the aim of improving
their quality and efficiency.

According to Ellington et.al. (2005), this increase in the efficiency due to the use
of educational technology in various situations can be manifested in many different
ways, which are as follows;
a) Increasing the quality of learning or degree of mastery among the learners;
b) Decreasing the time taken by learners to attain the desired goals;
c) Increasing the efficiency of teachers in terms of numbers of learners taught,
without reducing the quality of learning;
d) Reducing costs, without affecting the quality; and
9
Understanding ICT e) Increasing the independence of learners, and the flexibility of education
and training provisions.
The scope of educational technology encompasses educational objectives, media
and other characteristics, criteria of selecting media and resources, management
of resources as well as their evaluation.

Till now, we have discussed that educational technology is the means for effective
learning. But the effective learning could only come through the effective
application of educational technology, which in turn is dependent upon the proper
integration of hardware with the appropriate software. For example, an interactive
television, which is a highly developed hardware, cannot provide quality output
if it does not have quality educational programmes.

Now, this is understood that both the hardware and the software are needed for
the effective use of Educational Technology. Although hardware is an important
component, but it is of little use if suitable software is not available. Thus what
is needed is both technology in education and technology of education. Let us
reflect on these terms more closely.

1.3.1 Technology in Education: Hardware Approach

Technology in education is also called the hardware approach to educational
technology because it is concerned with the electronic gadgets such as television,
radio, language labs and various other projected media, which are being used to
educate learners. Technology in education includes tangible aspects of technology.
This side of educational technology has been derived from the principles of
physical sciences, as the main thrust is on the development of the electronic
equipment like monitors, cameras etc which could be used in the teaching-learning
process.

1.3.2 Technology of Education: Software Approach

Technology of education approach to educational technology involves a
systematic, scientific application of appropriate scientific research, both from
the physical sciences and from the social sciences such as psychology and
sociology to solve a problem. Here, it is important to understand that Technology
of Education emphasizes on the techniques of teaching and learning derived
from the principles, ideas and practices drawn from various fields of knowledge
like psychology, sociology, philosophy, management studies, cybernetic , etc. in
order to optimize the teaching -learning process. In other words, we can say that
the technology of education includes ‘intangible’ aspect of education. For
example, teachers or trainers use a number of methods and techniques while
organizing instructional programmes. Methods like inquiry teaching, simulated
teaching, programmed instruction, computer-assisted instruction are the results
of application of pedagogic principles derived from psychology of education.

1.4 CLASSIFICATION OF EDUCATIONAL

TECHNOLOGY
Teaching-learning aids are classified in several ways. Edgar Dale’s cone of
experience provides us with one such possibility of classifying them. Educational
technologies are classified on the basis of four important characteristic, viz.
10
stimulations provided to the sense organs, learner’s control over media, types of Meaning, and Nature of
Information and
experience they provide, and their reach. The most widely used classification is Communication Technology
on the basis of the senses that are stimulated by educational technologies. These (ICT)
can be classified as follows:
I) Visual (Verbal) Print or Duplicated
• Textbook, Supplementary Book
• Reference books, Encyclopedia, etc.
• Magazine, Newspaper, etc.
• Documents and Clippings
• Duplicated Written Material
• Programmed Learning Material and Self-instructional Modules
• Case Studies (Simulating Reality) and Case Report
II) Visual (Pictorial) Non-projected Two-dimensional
• Blackboard Writing and Drawing
• Charts
• Posters
• Maps
• Diagrams
• Graphs
• Photographs
• Cartoons
• Comic Strips
III) Audio
• Human voice
• Gramophone records
• Audio tapes/discs
• Stereo records
• Radio broadcast
• Telephonic conversation
IV) Visual Non-projected Three-dimensional
• Model
• Mock-up
• Diorama
• Globe
• Relief Map
• Specimen
• Puppet
• Hologram 11
Understanding ICT V) Visual Projected (Still)
• Slide
• Filmstrip
• Transparency (OHP)
• Microfilm, Microcard
• Computer
VI) Audio-visual Projected (With Motion)
• Motion Picture Film
• Television
• Close-circuit Television
• Video Cassette/Disc
VII) Multi-Media packages (for more than one sense)
• Slide + tape + workbook
• Radio + slide or posters (Radio vision)
• Film + posters + workbook (print materials)
• Television + workbook (print materials)
• Any of the above + group discussion
• Any of the above + introductory and summarizing talk by teacher/
leader of the group.
VIII) New emerging media (all of these are multisensory)
• Tele-conferencing (group discussion through telephones)
• Cable television
• Satellite television/communication satellites
• Computer networking
• Video discs
• Mini computers/micro computers/word processors.
Source: S.S. Kulkarni, (1986). Introduction to Educational Technology, Bombay:
Oxford & IBH Publishing Co., pp. 143-144:
New emerging media also include Internet, Mobile technology, etc.

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space provided.
b) Compare your answers with the one given at the end of the unit.
1) Define educational technology in your own words.
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12
 Meaning, and Nature of
2) Differentiate between technology in education and technology of Information and
education. Communication Technology
(ICT)
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1.5 MEANING AND NATURE OF ICT

Information Technology (IT) and Information and Communication Technology
(ICT) are very often interchangeably used in the context of modern technology
infrastructure. ICT is a broad and comprehensive term, which comprises
information technology and communication technology. Information technology
includes radio, television, computer and Internet, teleconferencing and mobile.
All these information technologies are powered by mainly two types of
communication technologies. These are satellite based communication and
terrestrial based communication. Satellite based communication is the
communication, which takes place between sender and receiver through a
communication satellite whereas terrestrial based communication is the
communication, which takes place through a network of transmitters spread across
a geographical area, a country, or a state. This type of communication is used in
the transmission of radio and television in India. However, with the launch of a
series of satellites by Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO), satellite based
communication is being used for telecommunication. The components of ICT
are presented in Fig.1.1.

INFORMATION COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY

(ICT)
Satellite Based
Communication
Information
Technologies

Communication Technologies
Radio, Television,
Terrestrial Based Computer, Internet,
Communication Teleconferencing,
Mobile

FIG. 1.1: Components of ICT

Communicating information effectively by making use of appropriate technology

is called information and communication technology (ICT). In all, ICT is an
umbrella term that includes many communication devices such as radio,
television, cellular phones, computers and network, satellite systems and so on.
13
Understanding ICT There are many definitions of ICT. ICTs are defined, as a “diverse set of
technological tools and resources used to communicate, and to create, disseminate,
store, and manage information.” These technologies include computers, the
Internet, broadcasting technologies (radio and television), and telephony, etc.

According to the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP): “ICTs are

basically information handling tools — a varied set of goods, applications, and
services that are used to produce, store, process, distribute and exchange
information. They include the “old” ICTs of radio, television and telephone,
and the “new” ICTs of computers, satellites and wireless technology and the
Internet. These different tools are now able to work together, and combine to
form our “networked world”, a massive infrastructure of interconnected
telephone services, standardized computer hardware, the Internet, radio and
television, which reaches into every corner of the globe.”

According to C-DEC, Department of Information Technology, Government of

India “the term, information and communication technologies (ICT), refers to
forms of technology that are used to transmit, store, create, display, share or
exchange information by electronic means. This broad definition of ICT includes
such technologies as radio, television, video, DVD, telephone (both fixed line
and mobile phones), satellite systems, computer and network hardware and
software; as well as the equipment and services associated with these
technologies, such as videoconferencing, e-mail and blogs.”

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space provided.
b) Compare your answers with the one given at the end of the unit.
3) Explain the term ‘ICT’?
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4) On the basis above discussion, enlist the technologies, which are
included under ICT?
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14
 Meaning, and Nature of
1.6 AUDIO MEDIUM Information and
Communication Technology
(ICT)
Your voice is the most common form of audio medium, which may be used in
classroom teaching. You use voice to communicate with others. Voice creates
sound, which delivers message to others.
Sender —————→ Sound/message —————→ Receiver
In a classroom when a teacher talks, the message is sent to students in the form
of sound. It is one of the most natural ways of communicating.

To make your voice effective medium of communication you should modulate

your voice; express your feelings; emphasis, pause at appropriate places. The
skills of using voice as an effective classroom transaction are integral part of
teacher training programme.

Many audio teaching learning resources are available to make classroom teaching
effective

1.6.1 Radio
Radio is a popular mass medium, which has been with us from very early times.
It is also widely used and most accessible ICT in the country. These days all of
us are tuned to Radio through FM channels. Popularity of Radio is due to its
easy access, speed and immediacy. Back in 1917 radio was visualized as means
for mass education. In India, first radio station was established in Mumbai
(Bombay) in July 1927. Two more radio stations in Calcutta and Delhi were
established in 1936. All India Radio (AIR) broadcasted radio programmes for
the country. In 1937 Calcutta station broadcasted school programmes for the
first time and it continues until date.

School educational programmes are still in demand and are used by teachers to
generate interest of students. Gyan Vani is a dedicated FM channel for educational
broadcasts. It is used to broadcast educational programmes from Educational
Media Production Centre (EMPC) of Indira Gandhi National Open University
(IGNOU), New Delhi. Audio programmes developed by Central Institute of
Educational Technology (CIET) of National Council of Educational Research
and Training (NCERT) for school children are also broadcast by Gyan Vani.

Fig 1.2: A Radio

Source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Radio

Radio is used to-

- broadcast lectures by eminent educationists, scientists, etc.
- broadcast drama, stories, commentary, news, etc
Radio is popular all over country, urban as well as rural settings. 15
Understanding ICT While preparing Radio programmes selection of topic is very essential. Topic
should support verbal communication i.e. verbal inputs are needed to topic. Sound,
music, special effects are added to audio programmes to make it interesting and
effective. It helps in creating visual images through sound and thus enriches
imagination in children. CIET, State Institute of Educational Technology (SIET)
and educational technology divisions of SCERTs produce topic and need based
audio programmes for school children.. IGNOU also produces audio programmes
for its student teachers enrolled in teacher education programmes. .

1.6.2 Audio CD/DVD

Audio recordings in the form of CD or DVD are very popular teaching-learning
resource. Stories, poems, songs are frequently used in secondary classes.
Discussion and debates with important personalities can be recorded and prepared
in the form of Audio CD to be used in classroom to motivate students. NCERT,
National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS) prepare Audio CD/DVD for children
which are very effective teaching-learning resources.

You can use a DVD or CD player with speakers in your classroom to see these
audio CD/DVD. You may also prepare your own audio CD/DVD, using your
mobile, voice recorder or softwares on computer.

1.6.3 Podcast
Radio is a mass broadcast medium whereas Podcasts are personalized broadcasts.
Podcasts are prepared for specific target and made available to the target group
for specific learning objectives. Podcast consists of two words: ‘pod’ from iPod
and ‘cast’ from broadcasting.

Suppose, you want to narrate a story to your class. You record it and play in your
classroom teaching. If children want to hear it at home, you can make it available
through Podcasts. Podcasts can be easily made using computer software.

Podcasts are uploaded on web to be listened at any place and any time. Students
can download it to hear at any convenient time and place.

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space provided.
b) Compare your answers with the one given at the end of the unit.
5) How will you make your voice an effective medium of communication?
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16
 Meaning, and Nature of
6) True or False Information and
Communication Technology
i) Educational Radio Broadcast is known as Rainbow. (ICT)
ii) Podcast means personalized Broadcast.
iii) Radio can be listened to at any time according to one’s
convenience.
iv) Podcast can be used at any time by anyone.

1.7 AUDIO VISUAL MEDIUM

It is the most effective medium of ICTs and thus generates interest and motivate
learners. Televisions, Video, Multimedia programmes, interactive video are audio-
visual ICTs used by teachers.

1.7.1 Television
Television is another important medium of disseminating information to its
viewers. It is a combination of audio and visual technology, and thus considered
to be more effective than audio medium like radio. You must have seen the use
of television for multiple purposes of entertainment, information and education.
Because of its better accessibility, it can bring learning materials to the masses in
more direct, effective and personal way than other educational media.

Television named as ‘Doordarshan’ started its service on Sept 15, 1959, as the
National Television Network of India. In India, since the inception of TV network,
television has been perceived as an efficient and effective medium of education
and development. With its large audience it has been an efficient tool of imparting
education to primary, secondary and university level students.

Some of the major educational television initiatives in India are Secondary School
Television Project (1961), Satellite Instructional Television Experiment
(SITE) (1975), Post-SITE Project (1977), Indian National Satellite Project
(INSAT) (1982), IGNOU-Doordarshan Telecast (1991), Gyan-Darshan
Educational Channel (2000), EduSat, 2004 (a dedicated satellite for
education and development launched by ISRO. With the help of EDUSAT,
television programmes can now be telecast in almost every Indian language and
every secondary school can be reached through this satellite to improve both
quality and content of secondary education.

Fig 1.3: A Television

Source : http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Television

if we have Audio Visual teaching-learning resources for capturing the attention

of children, then learning will be interesting and effective. Educational
programmes prepared by CIET for children are regularly broadcasted. SIETs
produce programmes in local languages for children. . 17
Understanding ICT Television is useful as it brings to children a wide variety of programmes in their
local language. They can use it to learn about new things and then clarify the
points they did not understand with their teacher.

As a teacher, you should try to prepare children to watch the programme. You
should ask questions related to the topic being telecast on TV. This will raise
their curiosity level and they will be more alert and focused while watching the
TV programme. After watching the programme, there should be discussion. This
will help in retention of the points learned and helps in consolidating the learning.
Both pre and post screening discussions are important as they help in construction
of concepts among learners.

1.7.2 Video CD/DVD

Fig 1. 4 : Video CD
Source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cd-r.jpg
Source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:CD_autolev_crop.jpg

Video programmes are developed on specific topics to be used in classroom

teaching. A script is prepared and the programme is developed using cameras.
Professionals generally develop video programmes. Though as a teacher, you
can prepare short films for your students and make them available through CD
or DVD for them to watch in class or later at their home. Video programmes
may be run on DVD player as well as computer. CIET, NCERT has developed
many Video CD and DVD s for school Children. NIOS develops programme for
school children. Besides these organizations, many private organizations also
develop programmes for children but the cost is more and thus not all children
can be benefited by theses video programmes.

1.8 COMPUTER
All of us are familiar with computer. Computer is a device that operates
systematically by accepting inputs from human operator, processes different kinds
of data and provides outputs as per intended objectives. One can find different
types of computers, which are meant for different purposes. Let us understand
the basic components of a computer.

1.8.1 Basic Components of a Computer

A computer is a system comprising many parts working together. The different
parts of a computer are:
i) Control Unit: The control unit, often called a control system or central
18
processing unit (CPU) manages the computer’s various components. It reads
 and interprets (decodes) the program instructions, transforms them into a Meaning, and Nature of
Information and
series of control signals, which activate other parts of the computer. Communication Technology
(ICT)
ii) Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): As the name indicates, the arithmetic and
logic related operations of the computer are performed by ALU.
iii) Memory: The memory of computer is the place where the information is
stored. There are two types of memories:
a) RAM (Random Access Memory): RAM is the main ‘working’
memory used by the computer. RAM can be read and written to anytime
the CPU commands it. The contents of RAM are erased when the
power to the computer is turned off i.e. programs stored in RAM are
volatile.

b) ROM (Read Only Memory):ROM memory Read Only Memory

(ROM), as the name suggests, is a special type of memory chip that
holds software that can be read, but not written to ROM, retains its
data indefinitely even if the power is switched off. Hence, programs
stored in ROM are non- volatile.

Fig.1.5: Components of a Computer

iv) Input/Output (I/O): I/O is the means by which a computer exchanges

information with the outside world. Devices that provide inputs or outputs
to the computer are called peripherals. The different I/O devices are:
a) Input Devices-It is used to feed instructions to the computer. Mouse,
Keyboard, Tracker Balls, Scanners, Touch Pads, Light Pans and
Joysticks are some of the input devices.
b) Output Devices-After processing the data, output devices are used to
provide the processed data. Monitor, Printers, Plotters, Speakers, and
Speech Synthesizers are some of the output devices.
c) Storage Devices-Storage devices are used to store information. Hard
Disks, Floppy Disks, CD-ROM Risks and DVD Drives are some of
the storage devices.

1.8.2 Types of Computers

Computers can generally be classified according to size and power, though there
is considerable overlap among them. Computers are also classified on the basis
of physical structures and the purpose of their use. Based on capacity, speed and 19
Understanding ICT reliability, they can be classified into five categories.

i) Personal Computer: It is a small, single-user computer, based on a

microprocessor. In addition to the microprocessor, a personal computer has
a keyboard for entering data, a monitor for displaying information, and a
storage device for saving data.

ii) Workstation: It is a powerful, single-user computer. A workstation is like

a personal computer, but it has a more powerful microprocessor and monitor
with a higher-quality. It is a type of computer used for engineering
applications (Computer Aided Design/ Computer Aided Management),
desktop publishing and software development, etc.

iii) Minicomputer: It is a multi-user computer capable of supporting users

starting from ten to hundreds simultaneously. It is a midsize computer.

iv) Mainframe: It is a powerful multi-user computer capable of supporting

hundreds or thousands of users simultaneously. Mainframe is a very large
and expensive computer.

v) Supercomputer: An extremely fast computer that can perform hundreds

of millions of instructions per second. Supercomputer is a broad term for
one of the fastest computers currently available. Supercomputers are very
expensive and are employed for specialized applications that require
immense amount of mathematical calculations.

1.9 E-LEARNING
Emergence of Internet has influenced various fields of education. Can you identify
any application of Internet in the teaching-learning process or in other activities
of your school? As an extension of Internet technology, a new concept called e-
learning has come into existence. There exist different definitions for E-learning.
We will discuss definitions of E-learning, its applications at secondary level, etc.

E-learning is a broad term, encompassing a wide variety of electronic technologies

used for educational purposes, and a wide variety of educational formats and
designs (Bates and Poole, 2005; OECD, 2005; and Allen and Seamen, 2008). E-
learning comprises all forms of electronically supported teaching and learning.
E-learning helps learners learn at their own pace, anytime and anywhere with
the help of computers, LCD projectors, TV, CD ROMs, electronic storage devices,
web based tools, virtual classrooms, etc. If a teacher uses such devices in teaching-
learning, it is termed as E-learning.

There are several variations of E-learning. These are CBT (Computer-Based

Training), Technology-Enhanced Learning (TEL), Computer-supported
collaborative learning (CSC), IBT (Internet-Based Training) or WBT (Web-Based
Training), E-learning is also known as e-learning or e-Learning.

1.9.1 Goals for E-Learning

The broad goals of E-learning are as follows:
• It increases learners’ access to learning and flexibility in learning;

20
• It enhances the quality and efficiency of teaching-learning process;
• Skills and competencies required of different subject areas are developed Meaning, and Nature of
Information and
with e-learning strategies; Communication Technology
• E-learning techniques meet the learning styles of different students; (ICT)

• The burden of cost of education can be minimized using e-learning. Hence,

the education system becomes cost-effective.

1.9.2 E-learning and 21st Century Skills and Competencies

Various skills and competencies are required to lead successful life in the twenty
first century. E-learning strategies help build up in the learners necessary skills
needed for the twenty first century. The following skills are of great importance
to future generation to succeed in life.
• Good communication skills (reading, writing, speaking, listening)
• Ability to learn independently
• Social skills (ethics, positive attitude, responsibility)
• Teamwork skills (collaborative learning, networking)
• Ability to adapt to changing circumstances
• Thinking skills (problem-solving, critical, logical, numerical skills)
• Knowledge navigation
• Entrepreneurship (taking initiative, seeing opportunities)
• Digital literacy

1.9.3 Communication Technologies Used in E-Learning

Communication technologies are generally categorized into asynchronous or
synchronous. Both these types of communication technology used in E-learning
are discussed in the coming sections.

Asynchronous: As the name indicates, the participants are in not in synchronous

(same time) with each other in Asynchronous mode of communication. The
participants mentioned here are mainly the students and teachers. Students and
teachers move at their own pace to transfer information. The information to be

Fig.1.6: Various Communication Technologies used in E-Learning 21

Understanding ICT passed on to the students may be posted on any website medium such as wikis,
blog, etc., which can be retrieved by students at a later time. Similarly, postings
of students can be retrieved by teachers and be given feedback. Hence in
asynchronous communication, interaction between students and teachers occur
at different times. Examples for asynchronous communication technology are
blogs, wikis, video-blogs, vlog, forum, discussion boards, and electronic mail
(E-mail).

Synchronous: In synchronous communication, interaction between teacher and

students occur at the same period of time. Synchronous mode helps students
acquire information within no time, since both are engaged in the process of
conversation at the same time. Compared with asynchronous mode, synchronous
communication is better for teaching –learning process. Earlier asynchronous
mode was prevalent in teaching –learning process, but after the advent of
information technology, the process of sending information became much easier,
with the use of Internet and related applications of e-learning. The simplest form
of synchronous communication occur with the participation of two persons i.e
teacher and student, while in advance synchronous communication a large number
of people can join to share their ideas like students belonging to different classes,
students of the same classes, teachers of the same school, etc. Examples of
synchronous communication are face to face talk through online, online chat,
phone calls, video chat, virtual classrooms, video conferencing and audio
conferencing.

Fig.1.7: Various Forms of Synchronous Communication

Now the question is “how can secondary teachers make use of asynchronous
mode of E-learning”? One of the methods is that the teacher can direct students
to collect materials related to school assignments from Internet. Secondly, the
teacher can arrange a debate on any topic through Skype or with any other chat
software. Here students are asked to share their ideas through Skype or any chat
room and finally teacher concludes the topic. But this mode of study requires
computer facility with Internet connection and comes under synchronous style
of E-learning.
22
Now we will discuss some strategies used for E-learning. These strategies belong Meaning, and Nature of
Information and
to either synchronous or a synchronous mode. The various E-learning strategies Communication Technology
are given below in diagrammatic form. (ICT)

Fig.1.8: Various E-Learning Strategies

Now let us discuss these strategies separately.

Online Learning: Online learning is an Internet or Intranet-based teaching and
learning system designed for web-based delivery, without face-to-face contact
between teacher and learners. Internet is the main tool used in online learning.
The other different tools used in online learning are either asynchronous (email,
mailing lists, bulletin boards) or synchronous (text-based chat, audio chat,
videoconferencing) in nature.
Virtual Classroom: A virtual classroom duplicates the context of a real
classroom. In virtual classroom students and teachers use their computers to go
to a virtual meeting place instead of a classroom. Students can indicate when
they want to speak. Teachers can let students speak through audio and video
conferencing. Teachers and students can use instant messaging and chat. Teachers
can choose from a variety of synchronous technologies for interaction between
them and students.
Audio and Video Conferencing: These are two type of strategies used in E-
learning. In audio conferencing conversation happens between students and
teachers without both of them seeing each other and while in video conferencing
students and teachers can see each other.
Online Chat: Chat allows several people to communicate with each other. Each
participant uses a computer to type his/her comments. The other participants can
see the name of the persons and their comments.
Instant Messaging: Instant messaging is similar to chat. One person
communicates to another through typing. Instant messaging also provides some
additional features. With instant messaging, you can keep a list of people that
you might like to chat with. The list will indicate if they are online, offline,
available for chat or busy.
Shared Whiteboard: A shared whiteboard lets a group of people communicate
by typing comments, drawing, highlighting and pointing. A shared whiteboard
is a common feature within virtual classroom software packages.
23
Understanding ICT Application Sharing: You can demonstrate how to use software applications to
remote learners with application sharing. A teacher can also let learners take
control of the application to practice performing tasks.

Self-Paced Courses: The obvious advantage of a self-paced course is

convenience. People can get the training they need at any time. This can include
just-in-time training where a person gets exactly the training he or she needs to
perform a task. Self-paced courses are created with E-learning authoring tools.
Self-paced courses can be delivered in many ways including Internet, Intranet or
Local Area Networks, CD-ROM or DVD.

Discussion Groups: A discussion group is a collection of conversations that

occur over time. It allows for comments to be posted and viewed by students and
teachers as per their convenience. Other names for discussion groups are message
boards, bulletin boards and discussion forums.

Electronic mail: It is one of the most popular tools used in E-learning. By

definition it is mail delivered through electronic means. Today, e-mail is primarily
known as communication from one person to another or many others through
the use of computer and networks.

Podcasting: Podcasts are digital audio or video files containing meaningful

content for learning that are available in websites and podcasting is the process
of creating and distributing such learning material.

Online Video: Online videos are video files containing learning contents available
in the Internet. Educational online videos are available in You Tube, Blip T1,
and Google Video etc.

Blogs: Blog is a personal website that contains content organised like a journal
or diary. Each entry is dated, and the entries are displayed on the webpage in
reverse chronological order, so that the most recent entry is posted at the top.
Readers catch up with blogs by starting at the top and reading down until they
encounter material they have read. Usually blog is the work of an individual but
blogs combining contributions of several people make “group blogs”.

Collaborative Video (Vlog): A video-blog or vlog is simply a blog that uses

video as its primary medium in each post and vlogging is the act of publishing
video to a blog.

Webcasting: Webcasting is defined as the dissemination of recorded or live

content over the Internet

Wiki: Wikis are open, dynamic websites with collaboratively constructed

knowledge, information, and resources, which are freely available to any Internet
user. Wikis allow users virtually from anywhere to create and contribute to any
wiki of their choice. At the same time, wikis enable users of the technology to
critically review and collaboratively revise the wiki they use. As a result, users
can quickly and frequently update information, fix errors, and constantly extend
the knowledge network.

Interactive Whiteboard: It is a large interactive display that connects to a

computer and a projector. A projector is used to display a computer’s video output
24 onto the whiteboard, which then acts as a huge touch screen, where users control
the computer using a pen, finger, or other device (SMART technologies, 2006). Meaning, and Nature of
Information and
Interactive whiteboard are usually equipped with four digital writing utensils Communication Technology
that use digital ink replacing the traditional whiteboard markers. (ICT)

Learning Management Systems: In order to provide online courses and

programmes on World Wide Web(WWW),we require a software system called
Learning Management System(LMS).An LMS is an integrated set of softwares/
programmes that automate the administration ,tracking and reporting of online
courses /programmes. It provides a centralized organizational approach to learning
for scheduling of courses and registration of learners, and assessment of their
learning outcomes. Some of the examples of LMS are Moodle, Black-Board etc.

1.9.4 E-Learning and Traditional Learning

We have learnt that E-learning has wide range of applications in educational
field. Traditional classrooms were teacher oriented and presentations were verbal
in style. The emergence of online teaching has made learning a learner centered
and an active process. The major differences between traditional classroom and
online classroom are listed in the Table.1.1.

Table.1.1: Differences between Traditional Classroom and Online Classroom

Traditional Classroom Online Classroom

• It is teacher focused. Teacher is the • It is learner focused. Learner is the
central component of teaching central focus of teaching –learning
l-learning process. process.
• Learning is more passive; there are • Learning is more active and role of
fewer roles for learners in the learners is more in the instructional
instructional process. process
• Teacher concentrates on delivering • Teacher helps in construction of
knowledge and subject content knowledge
• Instructional strategy is verbal- • Less focus on verbal instruction.
oriented and is based on traditional Instructional strategies make use of
methods of teaching different styles and methods of teaching
• Multimedia may be used, but • Multimedia are used in a variety of
delivery of instruction is mainly ways
verbal
• Student interaction with technology • Students’ interaction with technology
is less is more
• Focus on face-to-face interaction • Opportunity of face-to-face interaction
between teacher and learners between teacher and learners is less
• Less chance for motivation and self- • It gives learners chances for self-
learning learning and motivation
• More use of traditional styles of • Makes use of innovative techniques
teaching of instruction
• Use of technological instruments is • Use of technological instruments is
less. more
• Opportunity of interaction between • Opportunity of interaction between
students and teacher is limited teacher and student is more
• Duration and period of study is • Duration and period of study is not
fixed fixed
• Rigid in character • Flexible in nature

25
Understanding ICT
Check Your Progress
Notes: a) Write your answers in the space provided.
b) Compare your answers with the one given at the end of the unit.
7) What do you mean by online learning? How is it different from
traditional learning?
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
8) Select any topic from any subject of your choice and explain the ways
of teaching by selecting any one of the approaches of E-learning?
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................

1.10 INTERNET IN EDUCATION

Internet is one of the innovations of technological era. Internet is a means of
connecting a computer to any other computer located anywhere in the world via
dedicated routers and servers. When two computers are connected over the
Internet, they can send and receive all kinds of information such as text, graphics,
voice, video, and computer programs.

The Internet is a global system of interconnected computer networks that use the
standard Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP) to serve billions of users worldwide. It
is a network of networks that consists of millions of private, public, academic,
business, and government networks, of local to global, that are linked by a broad
array of electronic, wireless and optical networking technologies. The Internet
carries a vast range of information resources and services, such as the inter-
linked hypertext documents of the World Wide Web (WWW) and the
infrastructure to support e-mail.

Suppose you are opening Internet with Google software, its home page will appear
as shown in Fig: 1.9. There is option to search for WebPages, images, maps, etc.
Similarly, you will get option ‘save the page’ you have visited, the website which
you have visited more frequently and so on. There are plenty of options in Internet
which may be used for your educational purposes.
26
 Meaning, and Nature of
Information and
Communication Technology
(ICT)

Fig.1.9: Home Page of Google Search

1.10.1 Advantages of Internet in Education

For the last many years Internet has influenced every walk of human life. This
can be observed in the educational sector also. Many educational institutions are
using Internet in admission, teaching-learning process, educational evaluation
and administration, etc. Some advantages of Internet in education are as follows:
• It is easy to get connected and obtain information.
• It acts as a source of information and a platform to share information.
• It helps to get latest and updated information.
• It is used as a medium for online learning.
• It acts as a multimedia for learning.
• It is a fast medium of communication.
• It provides learners opportunity to work from home and other spaces.

1.10.2 Application of Internet in Education

In the above section, we have discussed about the advantages of Internet in
education. Internet has a lot of applications in secondary education. We will
focus our discussion on its applications in secondary education. Internet has its
applications in the following areas of a school system: 1) student admission, 2)
academic evaluation, 3) classroom teaching-learning activities, 4) school
administration and management.

Moreover, it is used: 1) as a teaching machine, 2) as a source of information,

3) as a communication tool, 4) as a support to teacher and students., and 5) as an
artificial intelligence tool.

To understand the use of Internet in teaching –learning process, a case of a

secondary teacher using Internet in teaching-learning process is explained below.

Shyama, a secondary social science teacher assigned students to work on a project

titled “types of pollutions”. Students were asked to collect the relevant materials
from the web to prepare the project report. Students found the relevant materials
from different websites. Some of these were as follows:
27
Understanding ICT 1) http://library.thinkquest.org/C0111040/Types/types.php
2) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollution
3) http://greenliving.lovetoknow.com/Types_of_Pollution
4) http://typesofpollution.info/
5) http://hassam.hubpages.com/hub/Types-And-Causes-Of-Pollution
So, here students searched Internet to collect information and to complete the
assignment. Similarly students can use Internet for other tasks too. If students
find difficulty at any stage of learning, they can refer to Internet.

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space provided.
b) Compare your answers with the one given at the end of the unit.
9) State any four advantages of Internet in education.
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................

1.11 LET US SUM UP

In this Unit, we explained the concept of Educational Technology. Educational
Technology is the result of the integration of the technological devices with the
psychological principles of learning and teaching. The differences between
Technology in Education and Technology of Education were discussed.
Technology in Education is also known as hardware approach to educational
technology, whereas Technology of Education is known as software approach to
educational technology. We provided a classification of educational technology
into eight broad categories on the basis of the senses that are stimulated by
educational technologies. We explained meaning of ICT. Communicating
information effectively by making use of appropriate technology is called
information and communication technology (ICT). A brief introduction to audio
mediums like radio, audio CD/DVD, Podcast and audio-visual mediums like
television, video CD/DVD was made. Similarly, a brief introduction to computer,
its components, and types was also made. The concept of E-learning, its goals,
how E-learning caters to the 21 st century skills and competencies and
communication technologies used in E-learning were discussed. Differences
between E-learning and traditional learning were explained. At the end, we
explained the concept of Internet, its advantages and disadvantages.

1.12 SUGGESTED READINGS AND REFERENCES

Cecco. J. P (1988) The Psychology of Learning and Instruction, Second Edition,
Delhi: Prentice-Hall of India Pvt. Ltd, pg 368-370
28
Ellington H, Percival. F & Race. P (2005) Handbook of Educational Technology, Meaning, and Nature of
Information and
Third Edition, London: Kogan Page Ltd, page no. 2-12. Communication Technology
(ICT)
IGNOU (2000). ES-361: Educational Technology, New Delhi: IGNOU.
Mishra, S., Ed. (2009). E-Learning, New Delhi: IGNOU (STRIDE Handbook
8).
Mohanty J., (1992) Educational Technology, Delhi: Deep and Deep Publication.
McConatha D. and Praul. M (2007), Mobile Learning in the Classroom: An
Empirical Assessment of a New Tool for Students and Teachers http://
www.hotlavasoftware.com/article_info.php? articles_id=14
M-learning : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M-learning retrieved on 20th February
2008
OECD (2005). E-learning in Tertiary Education: Where Do We stand? Paris:
OECD
Sampath. K & Santhanam. S (1990) Introduction To Educational Technology,
Second Revision Edition, Sterling, New Delhi: Publishers Pvt ltd. pg no. 300-
304
Sharma, R.A. (2004). Technological Foundations of Education, Third Edition,
pg 60-61
Usha, R. (1991). Educational Technology, First Edition, Bombay: Himalaya
Publishing House, Pg no. 1-21.
Unwin, D. (1969). Media and Methods in Instructional Technology in Higher
Education, London: McGraw Hill Book Company.
UNESCO, (2001). Using ICT for quality teaching, learning and effective
management: Report of the Seventh UNESCO-ACE/D International Conference
on Education: Bangkok, Thailand, UNESCO

Website:
web.undp.org/evaluation/documents/essentials_5.pdf.

1.13 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1) Educational technology, in its wide sense can be understood to be including
the development, application and evaluation of systemic knowledge about
learning and instruction to teaching and training with the aim of improving
their quality and efficiency.
2) Technology in education is also called the hardware approach to educational
technology because it is concerned with the electronic gadgets such as
television, radio, language labs and various other projected media, which
are being used to educate learners. Technology of education approach to
educational technology involves a systematic, scientific application of
appropriate scientific research, both from the physical sciences and from
the social sciences such as psychology and sociology to solve a problem.
3) Information and communication technology consists of three specific terms,
information, communication and technology. Communicating information
29
Understanding ICT effectively by making use of appropriate technology is called information
and communication technology (ICT).
4) Radio, television, video, DVD, telephone (both fixed line and mobile
phones), satellite systems, computer and network hardware and software
etc. are included under ICT.
5) You can make your voice effective medium of communication through
modulating your voice; expressing your feelings; emphasis, pause at
appropriate places while speaking.
6) True or False
i) False
ii) True
iii) False
iv) True.
7) Online learning is known in various terms such as technology supported
learning, computer supported learning, etc. However, it can broadly be
defined as the learning supported with the help of Internet technology. For
the features of online learning refer to sec 1.9.4.
8) Topics like states of matter from science curriculum and Indian Parliament
from social science can be taught using project method with the help of
Internet. Students may be asked to collect various articles from Internet and
group them according to their features. Then it must be named and arranged
in Microsoft word software. Finally, they may be asked to display it in
classes with physical material in their hand.
9) 1) It helps to get latest and updated information.
2) It is used as a medium for online learning.
3) It acts as a multimedia for learning.
4) It is a fast medium of communication.

30
 Meaning, and Nature of
UNIT 2 SCOPE AND EVOLUTION OF Information and
Communication Technology
INFORMATION AND (ICT)

COMMUNICATION
TECHNOLOGY(ICT)

Structure
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Objectives
2.3 Scope of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in Education
2.4 Evolution of Educational Technology and ICT in Education
2.4.1 Audio-visual Phase
2.4.2 Cybernetic Phase
2.4.3 Psycho-sociological Phase
2.4.4 Information and Communication Technology Phase
2.5 Satellite and Terrestrial Communication
2.5.1 Satellite Versus Terrestrial Communication
2.6 Teleconferencing
2.6.1 Audio Teleconferencing
2.6.2 Video Teleconferencing
2.6.3 Computer Conferencing
2.7 Mobile Learning
2.8 Social Networks in Education
2.8.1 Application of Social Networks in Education
2.9 Open Educational Resource (OER)
2.9.1 Features of OER
2.9.2 Locating OER
2.9.3 Advantages of using OER
2.9.4 Disadvantages of OER
2.10 Online Learning
2.11 U-learning
2.12 Let Us Sum Up
2.13 Suggested Readings and References
2.14 Answers to Check Your Progress

2.1 INTRODUCTION
This is an age of information technology and the use of technology can be seen
ubiquitously in our daily life. It not only makes learning more comprehensive
and simple but also helps to display more information in a lesser time. At the
same time it brings diversity to your classroom teaching, to display more
information to learners, and to enhance student learning.
This Unit has been adapted from Unit 4 of ES-0361: Educational Technology, Unit 1 and 3
of MES-031: ET: An Overview and Unit-13 of BES-002: Teaching-lerarning Assessment of
IGNOU.
31
Understanding ICT You would also agree that the use of technology not only saves time and energy
but also allow for more attention to be paid by the learners. Educational technology
encompasses all aspects related to the facilitation of learning process. In the
Unit-1, an attempt was made to understand the concept and nature of educational
technology and ICT. Your understanding of educational technology and ICT will
further be broadened by going through scope of educational technology and ICT
in education and a synoptic view of how educational technology and ICT in
education have evolved throughout history. Hence, this unit will describe how
educational technology and ICT in education have evolved. It also discusses
satellite and terrestrial communication, teleconferencing, mobile learning, social
networks, open educational resources, online learning and u-learning.

2.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you should be able to:
• describe the evolution of educational technology and ICT in education;
• differentiate between terrestrial communication and satellite communication;
• explain the concept of teleconferencing;
• distinguish between audio teleconferencing and video teleconferencing;
• discuss the uses of mobile in learning of children;
• explain the concept of open educational resources;
• discuss advantages and disadvantages of open educational resources; and
• explain the concept of online learning and u-learning.

2.3 SCOPE OF INFORMATION AND

COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY (ICT) IN
EDUCATION
Activity: As a teacher, you are acquainted with the use of ICT in education.
Now, for better understanding of the scope of ICT in education, recall your
experiences in the classroom and write some items as to what according to
you are within the scope of ICT in education. While reading the following,
please check the new points that you have not written.

ICT, as you know, is used to raise the efficiency of education. But with the passage
of time, the system of education is facing new problems to be tackled. So, the
hardware and software of ICT are ever expanding. Therefore, the application of
ICT in education is much more than what it was a few decades back. Following
are some of the applications of ICT in education that are worth noting.
Mass education: There has been explosion of population and knowledge. There
is, therefore, a need to educate the masses. The problem is multiplied further by
having a large section of illiterate people. So, ICT has a tremendous application
to educate a large section of people and to impart a large amount of knowledge
in a limited span of time. In this regard, the mass media viz., TV, radio, and
other modern technologies like computers and information technology (E-mail,
internet, mobile, etc.) has a lot of scope. The illiterate masses can also be made
32
literate with the help of innovative methods and practices of teaching and learning.
Historical information: Any branch of knowledge that we deal with has a Scope and Evolution of
Information and
historical base. Such information is of tremendous importance for the students Communication Technology
to understand any branch of knowledge in its totality. Such incidents when occur (ICT)
can be recorded with the help of audio-video CD. Such audio-video CD becomes
the source of information for learners to learn. The main advantage of such CDs
is that we cannot create or repeat the history once more howsoever we try hard
and place it before the learner. For example, can we have the same view of the
explosion of Hiroshima and Nagasaki (1946) and show it to our students? This
is neither feasible nor possible. Further, for example, we cannot have the same
view of Nuclear test conducted at Pokhran (1998). So such records.......in the
form of a film taken when the incident is happening are of immense value to the
learners which ICT can only provide.

Costly and hazardous experiments: In many fields of science and technology

there are some experiments having great implications for effective learning which
are not advisable for the teacher to conduct in the classroom because of cost and
health hazards involved. Such experiments, once conducted carefully in the
laboratory or elsewhere can be recorded with the help of new information and
communication technology and be used by teachers and students for effective
learning.

Gaming and simulation: If historical events which are either costly or hazardous
which cannot be conducted, then ICT can rescue us by doing the same through
simulation. Computer technology in this regard plays the main role. This can
provide a lifelike picture of phenomena in three dimensions (3D). It can also
show the operation of different parts of a phenomenon and the consequences.
The other possibility is games. Children can learn, through play, many concepts
that just cannot be taught in the formal set of the classroom. The gaming and
simulation has a great scope in the training of military personnel and in the field
of aviation.

Distance education: ICT has a great scope in distance education and open school
programme. Today there is a great need for personnel training and education on
regular basis for updating oneself in the field of work. In this regard, distance
education programmes, a relatively less formal process of education, have
acquired new status. Educational technology with its innovative practices can
educate the learners who cannot come to the classroom setup for their education.
In this regard programmed learning materials, modules, contact programme, and
counselling are some innovations which can help distance learners.

Collection, storing and retrieval of information: There are digital cameras

and mobiles which provide us the facility to take same photographs of events
that take place in a fraction of second. There are also satellites that work for us
day and night to provide us information about places which are not accessible to
us. Information can be collected with the help of this new electronic technology
both in audio and in video form. Such information can be stored with magnetic
and electronic devices easily and can be retrieved within no time.

Research: As mentioned earlier, information can be collected and stored to be

used for educational purposes. Information can also be collected and stored in
the same way for research. Further, for analysis and reporting, computer can be
used. Not only quantitative data but also qualitative data can be analaysed and
33
Understanding ICT there lies the role of computer and the different methods of data analysis methods
and techniques. Moreover, in developmental type of research, different kinds of
packages can be developed for raising the effectiveness of learning. There are
many researches already conducted in this field i.e., computer assisted
instruction(CAI), and computer assisted language learning packages.

With the facilities of Internet, Website, and INFLIBNET, the researchers as well
as a learner wanting to inquire or find out something that is happening elsewhere
can have access to a large amount of information sitting at home. He can formulate
his hypotheses, problems, and ideas and get them solved while at home. In this
process, the research findings are not only disseminated but also the quality of
research can be increased.

2.4 EVOLUTION OF EDUCATIONAL

TECHNOLOGY AND ICT IN EDUCATION
After having discussed the scope of ICT in education, let us understand how
educational technology and ICT in education have evolved. The evolution of
educational technology and ICT in education has not taken in a single day. The
developed educational technology, which we use today, is the result of
improvisation, which is done by their own potential to solve problems. Whether
one talks about the discoveries and inventions, human beings are never behind.
Similarly, as human being has evolved, his/her communication style has also
evolved, his/her communication from non-verbal gestures to the verbal
interactions, his/her medium of interactions have also changed.

Simultaneously, there has been a change in the perspective of understanding

learning. The nature of learning has moved from group learning to individual
learning. Technology, to support the various kinds of learning, has also evolved
at the same time. In this section, we will discuss the evolution of educational
technology and ICT in education. These technologies which have passed through
phases which are as follows:
a) Audio-visual phase
b) Psycho-sociological phase
c) Cybernetic phase
d) Information Communication Technology phase

2.4.1 Audio Visual Phase

J.A. Commenius prepared a first ‘visualized book’ that contained 150 pictures
and also said ‘let pictures be the source of delight to the children and let these
become familiar with them before they enter school’. Later, philosopher like
Rousseau also said that learning process must be directed to the learner’s natural
curiosity and Pestolozzzi put action to his words by proposing the ‘object method’.
The object method is based on instruction via sense perception. Although attempts
on the use of concrete aids were made much before, but the intensive development
in the audio-video started in the 20th century.
This phase is designated as an extensive use of variety of devices such as moving
pictures, radio, slide films to transmit ideas and experiences, which appeals to
34
the sense perceptions of the learners especially about the abstract concept. In Scope and Evolution of
Information and
other words, you can say that these devices act as supplementary devices. The Communication Technology
audio visual device utilizes more than one sensory channel (for example, while (ICT)
watching any educational programme on television, you are using both the visual
and auditory perception), which helps in clarifying, establishing and correcting
the concepts, interpretations and appreciations. However, the materials to be
used along with these audio visual aids need to be developed based on the
psychological principles of learning.

Also these aids have always been used as a tool to disseminate the knowledge
from one place to another. In this process of transmitting the information, it is
considered important to transfer the correct message.

2.4.2 Cybernetic Phase

This phase of educational technology has evolved during the Second World War.
The word ‘cybernetics’ was first used by Norbert Weiner (1948) to define the
automatic control systems. Weiner defined cybernetics as the science of control
and communication in men and machines. Consider a situation, when you are
browsing an Internet site. Suddenly, a message pops up on the screen, that there
is a “Virus” which has entered your computer. Here, the anti-virus software
provided you the feedback and as a result you removed the virus from your
computer. Cybernetics lays emphasis on feedback. The feedback here refers to a
kind of reciprocal interaction between two or more events in which one activity
generates a secondary action that in turn redirects the primary action. It is also
defined as the comparative study of human control.
The feedback mechanism has three functions:
a) It propels the system towards the target or the defined path;
b) It compares the effect of this action with the true path and detects any
deviation negative or positive; and
c) It utilizes error signal to redirect the system.

Input Message Process Output

Remedial
Guidance
Comparison with expected
results and identification of
Feedback
deviation

Fig.2.1: Cybernetic Model

Source: Kulkarni, S.S. (1986) Introduction to Educational Technology, New Delhi: Oxford &
IBH Publishing Co.

In most of the industrial processes, which emerged during and after World War
II, the concept of feedback became operational for correcting any deviant step.
For example, in a refrigerator, the thermostat informs the system of cooling
whether a certain temperature has been reached or not reached and instructs it to
perform accordingly. 35
Understanding ICT This information for remedial action (steering the boat according to the charted
path avoiding any deviations) was crucial not only in industry but also in
education. Out of this emphasis arose the programmed learning instruction
movement where it was emphasized that at every step a student should be told/
reinforced about his/her progress (or deviation).

Thus, the cybernetic principles have led to the concretization and direct application
of principles to teaching and learning. These cybernetic principles have following
implications on teaching-learning:
a) The activity involved is geared to the learner’s stage of growth-physical
and cognitive.
b) The learner is provided with some criteria for indicating to him/her
specifically what progress he/she is making.
c) The learner is presented with the activity both in verbal and non verbal
context in varied situations.

2.4.3 Psycho-Sociological Phase

This phase has a long history, which can be traced back to the learning theory on
the laws of learning given by Throndike, 1913. Based on his theory, Pressey
(1926) developed a teaching machine. This machine provided an automatic
scoring device to the learners for immediate feedback. So, this was the first step
towards the formulation of systematic learning. Subsequently, the theory of B. F.
Skinner (1953) on operant conditioning, whose main contribution was that human
behavior could be shaped, opened a new chapter in the development of
programmed learning materials.

Teaching Machines
Learning, as you know, involves both learner and teacher but now with the
development of technology, the physical presence of teacher may not be required.
Teaching machines represent this development in education. Teaching machines
act as a liberating device that allows die individual differences. In 1924, Sidney
L. Pressey created a crude teaching machine suitable for rote-and-drill learning.
He showed that automated-instruction facilitated learning by providing for
immediate reinforcement, individual pace setting, and active responding.
According to him, “teaching machines are unique among instructional aids, in
that the student not merely passively listens, watches, or reads but actively
responds. And as he does so he finds out whether his response is correct or not
and a record may be kept which aids in improving the materials”. These machines
ranged from a very simple to complex.
A teaching machine incorporates a closed loop system of teaching that cyclically:
a) display an information to learners,
b) seek learner response,
c) evaluate, reinforce and control next display.
Based upon me responses in the teaching machines, they can be broadly classified
under two categories;

36
a) Constructed response devices: These devices are based on the Skinner’s Scope and Evolution of
Information and
principles, namely emission of response is considered more effective in Communication Technology
learning than simple recognition. (ICT)

b) Multiple choice machines: In these machines, it is possible to prepare

branches for every reply to a given question.

The greatest value of such machines is the individualized instruction, which

helps the learners to learn at their own pace. Also, it provides well-designed and
structured learning situation for desired behavioral change in the learner. But it
has a delimitation too, as a good teacher can always determine the effective and
ineffective communication and modify their teaching on the basis of the students
responses, it is not possible with the teaching machines.

In addition to the contributions made by the behaviorist, cognitive psychologist

who lays main thrust on information that is perceived and processed by an
individual has a profound implication on the pedagogical perspective about the
meaning of learning.

With the adoption of the philosophy of a “constructivist” framework, the meaning

of learning has changed from just the assimilation of information where teacher
was thought to be the generator of knowledge and student as receiver of
knowledge. Hence, from this theory it is clear that learning is an active process
of constructing meaning on the part of each individual learner’s experiences.

These different meanings of learning have implications on how we approach

each educational content and on how ICT has to be incorporated coherently with
the teaching and learning practices.

Human being, as you know, is a social being. Hence the importance of observing
and modeling the behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others is
common phenomenon. Sociologists, particularly the school of group dynamics
has also contributed a lot to the understanding of the teaching-learning process,
through their work on ‘group processes’.

2.4.4 Information and Communication Technology Phase

Recent innovations in information communication technology have
revolutionized the means of instruction. Now, we are using Multimedia, E-mail,
Internet, intranet, website and mobile to impart instruction. These are
telecommunication modes through which instructional materials can be given to
students. Development of the bandwidth for the Internet and intranet has enabled
teachers to impart instruction within and outside the organization.

This stage is also marked with the advances in the software and hardware potential
of the systems. Several organizations like, audio video research center, educational
media research centers and different departments of education and educational
technology are engaged in the development of educational software. As you know,
open and distance learning system uses all kind of information and communication
technologies like television, radio, interactive radio technology, teleconferencing,
computer conferencing, mobile technology in the delivery of instructional inputs.

37
Understanding ICT Check Your Progress
Notes: a) Write your answers in the space provided.
b) Compare your answers with the one given at the end of the unit.
1) Differentiate between the first phase and the last phase in the evolution
of educational technology and ICT in education.
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
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2) What are the important implications of cybernetics in learning?
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2.5 SATELLITE AND TERRESTRIAL

COMMUNICATION
2.5.1 Satellite Versus Terrestrial Communication
Satellite-based communication is the communication which takes place between
the sender and the receiver through satellite technology. It has specific utility for
distance learners or for the distance learning system. Right from the advent of
the communication satellites, it has been recognized that communication through
satellite has unique benefits such as long distance, quality of performance,
networking, including one point to multi-points to one-point transmission
capabilities. Now-a-days radio and television broadcast takes place through
satellites. Yet non-satellite communication or terrestrial communication has a
significant role to play in meeting the communication needs of a country, where
there is no provision of satellite communication. Earlier, television broadcast
was taking place with the help of terrestrial technology. The fact is that the
satellite and terrestrial systems supplement each other to make communication
more effective. Now let us compare the satellite-based communication and the
terrestrial systems of communication.

Satellite and terrestrial communication: A comparison

Satellite and terrestrial systems – as modes of communication – are not opposed
to one another. Both systems supplement each other’s potential to make
communication more accessible and economical.
38
 Scope and Evolution of
Satellite Terrestrial Information and
Communication Technology
Does not require ground-base, high- Needs high power, high-tower systems, (ICT)
power, high-tower systems. (The height of the transmitter at
Pitampura, Delhi is 235 metres).
Does not need much ground equipment; Needs a number of transmitters for wide
direct reception television sets can coverage.
receive signals directly from the satellite.
Cost of equipment is high, however the Cost of equipment is low.
costs are now falling fast.
Being a highly centralized system it At times difficult because of technical and
provides more positive pacing and managerial hindrances in systems
control over the developmental process. coordination. Further, because of the
position taken by the local authorities
controlling the flow of information at the
regional level, it becomes difficult at
times.
Use of satellite technology could inspire Because of limited coverage, it has some
the teachers, students, and parents for drawbacks.
modernization because it brings the
whole world together into a remote
village.
Planning and implementation require Needs comparatively less time.
more lead time.
Effective for a large country or a group Suitable for a small country or a part of
of countries. the country.
Independent of distance. Limited coverage area.
Independent of the nature of terrain. Difficult in mountainous and sea areas.
Can meet the increasing demand of Communication capacity is bound to the
communication without additional cost. regional system installation and requires
additional cost.
More effective in meeting the overall Serves regional information needs better.
needs of people at the national level.
A satellite failure can result in the entire System failure would not be as disastrous
system being inoperative which might as in the case of the satellite system;
pose severe readjustment strains on the readjustment and repair of damage is
communication. manageable.
Needs parking spaces for the geo- Does not need parking space.
synchronous satellite which is becoming
more and more scarce.
Worldwide network connections via Network is possible at the regional level
satellite can resolve the problem of only.
unequal educational opportunities and
can provide a truly world-wide sharing
of educational resources for international
education.

Source: IGNOU(2009)

39
Understanding ICT
2.6 TELECONFERENCING
Teleconferencing is a new technology, which connects electronically a number
of users located at different places to interact through audio-video, or computer
technology. The technology is very useful for the distance education system as it
provides both learners and teachers of distance system to link themselves for
teaching-learning purpose. All of us know that interaction is an effective way of
providing feedback in the teaching-learning process. In a face-to-face mode, a
learner receives immediate feedback when he/she interacts with the teacher. He/
she also receives feedback from the peers. In fact, the interaction process, which
takes place in face-to-face mode, may be one to one (between a teacher and a
student) or one to many (between a teacher and a group of students). The same
kind of interaction patterns exists also in teleconferencing. There may be
interaction between a distance teacher with a distance learner, between a distance
teacher and a group of learners and amongst distance learners themselves.
Teleconferencing provides a platform wherein the distance learners can interact
with guest speakers or scholars of national and international eminence. In
teleconferencing, there are mainly teaching end and several learning ends.
Teaching end is a studio with an uplink facility. In the case of Indira Gandhi
National Open University (IGNOU), the studio of Electronic Media Production
Centre (EMPC) serves as the teaching end. Learning ends are centres having
downlink facility as well as telephone talkback system. In the case of IGNOU,
all the Regional Centres and a number of Study Centres serve as learning ends.
Distance learners of IGNOU came to these learning ends and interact with the
resource persons at the teaching end. IGNOU used teleconferencing for the first
time to organize Extended Contact Programme (ECP) of PG Diploma in Higher
Education (PGDHE) students in October 1993. The IGNOU headquarters in
Delhi was linked with ten regional centres throughout the country. A one-way
video and two-way audio mode of teleconferencing was adopted for the purpose.
Fig. 2.2 below presents the communication links involved in the programme
(IGNOU, 2007).

Fig. 2.2: A one-way video and two-way audio mode of teleconferencing

40
Types of Teleconferencing Scope and Evolution of
Information and
There can be different types of teleconferencing based on different types of Communication Technology
(ICT)
technological configurations. For your purpose we discuss three types of the
teleconferencing system being used in India these days. They are:
• Audio teleconferencing
• Video teleconferencing
• Computer teleconferencing
These types have been classified according to the use of the technological
configuration. Let us discuss each type in detail.

2.6.1 Audio Teleconferencing

You might have the experience of talking to a person located at a distant place
over the telephone. But with the help of the latest technology, you can talk with
more persons located at multiple sites. The technology which facilities
conversation with more persons located at different places over the telephone is
called audio teleconferencing. This technology is useful to organize learning
experiences. Through this technology distance learners can talk to the teachers
as well as their fellow learners. It is an effective communication tool for sharing
information/ideas/experiences to pertaining different aspects of distance learning.
The role of teacher in audio-conferencing is very important as he/she designs
and directs the process of conferencing towards the achievement of learning
goals. He/she can motivate distance learners and remove the feeling of isolation
among them. It is a fully interactive medium and interaction takes place in real
time. The students can benefit from this medium immensely.

2.6.2 Video Teleconferencing

Video conferencing is the teleconferencing technology in which both learners
and the teacher can see and hear each other. This is becoming a useful medium
for organizing learning experiences in distance learning system. These are:
• Two-way video conferencing
• One-way video conferencing
Let us discuss each type in the following paragraphs.

i) Two-way video conferencing

In two-way videoconferencing, participants are linked by two-way vision as well
as two-way audio. Both audio and visual messages are exchanged between
distance teacher and learners located at different places. Both at the teaching end
and learning ends, there are television screens, which display pictures from distant
locations. The links are essentially telephone connections. These links are more
costly than those for audio conferencing because more data must be transferred,
either by broadband ISDN cable or through television transmitters and receivers
via satellite.(COL, 1997).

Two-way video conferencing is very much interactive in nature. Learners can

see and talk with their teachers and vice-versa. They get a lot of motivation from
the teachers when they are engaged in live dialoguing. They can raise questions,
clear doubts and seek clarifications from teachers. They can also see their fellow
41
Understanding ICT learners at other learning ends and can also raise questions, clear doubts and
seek clarifications from them.

ii) One-way video conferencing

In one-way video conferencing, audio communication takes place two-way
between teaching end and learning ends and visual communication is one-way
from the teaching end. The type of video conferencing begun in IGNOU in the
early nineties was two-way audio and one-way video conferencing. Distance
learners watch the presentations by the experts on television screens at the learning
centres (namely, Regional centres/ Study centres in the case of IGNOU) and talk
with experts at the teaching end (namely, studio of Electronic Media Production
Centre (EMPC) of IGNOU) using long-line telephone facilities.

This technology has been very useful for organizing different kinds of learning
experiences cutting across various disciplines in sciences, social sciences,
humanities, management, health sciences, computer and information sciences,
law, agriculture sciences, etc.

2.6.3 Computer Conferencing

The term computer conferencing refers to computer-based meeting, for exchange
of pictures, words, graphics etc., between multiple sites. Special hardware and
software systems are used to support computer conferencing activities in both
real time and non-real time. Real time, in this context, implies synchronous
communication in which messages can be sent and received as you view the
screen and interact with the system and the other participants tied in the network.
The non-real time elements i.e. asynchronous communication, in contrast, may
encompass a series of longer messages, a central database of information and a
record of current and past comments and all the participants can see (Mirabito,
1994).

2.7 MOBILE LEARNING

Mobile phones first arrived in India in 1995, and since then
their application has grown exponentially. Education through
mobile is often referred as mLearning.

mLearning makes education more accessible as it enables

learners to pursue their studies according to their own
schedule. The portability of mobile technology enables
students to learn at all times and at all places. For those in rural or remote areas
where environmental and infrastructure challenges hinder other learning
modalities, particularly eLearning, mLearning presents great opportunities.
mLearning provides a potential way forward for the expansion of education
programs to larger segments of the population. mLearning allows a method of
educational delivery that could be more cost-effective than other methods.

The technological capacities of mobile phones allow communication by voice

and text and capture still and moving images. Recent ‘smart phones’ allow users
to view PDFs, spreadsheets and word-processed files, and possess additional
features such as a stopwatch and a GPS (Global Positioning System).

42
If mobile phones are to be used in schools, school authorities need to address Scope and Evolution of
Information and
certain issues. These are leadership and school culture; attitudes of teachers and Communication Technology
students; appropriate curriculum activities; professional development of teachers; (ICT)
technical integration and support; and policies pertaining to the use of mobile
phone.
Mobile Phones in Education can be used in the following ways:
1) Send SMS on mobile phones to find definitions, currency conversion, math
equations, translation of texts into different languages, etc.
2) Use it as an internet browser to access endless information
3) Read news articles and current events and books on it
4) Download and use education programs such as Google Maps and use as
GPS
5) Use it as a digital or video camera for school projects, publishing, etc.

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space provided.
b) Compare your answers with the one given at the end of the unit.
3) Mention any three differences between satellite communication and
terrestrial communication.
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
4) Differentiate between audio teleconferencing and video teleconferencing
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...............................................................................................................
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5) Mention any three ways, mobile can be used as a helping tool in teaching-
learning process?
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43
Understanding ICT
2.8 SOCIAL NETWORKS IN EDUCATION
Go through the situation given in the Box -1.

Box-1

Suppose one of your students wants to share his/ her doubts on any of the
academic concept with other students around the world. How can the student
do that? One possible solution is he/ she can get the help of social networks.

Let us discuss about such social networks. Social network sites are defined as
web-based services that allow individuals to: (1) construct a public or semi-
public profile within a bounded system, (2) articulate a list of other users with
whom they share a connection, and (3) view and traverse their list of connections
and those made by others within the system. The nature and nomenclature of
these connections may vary from site to site. Social networking websites allow
users to be part of a virtual community. The two most popular sites are Facebook
and MySpace(See Fig:2.3). These websites provide users with simple tools to
create a custom profile with text and pictures. A typical profile includes basic
information about the user, at least one photo, and possibly a blog or other
comments published by the user. Advanced profiles may include videos, photo
albums, online applications (in Facebook), or custom layouts (in MySpace). After
creating a profile, users can add friends, send messages to other users, and leave
comments directly on friends’ profiles. These features provide the building blocks
for creating online communities.

Facebook Myspace

Source:www.crunchbase.com Source: www.youseemii.fr/blog/myspace

Fig. 2.3: Home Page of Social Networks-Facebook and Myspace

2.8.1 Application of Social Networks in Education

Now our question is how we can make use of social network sites for teaching
purpose in secondary classes. As you know even small kids now-a-days are
becoming more technically literate in comparison to their parents or teachers. As
teachers, you know that each student has his/ her own style of learning. Some
prefer learning in the morning while others in late night. For example, if two
students study during the night and if some doubts arise during the course of
their study, they can make use of social network sites to clear their doubts.
Similarly, they can join in some discussion boards, which are active at the same
time. Otherwise they can post their ideas on any of the “forum” available. Even
44
they can make use of the help of online teachers through social networks. So Scope and Evolution of
Information and
these are some of the methods students can make use of in their studies. Here Communication Technology
teachers also have a great role to play. They can also help students by clearing (ICT)
doubts through social network sites. Let us go through another example on social
network sites.

An Example of Social Networking

There was a teacher from America and there was a student from India. They
were interacting through Facebook accounts. The conversation was as
follows:
Student: Madam, I have a doubt on periodic table. Can you help me?
Teacher: Oh….Sure.. What is your doubt?
Student: First, tell me madam, what is periodic table?
Teacher: It is the arrangement of chemical elements based on their atomic
weight.
Student: How many groups and periods are there in periodic table?
Teacher: 18 groups and 7 periods.

The conversation continued for a long time. This example was cited to give an
insight about the use of social networks in education. Similarly students can
interact with peers, subject experts, senior teachers, etc. The use of social networks
lies on the creativity of secondary teacher.

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space provided.
b) Compare your answers with the one given at the end of the unit.
6) “A social network is one of the emerging technological tools in teaching-
learning process”. Comment
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2.9 OPEN EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES (OER)

As you know when students are given assignments on any subject matter, usually
they make use of the library and refer to the books to complete the task. They can
also get the help of open educational resources. From the Internet library, students
refer to open books, which are similar to the books in our traditional library. But
open educational resource is entirely a different concept. Let us understand the
concept of open educational resources.
The term ‘Open Educational Resources’ (OER) was first introduced at a
conference hosted by the UNESCO in 2000. There is no authoritatively accredited 45
Understanding ICT definition for the term OER at present. Open Educational Resources are any
type of educational material that is freely available for teachers and students to
use, adapt, share, and reuse. “Open Educational Resources (OER) are teaching,
learning, and research resources that reside in the public domain or have been
released under an intellectual properly license that permits their free use or re-
purposing by others. Open educational resources include full courses, course
materials, modules, textbooks, streaming videos, tests, software, and any other
tools, materials, or techniques used to support access to knowledge (Atkins,
Brown, & Hammond 2007). They are typically made freely available over the
Web or the Internet. Open educational resources help both teachers and students.
Teachers use OER to procure updated contents of subject of teaching, whereas
students use it for multiple purposes.

2.9.1 Features of OER

• It is available to students free of cost.
• It is available for use at any time any place.
• It provides latest contents in any subject areas.
• It contains options to edit, share and reuse.
OER materials, generally contain the following elements:

i) Learning content: OER generally include the contents in text form. Apart
from text material, supplementary contents are available in animations,
pictures, PowerPoint slide, links to other related cites, references, lecture
materials, reference journals, suggested reference readings, learning objects,
learning modules, videos related to contents, experiments, simulated
materials, real videos, images, softwares to run specific programmes, tools
to create and edit contents, and other supporting softwares to access the
content of OER.

ii) Tools: One of the chief characteristics of OER is that the content available
can be edited .Any user referring to the OER materials must obtain the
license to edit the related content to the existing materials. Softwares and
tools required for editing are available in OER. Edition in the existing
documents keeps on updating content of OER. To support editing, content
creation tools, content management systems, organizing tools, content
development tools, content designing tools, etc. are available in OER.

iii) Implementation: OER materials available need to be published for use by

the public. Hence, proper licenses and policies are required to make OER
available to the public. Similarly, proper rules and regulations need to be
formulated for the use of OER materials. Problems related to copyright is a
major concern in the use of OER materials. OER includes clear-cut policy
frameworks related to the copyright concerned.

2.9.2 Locating OER

By now, you have understood the concept of open educational resources. But the
question for teachers is how to locate them. Teachers can find innumerable number
of OER repositories where OER materials are available. For instance, the materials
of IGNOU are available in E-GyanKosh, an online repository of teaching materials
46
of IGNOU. You can see one of the OER material of IGNOU in the following Scope and Evolution of
Information and
figure, where you can search the required course material that you wish to study. Communication Technology
(ICT)

2.9.3 Advantages of Using OER

• Expanded access to learning: The access to OER is unlimited due to their
availability on Internet. Anyone one can access to the OER materials
irrespective of time and region
• Access to materials cheap: Distribution and access to OER materials is
cheaper in comparison to other forms of distribution and access.
• Supplementation of class materials: OER can supplement textbooks and
lectures where deficiencies in information are evident.
• Enhancement of course quality: They add to the regular course content,
thereby enhancing their quality.
• Quick circulation: Since they are available on Internet, easy access and
quick circulation is possible.
• Lower student cost: It reduces the cost of education.
• Showcasing of innovation and talent: Innovative and novel contents are
available in OER
• Continually improved resources: OER keep on updating the content and
hence students and teachers get latest contents that they need.

2.9.4 Disadvantages of OER

• Quality issues: Many OER materials are available on Internet. This may or
may not be of good quality. Try to select quality OER materials for teaching
purpose.
• Lack of human interaction between teachers and students: OER do not
provide opportunity to interact among the people concerned. Teachers and
students are separated during the course of using OER.
• Language and/or cultural barriers: OER are not available in all languages.
Therefore, they may not suit to your culture and context of teaching.
• Technological issues: OER come in different forms. Students who are not
well versed with the use of OER face problem in accessing such materials.
• Intellectual property/copyright concerns: The access and use of OER
for personal purposes is not allowed due to copy right issues.

47
Understanding ICT
2.10 ONLINE LEARNING
Internet has become a powerful technological tool for organizing Learning
experiences online in open and distance learning system. It can be understood
as a network of computers across the globe wherein information is shared and
exchanged among the people of the world in a short time. Morrison (1997) defines
Internet as a vast telecommunication network consisting of a group of
internationally interconnected computers that communicate electronically.
Galbreath (1997) has defined the Internet as a network of networks with a
universal addressing school allowing real-time, computer-to-computer, local-
independent communication and information enchasing. Communication on
Internet takes place on synchronous or asynchronous, one-to-one, one-to-many
and many-to-many basis.

Internet can be used to provide online learning programmes to distance learners.

Online Learning programmes comprise self-learning materials, audio-video
support, assignments, academic counselling, teachers-learners conferencing, etc.
Like print based material, online self-learning materials comprise text, structures,
diagram, self-check exercises etc. But unlike print based material it contains
animation, audio and video integrated with text material and provide the learner
with a lot of scope for interactivity. Audio-video support can also be made
available to learners through online independent of learning material. The design
of learning materials on the net is based on using new pedagogical models based
on conversation. The academic counselling can also be provided through online
using lectures, discussions chat synchronously or as anachronously, wherein the
learners can raise queries and clear their doubts. Assignments and feedback on
assignment responses can also be provided to students online. The most important
aspect of online learning is that it facilitates collaborative learning through online
conferencing. They can engage themselves in virtual classroom learning. They
form collaborative groups in the form of cyberclub and Internet among themselves
regarding their learning problems using e-mail. In many subject areas, like
medicine, sciences and other applied areas practical training can be provided in
simulated learning environment.

2.11 U—LEARNING
Ubiquitous learning or u -learning is recent development in education. U-learning
is supported by ubiquitous computing technologies which refers to the small
hand-held devices that can be used both for communications and computation.
In earlier days, separate electronic devices were used for communication and
computation like phone for communication, computers and calculators for
computation. But later, devices like mobile which are handy in nature and capable
of doing both these functions were invented. In addition to smart mobile phones,
contactless smart cards, hand-held terminals, Personal Digital Assistants(PDA),
sensor network nodes, Radio Frequency Identification (RFID), etc, also make
use of ubiquitous computing technologies. These devices have sensors to interact
with living environment. Thus, ubiquitous computing technologies allows both
communication and services anytime and anywhere. The changes in the
technologies have led to the transformation of e-learning to mobile learning and
mobile learning to u-learning.
48
The learning based on ubiquitous technology is known as u-learning. The most Scope and Evolution of
Information and
significant role of ubiquitous computing technology in u-learning is to construct Communication Technology
a ubiquitous learning enviroinment, which enables anyone to learn at any place (ICT)
at any time. (Saadiah, et.al. 2010) As we know, learning is the process of acquiring
knowledge and skill. To develop knowledge and skill, an appropriate learning
environment is to be created. In traditional classrooms, the learning environment
is fixed. But in the u-learning the student will be in a ubiquitous learning
environment (ULE) or u-space. The students will carry a mobile device primarily
for learning (PDA or mobile phone, etc.) having sensors attached which will
help the ULE server to track and locate students.Thus, students are free to learn
anywhere and anytime as they feel. In such a learning situation, students have
the freedom to interact with peers, clear their queries leading to their own learning
at their own pace. So, u-learning is embedded in students’ daily life allowing
them to learn anytime as they wish. Thus, we may broadly say, u learning is
‘learning anywhere and anytime’. The definition refers to any environment that
allows any mobile learning devices to access the learning and teaching contents
via wireless networks in any location at any time. The commonly used definition
of u-learning is “learning with u-computing technology” (Yang et al., 2008).

Let us discuss some of the applications of u-learning. First, learning with the
help of nay hand-held device is u-learning. A broader application would be, say
for example, a student entering the lab is detected by the sensor and necessary
instruction to that particular student will be provided by the server. Similarly,
students entering the school premises having sensors attached to their uniforms
will be sensed and details will be collected /fetched by the teachers. Owing to
the facilities provided by u-learning, the popularity is increasing day by day.
Below given are some of the characteristics(Saadiah, et. al., 2010) of u-learning;
i) Permanency: The information remains unless the learners purposely remove
it.
ii) Accessibility: The information is always available whenever the learners
need to use it.
iii) Immediacy: The information can be retrieved immediately by the learners.
iv) Interactivity: The learners can interact with peers, teachers, and experts
efficiently and effectively through different media.
v) Context-awareness: The environment can adapt to the learner’s real
situation to provide adequate information for the learners.

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space provided.
b) Compare your answers with the one given at the end of the unit.
7) What are Open Educational Resources? How are they useful in teaching-
learning process?
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49
Understanding ICT
8) Explain the meaning of U-learning.
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2.12 LET US SUM UP

In continuation with the Unit-1, the Unit-2 focused on scope and evolution of
Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in education. The scope of
using ICT in education covers mass education, providing historical information,
conducting costly and hazardous experiments, playing games and carrying out
simulation, providing distance education, conducting research, etc. Educational
technology and ICT in education have evolved through four different phases,
namely, audio-visual, cybernetic, psycho-sociological and information and
communication technology. A comparison between satellite and terrestrial
technologies has been made. We also discussed teleconferencing, its types, mobile
learning, social networks in education. A brief presentation was made on OER,
its features, how to use OERs optimally, its advantages and disadvantages. At
the end, we explained the concept of online learning and u-learning.

2.13 SUGGESTED READINGS AND REFERENCES

Atkins, D.E., Brown J.S., Hammond A.L (2007). A. Review of the Open
Educational Resources (OER) Movement: Achievements, challenges, and new
opportunities. The William and Flora Hewlett Foundation. Retrived from
www.hewlett.org/uploads/files/Review of the OER Movement on.
Allen, I.E., and Seaman, J.(2008). Staying the course: Online Education in the
United States, Needham MA: Sloan consortium
Hylen, Jan (2007). Giving Knowledge for Free: The Emergence of Open
Educational Resources., France: OECD Publishing
IGNOU (2009). Unit-2 Satellite Technology and Distance Education, in MES-
115: Communication Technology for Distance Education, IGNOU: New Delhi
IGNOU (2000). ES-361: Educational Technology, New Delhi: IGNOU.
IGNOU (2009). Unit-1: Nature of ET, in MES-031: ET-An Overview, IGNOU:
New Delhi.
Mohanty J., (1992) Educational Technology, Delhi: Deep and Deep Publication.
McConatha D. and Praul. M (2007), Mobile Learning in the Classroom: An
Empirical Assessment of a New Tool for Students and Teachers http://
www.hotlavasoftware.com/article_info.php? articles_id=14
M-learning : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M-learning retrieved on 20th February
50 2008
Sampath. K & Santhanam. S (1990) Introduction To Educational Technology, Scope and Evolution of
Information and
Second Revision Edition, Sterling, New Delhi: Publishers Pvt ltd. pg no. 300- Communication Technology
304 (ICT)

Sharma, R.A. (2004). Technological Foundations of Education, Third Edition,

pg 60-61
Usha, R. (1991). Educational Technology, First Edition, Bombay: Himalaya
Publishing House, Pg no. 1-21.
Yang,TZ., Kuo,FR., Hwang,J.G. and Chu, H.C. (2008).A Computer Assisted
Approach for Designing Context-Aware Ubiquitous Learning Activities. 2008
IEEE International Conference on Sensor Networks, Ubiquitous and Trustworthy
Saadiah ,Y. Erny, A. and A, Kamarularifin, A.J. (2010). The definition and
characteristics of ubiquitous learning: A discussion. International Journal of
Education and Development using Information and Communication Technology
(IJEDICT).6(1),117-127.

2.14 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1) ICTs like films, radio and television were popular which provided one way
interaction but in the last phase the two way interaction became possible

2) The main implication of the cybernetics was the active involvement of the
learner in his/her learning.

3) Satellite Communication Terrestrial Communication

i) Planning and implementation Needs comparatively less time.
require more lead time.
ii) Effective for a large country or Suitable for a small country or a
a group of countries. part of the country.
iii) Independent of distance. Limited coverage area.
4) The technology which facilities conversation with more persons located at
different places over the telephone is called audio teleconferencing. Video
conferencing is the teleconferencing technology in which both learners and
the teacher can see and hear each other.
5) i) Reading news articles and current events and books on it
ii) Downloading and use education programs such as Google Maps and
use as GPS
iii) Using it as a digital or video camera for school projects, publishing,
etc.
6) Social networks are important tools in the teaching-learning process. Social
networks are online communities, where individuals can share everything
among themselves. In educational context, students and teachers can share
among themselves their experiences and problems so that teaching-learning
process becomes an interesting activity. We define social network sites as
web-based services that allow individuals to: (1) construct a public or semi-
public profile within a bounded system, (2) articulate a list of other users
51
Understanding ICT with whom they share a connection, and (3) view and traverse their list of
connections and those made by others within the system.

7) Open educational resources are educational materials and resources offered

freely and openly for anyone to use and under some licenses to re-mix,
improve and redistribute.

8) U-learning refers to any learning environment that allows any mobile

learning devices to access the learning and teaching contents via wireless
networks in any location at any time. The commonly used definition of u-
learning is “learning with u-computing technology.

52
 Learning Theories:
UNIT 3 LEARNING THEORIES: Implications for ICT

IMPLICATIONS FOR ICT

Structure
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Objectives
3.3 Theories of Learning and their Implications for using ICT in Education
3.3.1 Behaviourism
3.3.2 Implications of Behaviourism for using ICT in Education
3.3.3 Cognitivism
3.3.4 Implications of Cognitivism for using ICT in Education
3.3.5 Constructivism
3.3.6 Implications of Constructivism for using ICT in Education
3.4 Optimum use of ICT for Teaching-Learning Purposes
3.5 Let us Sum Up
3.6 Suggested Readings and References
3.7 Answers to Check Your Progress

3.1 INTRODUCTION
During the first year of this programme you might have studied the concept of
pedagogy and also about learning theories. Hence, you know that pedagogies are
guided by learning theories. You also have an understanding of the concept of
Information and Communication Technology (ICT), which is the focal point of
the first two units of this course. This unit explains briefly learning theories and
their implications for use of ICT in teaching-learning process, and projects the
linkage among learning theories, pedagogies, and ICT use for instructional
purposes.
Why do we need to study the implications of learning theories for ICT use? This
is because with increasing access to ICT at educational institutions, and with
policies urging teachers to use ICT, there is a possibility of ICT use, being guided
by its availability, and the policies requiring ICT use in teaching-learning
processes. This type of ICT use treats ICT as the focal point and teaching-learning
strategies revolve around the technology in which the institution has invested
(Suri, 2008). In such cases learning theories and hence, pedagogy may become
subservient to technology use, which assumes the central position in teaching-
learning processes, instead of being the means for supporting pedagogies. This
leads to the possibility of using even digital technologies just for supporting
traditional pedagogies involving information transmission (Laurilard, 2002). The
potential of ICT for supporting a pedagogic shift from traditional teaching methods
to those that support knowledge construction may not be utilized in such instances.
On the other hand, when the focus is on learning theories, ICT is treated as a
means to support pedagogy and there are attempts to integrate it seamlessly in
the instructional process. Therefore, this unit treats theories of learning as key
points and describes their implications for ICT mediated teaching and learning.
Subsequently, it states that optimum utilization of ICT depends on the pedagogy,
53
Understanding ICT and hence, the learning theory, which can make learners consumers of information
transmitted by ICT, or collaborative creators of knowledge.

3.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you should be able to:
• describe different learning theories;
• explain the implications of behaviourism for using ICT in teaching -learning
processes;
• discuss the implications of cognitivism for using ICT in teaching- learning
processes;
• explain the implications of constructivism for using ICT in teaching- learning
processes; and
• discuss the ways to utilise ICT optimally for teaching- learning processes.

3.3 THEORIES OF LEARNING AND THEIR

IMPLICATIONS FOR USING ICT IN
EDUCATION
You, might have studied in the first year of this programme the theories of learning
and hence you have an understanding of the behaviouristic, cognitive and
constructivist approaches to teaching and learning. Therefore, in this section,
we shall briefly discuss them and draw out their implications for use of ICT for
pedagogic purpose.

3.3.1 Behaviourism
According to the learning theories propounded by behaviourists, learning is a
mechanical process of associating stimulus with response, which produces a
new behaviour. Again, such behaviour according to some psychologists is
strengthened by reinforcement. We shall discuss the learning theories propounded
by two famous psychologists namely Pavlov and Watson that consider association
between stimulus and response to lead to behavioural change i.e. learning and
then study their implications. Thereafter, we shall discuss some theories that
emphasise the role of reward/reinforcement to strengthen the desirable behaviour.

• Pavlov’s theory of Classical Conditioning

This theory suggests that reinforcement strengthens the behaviour arising from
connection between stimulus and response. In Pavlov’s famous experiment, the
dog salivated (response-R) when food (unconditioned stimulus- UCS) was served
and a bell (conditioned stimulus-CS) rang simultaneously. Later on, even in the
absence of food, only on hearing the bell, the dog salivated. This was because
response was made even to the CS after it had been paired several times with
UCS. For instance, we stop at red traffic signal even when we are no longer
asked to do so because the red light (CS) itself generates the response thus leading
to learning.
Watson’s Theory of Learning: J. B. Watson’s theory too like Pavlov’s theory
says that learning is by association of stimulus (S) and response (R) and that
there can even be generalisation of stimuli to which the same response is emitted.
54 Let us go through the following example in this regard.
 Learning Theories:
Example Implications for ICT
Rohan was learning to use the computer. Once he lost the data stored in a
as it did not function. He developed a fear for electronic data storing devices
as he had generalized the stimuli and reverted back to the use of paper and
pen. Later with his teacher’s encouragement, he once again started using
computer and gradually gained faith. This is because connection between
the stimuli and response (data storing devices and lack of trust) had been
broken.

We see that the response (distrust) had got conditioned for not only the floppy,
which had caused a natural response but along with it also for the other data
storing devices, which had not evoked a negative response so far (neutral
stimulus).

Thorndike’s theory of learning

Thorndike’s theory of learning also involves bonding of S and R but rewarding
a certain response fixes it over the others. This is called the law of effect i.e.
pleasant experiences lead to learning over unpleasant ones. Repeatedly forming
connection between S and R i.e. drill, strengthens the connection (Law of use)
while disuse does the opposite (Law of disuse). There is also the ‘Law of
readiness’ that says that learning is possible only if the learner is ready i.e. mature
and possesses necessary previous experiences for learning. Above all this theory
suggests that learning is goal oriented.

Hull’s Theory of Drive Reduction

According to Hull also, learning involves S-R connection but it is basically need
based. Let us study the following example-
Mr. X, a teacher, was not computer literate and did not bother about the fact that
his computer lay unused. Later on, when imparting instructions through power
point presentation was made mandatory, he felt the drive to learn, which caused
a state of disequilibrium in him and initiated and sustained learning.

Skinner’s Theory of Learning

B.F Skinner was also, an associationist who believed that learning takes place
through association of S and R. He, however, vouched for the role of
reinforcement in shaping behaviour i.e. for learning. Unlike Pavlovian
conditioning, which conditions a particular behaviour, in operant conditioning
the ‘operant’, which unlike a response, is unanticipated, and when it is emitted,
it is reinforced. Hence reinforcement is contingent to the emission of the
desired response.

3.3.2 Implications of Behaviourism for using ICT in Education

Behaviourists consider learning to be a mechanical process of ‘association’ of
response with a stimulus for producing a new behaviour, i.e. learning. They also
emphasize the need for ‘practice’ for strengthening the association so that the
newly acquired behaviour can be performed with speed as well as efficiency,
and gains the strength of a habit. For instance, while learning to use a computer
keyboard, we gain speed and efficiency with practice. You have also read that
behaviourists like Pavlov highlight the need for conditioning the response (R)
55
Understanding ICT through proper reinforcements and enabling the learner to respond to even a
neutral stimulus (S) that assumes the strength of a natural stimulus.

Hull’s theory of drive reduction says that learning involves S-R connection but it
is directed towards the satisfaction of a need, which in itself serves as
reinforcement, while behaviourists like Pavlov, Skinner and Thorndike are of
the view that reinforcement provided by an external agency strengthens the S-R
connection and thus the desired behaviour. However, Sprinthall and Sprinthall,
(1990) say that Skinners’ concept of reinforcement differs from Thorndike’s
concept of reward, which is a satisfying feeling or experience rather than
something concrete. Apart from the need for reward and practice, Thorndike
also emphasized the significance of other factors like the readiness of learners,
and goal oriented learning endeavours, for learning. What are the implications
of these aspects of behaviourism on ICT use in teaching and learning? We are
listing some of the implications. You may take a critical look at them in the light
of behaviourism and add some more.

• Learning experience needs to be enjoyable: While using ICT for teaching

we need to understand that once the novelty of the device wears off, learners
may lose interest unless the content taught is interesting. Hence, children
may be excited as you take them to a smart classroom and use computers
but to sustain their interest you need to teach in a way that they enjoy learning.

Read the following:

In 1999, as a part of the “hole in the wall” project, carried out in Delhi, a
computer was put in hole in a wall in a way that children of a nearby slum
could access it. The children started using it and could acquire basic
computing skills mostly on their own. The project showed that there can
be incidental learning of such skills provided the learners can access
suitable computing facility, with entertaining and motivating content and
some minimal (human) guidance.

Source: Edutopia, February3, 2012).

You may read about this project carried out by Sugata Mitra.
Note the words ‘entertaining and motivating content’ in the box given above.
This explains the reason for designing educational games, using computers and
mobile devices, in a way that learning experiences educate as well as entertain
and keep the learners interested. For example- for a game built around a pizza
party, children, while playing the game, attend the party and learn to count, add
and subtract; there are games for language learning while playing the game; an
online squabble game requiring players to create meaningful words, encourages
thinking and helps the expansion of vocabulary but sustains their interest by
challenging them with cues for word making.
• Reinforcing desired learning experience: Skinner is of the view that teachers
can be more effective if they act as behavioural engineers and shape
behaviour through reinforcement (Parsons, Hinson, Brown, 2001). Therefore
computer assisted instructions are developed not just for teaching but also
for, assessing learning and providing feedback that reinforces the desired
behaviour. You may have also played games on computer or mobile phone
and got feedback about your performance in the form of scores,
56
 congratulatory messages and so on. When you design ICT mediated learning Learning Theories:
Implications for ICT
experiences, you need to keep in mind the need for providing such
reinforcement verbally/textually/ pictorially.
Use of emoticons for providing feedback. One can find emoticons in
smartphones. They are used by people to express their feelings.

Thorndike’s learning theory is - behaviouristic –
Pavlov’s theory of learning is-constructivist- -Read the text again

Feedback in self learning material

Why does this unit include ‘check your progress’ and their suggested
answers? The unit has been developed as a Self Learning Material (SLM),
which is based on the concept of ‘programmed learning’. Programmed
learning aims to introduce behavioural change (learning) through suitable
learning experiences that are analysed and presented in small learnable
units for introducing learning. This unit also includes small segments of
instructional content called frames. Following the teaching of a segment,
learning is assessed and ‘reinforced’ through feedback.

• Practice for learning and its retention: Computer Assisted Instructions often
include provision for drill and immediate feedback. This reduces the chances
of extinction of response to the stimulus and thereby the termination of the
newly acquired behaviour.
A multiplication drill

2X3= 6-
3X 4=13-  -try again

3X4= 12-

4X5=20-
• Learning requires readiness in terms of maturity and previous knowledge:
Previous knowledge, maturity, interest determine readiness. For example a
computer training of the advanced level, requires the mastery of the basics.
We need to keep this in mind while selecting/developing content/ learning
experiences for our learners. Therefore, while developing an audio/video
programme we need to carry out a need survey to understand the academic
background of the target group (learners) and pitch the difficulty level of
the programme accordingly. For example for a video programme on “states
of matter” for fifth standard students will you include content on the
molecular structure of water? Why?

• Learning is goal oriented and need based: Formulating clear objectives for
teaching-learning purposes and sharing them with learners is important.
For example, before engaging children in an addition drill, we may tell
them that this will help them in learning addition and subsequently
multiplication and thus enable them to calculate the cost of the things they
buy.

Behaviouristic approaches are criticised as they lead to the adoption of traditional

methods of teaching requiring information transmission through lectures for filling 57
Understanding ICT gaps in learner’s knowledge. Learners are also engaged in drill and practice for
strengthening the S-R association, but not in the generation of new concepts. It
also considers learning as an individual instead of a social process and hence,
does not take into account the need for discussions and team work for learning.
Nevertheless, behaviourism has led to the development of important instructional
technologies, tutorials with individual instructions and feedback that reward
learning and motivate learners (Shield, 2000; Sutton, 2003). It has also led to the
idea of programmed learning, which is still popular for developing SLM.

Behaviourism is although criticised for defining learning as a mechanical process

of responding to a stimulus, and encouraging teaching through transmission of
information for rote learning but it is difficult to dispense with it altogether. Can
we avoid learning by S-R association? How do we learn to stop when the traffic
signal turns red and start when it turns green? Do we not get conditioned to stop
at a red signal? Can we avoid rote learning? How do we learn our telephone
number, our address, songs of a language we may not understand? Do we learn
these things by attaching meaning or by rote? Does practice help in learning the
use of the computer commands like ‘Ctrl+s, Ctrl+b, Ctrl+alt+del’? We learn
many things through association, conditioning and repeated practice. S-R
association is required even for operating complicated machines like car,
computer, aeroplane, mobile phone, and the like. Look at your television remote
control device, or your mobile phone. They have many symbols to which you
have learnt to respond for operations like increasing or decreasing brightness,
volume of audio, and so on. Therefore, when you develop a CD or an online
course, you may create various icons for communicating messages like ‘forward’,
‘backward’, ‘pause’, ‘start’, ‘skip’, etc., but an icon should require the same
response every time it is used so that the S-R connection is established. For
instance, if an icon is used once for ‘pause’, every time it has to be used for
pause so that users associate the action ‘pause’ to it.

3.3.3 Cognitivism
Associationists view learning as perceptible change in behaviour and emphasize
what learners do. They advocate for S-R and R-S patterns of learning but neo-
behaviourists go beyond this and include besides overt behaviour, the internal
processes involved within the organism (O) thus making S-O-R combination
(Parson, Hinson and Brown, 2001). For instance, learning by observation where
by the process is observed and understood and thereby learnt. For example, one
can watch a video programme with demonstration of an experiment and repeat it
by grasping the content and without resorting to random trial and error. Thus
learning is not considered as a mechanical process but requires the application
of insight and involves thought process i.e. cognition of the learner. Mental
processes like memory, reasoning, organizing ideas, making strategies for
acquiring facts and concepts are needed for learning (Seifert, 1991). This requires
one to consider the entire field of operation i.e. the problem in its entirety and
not isolated stimuli. Hence it is also called gestalt (whole ) theory of learning as
the learner considers the whole field with all the variables involved and perceive
their relations.

3.3.4 Implications of Cognitivism for using ICT in Education

You have studied Piaget’s view on acquisition of knowledge, and hence about
the growth of the mental structure, the schema (building blocks of knowledge).
58
While associationists view learning as perceptible change in overt behaviour Learning Theories:
Implications for ICT
exhibited as response (R) to stimulus (S), and place emphasis on what learners
‘do’, neo-behaviourists go beyond this and include besides overt behaviour, the
internal processes involved within the organism (O) for making S-O-R
combination (Parson, Hinson and Brown, 2001). Therefore, cognitivism does
not view learning as a mechanical process but a process of thinking i.e. cognition
for meaning making. Mental processes like memory, reasoning, organizing ideas,
making strategies for acquiring facts and concepts are needed for such learning
(Seifert, 1991) and this requires the consideration of the entire field of operation
(gestalt) and the relation among the variables comprising it, instead of considering
isolated stimuli. Information processing is thus carried out and as indicated in
Figure 3.1, the following steps are therefore essential:

• Receiving initial sensory input from sense organ(s) : The sensory register
receives the information but holds it for a short duration and retains only
the stimuli to which we pay ‘attention’. Objective qualities of the stimuli
i.e., well defined features of the stimuli facilitate its retention. For example,
a teacher points to Assam in the political map of India and taps the pointed
end of a stick on it to draw attention to the stimulus; on a website some
links are labelled as ‘new’ and the word ‘new’ blinks to draw attention.
While the information is still in the sensory register, we perceive it by
attaching meaning to it. From the sensory register the information perceived
passes on to the ‘short term memory’ but remains there for a limited period.
Thereafter it is either forgotten or becomes long term memory. Hence,
information processing is not merely the process of shifting information
from sensory register to STM and then to LTM but it also involves the
organization of the information and attaching meaning to it for forming
concepts (Sprinthall & Sprinthall, 1990). For example, when a child learns
about sparrows, the information is transferred to her STM and she makes
meaning with the help of her earlier learning of crows and pigeons and her
new learning then becomes a part of her LTM but a telephone number she
has learnt may be retained in the STM only till she has dialled the number.
The learning does not become a part of LTM in this case.

• Transferring STM to Long Term Memory (LTM) as well as recalling the

LTM requires effort, but practise lessens the effort. For e.g., unlike those
teaching a particular content every year, others who had learnt it long back
may need some time to recall it.

Can rote learning be a part of LTM? You know that rote learning, unlike
meaningful learning, implies learning by repetition rather than by
comprehension. Although such learning is not considered to be as effective
as insightful learning but rote learning may also be transferred to LTM and
may become life long memory, like the rhymes and songs we had learnt in
our childhood often without understanding their meaning. However, we
may not be able to recall the ‘laws of motion’ we had learnt as adolescents
if we had learnt them by rote. This is because like the rhymes and songs we
may not have fully understood the laws but unlike the rhymes we may not
have rehearsed them to the point of ‘over learning’ i.e. repetition, which is
necessary for transfer to the LTM and retention.

59
Understanding ICT Information
(Stimull) Sensory Register Short Term Memory

Sense Orqans Organization &

Concept Formation

Retrieval Long Term Memory

Figure 3.1 Information Processing Model

What are the implications of cognitivism and especially Information

Processing for ICT use in teaching and learning? Some of the implications
are the following:

• Learning is basically a process of meaning making. The learner constructs

knowledge but individually. Hence, ICT use needs to be directed towards
engaging the learner with the content in a way that s/he is enabled to recall
earlier relevant learning and use it for anchoring new learning. For example,
for teaching the implications of learning theories for ICT use, we are referring
to the theories of learning you have learnt earlier but in an online course,
you may create hyperlinks and new concepts may be hyperlinked to the
content taught earlier. You may have come across such content with
hyperlinks, in wikis, that lead to explanations and / illustrations for the
hyperlinked word.

• Using ICT for repeatedly playing a particular content like a poem or a song
may help in making it a part of LTM but you need to check whether the
learner has understood the concept, as the content learnt this way may not
necessarily lead to meaningful learning, and may be lost.
• It is necessary to draw learner’s attention for learning to begin. If we fail to
draw the learner’s attention and arouse interest in learning, the information
we provide may be lost. Therefore, we use methods like using an interesting
introductory message prior to teaching the content, apart from techniques
for drawing attention like underlining, using bullets, creating boxes with
text, and the like.
• Learners need to be active for learning. Hence, activities requiring them to
search for information, examine it, evaluate and select appropriate content,
analyze and synthesize it, draw inferences, that make them more active
than situations in which they are recipients of the information and inferences
drawn by teachers and others, support learning. Hence, learners need to use
ICT more while in a classroom teachers usually are the main users of ICT
and learners remain passive.
• Goal oriented and self-directed learning requires clear objectives. For
example, the units of this course begin with clear objectives of teaching
and learning. Hence, while developing an audio/video/online course/
multimedia CD you should be clear about the goals of teaching and learning.
• Learning requires scaffolding. Hence, even while teaching through ICT,
advance organizers can be helpful for rooting new learning to earlier one
by comparing and contrasting old and new ideas, or by simply linking them.
• Learners do not need to be ‘trained’ as they can make meaning and be self
60 directed learners, who can take charge of their learning. This, however,
 requires that irrespective of the medium used for delivering it, the self Learning Theories:
Implications for ICT
learning material is structured, focussed and as per the learner’s abilities
and needs. It should also raise questions that elicit critical thinking. The
feedback from teachers may also include comments that encourage thinking.

• As the learner needs to process information, the content, for instance of an

online course or any unit of a teaching-learning process, should have a well
defined and coherent structure, logical sequencing, summary, relevant
examples, analogies, concept maps, and other such features for facilitating
information processing.

• Though learners engage in information processing, the importance of drill

and practice remains. For examples, we may watch a video showing a
process, understand it and reproduce it but practising it will lead to perfection
and naturalization.

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space provided.
b) Compare your answers with the one given at the end of the unit.
1) For designing an online course does behaviourism have any
implications?
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2) How should the instructional content be designed for programmed
learning?
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3) What are the features that learning material should have, for fostering
thought process?
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61
Understanding ICT 3.3 5 Constructivism
For the modern educationist, education is much beyond memorizing facts and
performing fixed operations. It is ‘metacognition’ which refers to the ability to
understand and manipulate cognitive process through questioning, planning,
regulating thought and thus perform critical thinking (Parsons, Hinson and Broom,
2001). In the new paradigm of education wherein technology is getting integrated,
construction of knowledge gets promoted. The learner constructs knowledge
through his/her own efforts rather than being fed with fixed information from an
outside agency. Intimately related to constructivist approach is the ‘Humanistic
approach’ which places the learner at the centre stage and allows learning at
one’s own pace and style. There is faith in the learner’s potential and allows the
learner to fully exercise and use the potential. These approaches are adopted
when technology is integrated as the learner occupies the centre stage. Moreover,
not all learners will try to construct knowledge in the same way as would have
happened if a teacher would have spoon fed them with the same information.
Thus, educational technology nurtures creativity and helps in overcoming a
straitjacketed approach.

3.3.6 Implications of Constructivism for using ICT in Education

You know that as per the constructivist approaches learners should not be merely
recipients of the knowledge constructed by others but they should engage in
activities that lead to knowledge construction. You also know that social
constructivists like Vygotsky consider learning to be a social process requiring
discussion, negotiation, attaining consensus, and hence team work. ICT has the
potential to support collaborative knowledge construction (Jarvela, Hakkarainen,
Lipponen, & Lehtinen, 2001) and Web 2.0 technologies like wikis, blogs and
podcasts if effectively deployed can enhance learning experiences, and deepen
levels of learners’ engagement and collaboration within digital learning
environments (Boulos, Inocencio & Wheeler, 2006). This is because sociability
aspects of Web 2.0 tools built through their social softwares make them ideal for
educational purposes as they can support conversational interaction, feedback
and social networking (McLoughlin & Lee, 2007).

What are the implications of constructivism for teaching and learning with ICT?
Some of them are the following:

• ICT use for enhancing learner engagement: ICT should enhance the level
of active participation of learners in learning processes. The content taught,
therefore, has to be interactive that questions, requires learners to critique,
contextualize it by bringing into play their own experiences, for cognitive
engagement of learners. Activities requiring collaborative work with peers
and provision of support from teachers will enhance learners’ social
engagement.

• ICT use for supporting knowledge construction: ICT needs to be used

for supporting knowledge construction by learners. For example, ICT may
be used just for downloading images of food chain or it may be used for
searching for information about the birds and animals of a locality and their
food habit; downloading images of the birds and animals, images of
necessary icons like arrows, and using the images to organize the organisms
in a way that depicts a food chain.
62
• ICT use for making learning a social process: Unlike behaviourists and Learning Theories:
Implications for ICT
cognitivists, social constructivists consider learning as a social process.
Hence, ICT needs to be used for learning collaboratively. Activities requiring
teams to solve problems, making discoveries and using ICT for collecting,
processing, managing and sharing information and the resources created
are, therefore, to be planned for teaching. We know that many children
today use social media and, often for carrying out school projects and
assignments they become communities of practice that engage in computer
based collaborative learning. However, do schools recognize, support and
channelize such informal and unguided practices for collaborative creation
of content?

• There is an emerging need for pedagogies that harness web 2.0 technologies
to promote collaborative learning (Safran, Helic, & Gütl, 2007). Therefore,
while using ICT for teaching and learning purposes, you need to see that it
brings together learners, and helps them share files, data and messages for
negotiated meaning making.

• ICT use for situated learning: Situated learning is a form of authentic

learning that happens in real world situations. Working in the real world
situation leads to the acquisition of knowledge that is embedded in the
situation, as well as the application of such knowledge to the real world
complex problems emerging in the situation. For instance, while working
at schools you may come across a problem related to classroom management
that you had not studied during teacher education. You may learn to manage
it and also apply your learning in similar situations. This type of learning is
contextualized and technology helps in simulating the situation and creating
a micro world that represents the real world. For example, we can learn - to
fly an airplane in a simulated situation; the basic operations of mathematics
through simulated purchase and sale of goods; to solve problems pertaining
to management of organizations by studying the problem, engaging in
decision making and reflecting on the outcomes of the decisions.

There are games that have been devised for learning by exploring a topic in
authentic setting, collaboration and reflection in an educational scenario
that combines mobile computing technologies with stationary computers
(Spikol, Kurti & Milrad, 2009). There are also games based on participatory
simulation that create a scenario mediated by a set of rules that enable inquiry
and experimentation, and while playing them, learners are transformed into
players who dive into the simulated situation, which is the micro worlds
and learn in-context while playing it (Yin, Ogata & Yano,2009 ).

• Teacher’s Role: A teacher can develop a constructivist environment by

creating learning communities that comprise students, teachers and experts
who are engaged in authentic tasks in authentic contexts (UNESCO, 2002).
This is possible with ICTs that for instance enable simulations and create
virtual world for collaborative learning. Within the virtual environments
modelled by ICT, virtual communities of practice can carry out real time
actions, collect data from different locales, think, act and reflect collectively
and make decisions and solve authentic problems. For example, Second
Life is a virtual world that allows players to socialize with other participants,
interact with objects, participate in activities, take decisions and learn. Some
63
Understanding ICT other examples of virtual world created for learning are Sciencesim for
collaboratively learning science; heritage key for learning history and culture,
and the like.

• ICT use for self directed learning: Although collaboration is important for
learning, reflection, metacognition and hence self directed learning on part
of individual learners is also important. Therefore, the online course you
teach may require your learners to maintain a reflective journal for recording
their reflections on their learning experiences. Reflection may also be a
collective process with the team reviewing experiences and revising the
learning process.

• The teacher’s role is not passive as learners construct knowledge. S/he needs
to guide and facilitate learning. S/he has to play an active role in formulating
the objectives of teaching, select and organize the content to be taught,
chose suitable pedagogy and technologies. S/he also has to design the
content/structure the learning experiences and support and monitor learning
on a continuous basis and also see that ICT use is focused and ethical.

3.4 OPTIMUM USE OF ICT FOR TEACHING-

LEARNING PURPOSES
ICT mediated teaching and learning may have specific objectives, appropriate
content that has been organized well, and there may also be provisions for
assessment. These steps are adopted for teaching not only through print medium
but sometimes also for online courses that includes files in pdf format instead of
printed text. ICT use in these cases, however, supports the behaviouristic approach
with traditional lecture based pedagogies that may not promote knowledge
construction.

ICT although has the potential for creating learning environments in which
learners are self-directed and actively engaged in constructing knowledge but
when used only for delivering digitized text, it is only a carrier of information.
Hence, a lecture delivered through teleconferencing or a CD with a video, or
even information made available through a computer followed by testing only
alters the source of information and agency of testing without accommodating
the learner’s active participation in learning process, and this kind of use
encourages individualised learning and fails to tap the potential of technology
for interactive and collaborative learning (Laurilard, 1993).

The UNESCO (2002, p.17), however, says that “ICTs provide an array of
powerful tools that may help in transforming the present isolated, teacher-centred
and text-bound classrooms into rich, student-focused, interactive knowledge
environments”. ICT therefore has the potential for introducing a shift from
traditional lecture based pedagogies to those that support knowledge construction
(UNESCO, 2002; 2011). Hence, ICT use needs to be directed for information
processing, collaborative content creation and problem solving for reforming
instructional practices (UNESCO, 2008) and schools must transform the
traditional paradigm of teaching and learning through appropriate use of
technology. Which learning theory should guide ICT use for such transformation?
Behaviourist approaches will make learners consume information and train them
64 to associate response to stimulus. The UNESCO (2002), therefore, says that for
reforming education, schools should use ICT for practicing constructivist Learning Theories:
Implications for ICT
approaches.

Constructivist pedagogies use diversity of viewpoints, cultural experiences,

divergent opinion that is best realized through interactions with group members
from other cultures, languages and geographies, and the use of ICT like the Internet
can support this and move education beyond the narrow type of knowledge
transmission (Anderson & Dron, 2011). Hence, we need to see that the Internet
is not used merely for downloading information but is also used for collaborative
knowledge creation.

According to Lombardi (2007) learning-by-doing is the most effective way to

learn but not every activity can be carried out within classrooms, like certain
experiments that are too dangerous, difficult, expensive, or even impossible to
conduct in the classroom. Lombardi also says that teachers cannot show the
cause of an earthquake within a classroom, or take students into the past but ICT
can model simulated situations for experimenting, animate objects for showing
natural phenomena like the movement of tectonic plates, reconstruct the past,
connect learners with experts, and so on but ICT can be used for making
abstractions concrete, and for making learning a social process, besides making
it a cognitive process. However, for this ICT use needs to be based on the
contemporary learning theories that view learning as an active, contextualised
and a social process, which is not necessarily a linear one (the view that learning
is a linear process organizes learning experiences in a linear sequence like the
chapters of a textbook, while in real life, learning experiences are not sequenced
thus. For instance, a child living in a desert may not experience the seasons as
presented in a textbook and may not learn about monsoon for several years.

How can we use ICT for implementing constructivist learning theories? Some
examples of ICT use for this are as follows:
• Making learning an active and social process: Asking learners to collect
information from various websites will enable them to use ICT but this will
make them consumers of information. For implementing the constructivist
view point and making learning an active process and social process,
learners should be a part of an environment in which they explore knowledge
sources as a team, discuss with peers and experts and create knowledge. As
a teacher you may create a discussion group, or use web 2.0 technologies
like a wiki or a blog for this. Educational games like Savannah have been
designed for collaborative learning. This game can be played using a
handheld gaming device as children engage in role play as members of a
pride of lions and interact with the objects and other lions in a virtual
savannah (Owen, 2009).
• Using ICT for Problem-Based Learning: Learners may solve authentic
problems faced in real life, like the problem of malnutrition in the
community. They may collect data about the height and weight of young
children of the community in which the school is situated, process it using
spreadsheets, and using a wiki develop the report collaboratively and share
the findings on a website they have created.
• Using ICT for cognitive apprenticeship: ICTs can be used to create
learning spaces within which novice learners learn while working with
65
Understanding ICT experts. For example in an online discussion forum, new and experienced
script writers may work together for developing scripts.
• Using ICT use for situated learning: This involves the use of
apprenticeship, coaching, collaboration, authentic contexts, tasks, activities
and cognitive tools in real world settings (Brown, Collins & Duguid, 1989).
We have already mentioned a few examples of ICT use for such learning
like simulated lessons for learning to fly an airplane.
• For Self-Regulated Learning: Education is much beyond memorizing facts
and performing fixed operations, and involves ‘metacognition’, which is
the ability to understand and manipulate cognitive process through
questioning, planning, regulating thought and thus perform critical thinking
(Parsons, Hinson and Broom, 2001). ICT allows continuous review and
improvement of the learning resources created. Hence, ICT tools can be
used to develop metacognitive skills and make learners more reflective and
self-regulated (Hsiao, 1999, as cited in UNESCO, 2002).

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space provided.
b) Compare your answers with the one given at the end of the unit.
4) What is the main purpose of using projected slides by the teacher during
teaching-learning processes? Is it beneficial for ‘learning’ or for
‘teaching’?
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5) In what way should ICT be used for facilitating learning?
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6) Which technologies can support learning in a social context?
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 Learning Theories:
3.5 LET US SUM UP Implications for ICT

According to behaviourists learning is a mechanical process of responding to a

stimulus that leads to change in the overt behaviour of the learner. Behaviourist
pedagogies, therefore, seek behavioural changes like the ability to explain, narrate,
differentiate, develop, create, analyze, and so on, that can be assessed. For
introducing these changes, information transmission is the commonly used
pedagogy. Hence, if the approach to teaching and learning remains behaviouristic,
even when ICT is used, it is used for supporting a lecture based pedagogy. For
instance, the power point slides made using a computer are usually only the
carriers of text, illustrations and so on and at best serve as an alternate channel of
communication that can very well be substituted by a chart paper. Such pedagogies
do not utilize the potential of ICT for supporting active, collaborative and
reflective learning. However, can we altogether abandon behaviouristic
approaches? The use of signs and symbols is common even for advanced
machinery and we learn to respond to these stimuli. Hence, an online course or
a multimedia CD we develop may use symbols for pause, start, going back,
forward, next, audio, notice board, assessment results and so on. Similarly, we
may develop computer assisted instructions for drill for supporting learning that
may not require meaning making but only rote like, names of state capitals,
names of geographical features, colours, designs of national flags, national
animals, and other such things.

Cognitivists consider learning to be an insightful activity that involves thought

process and meaning making. ICT use for presenting advance organisers, linkages
to concepts learnt earlier and other relevant concepts, content map and other
scaffolding devices is in accordance with this approach. Constructivism too holds
that knowledge is not meant for being transmitted but has to be constructed by
learners within a social setting. This explains the use of web 2.0 technologies
like wikis, blogs, podcasts that include the space and mechanism for discussions
with peers and experts and even collaborative creation of artefacts; virtual worlds;
simulated learning situations, and the like. Therefore, evolving ICT has the
potential to support pedagogies based on constructivist approaches, and as schools
are supposed to reform educational practices by introducing pedagogies based
on constructivist learning theories, ICT use for teaching and learning at schools
needs to be directed to this end (UNESCO, 2002). Therefore, ICT needs to be
used for imparting pedagogically sound instructions that enhance learners’
activities like communication with content, peers and teachers; collaboration
with peers; participation in activities for learning by doing in real and simulated
environments; analysis of data; synthesis for drawing inferences, making decisions
and the like.

3.6 SUGGESTED READINGS AND REFERENCES

Anderson, T. & Dron, J. (2011). Three Generations of Distance Education
Pedagogy. The International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning,
12(3). Retrieved on 13/4/16 from http://www.irrodl.org/index.php/irrodl/article/
view/890/1663

Boulos, M.N.K., Inocencio M. I. & Wheeler, S. (2006). Wikis, Blogs and Podcasts:
New Generation of Web-based Tools for Virtual Collaborative Clinical Practice
67
Understanding ICT and Education. BMC Medical Education 2006, 6:41.doi:10.1186/1472-6920-6-
41

Brown, J.S. Collins, A. & Duguid, P. (1989). Situated cognition and the culture
of learning. Educational Researcher, 18(1), 32-42.

Edutopia (February3,2012). The hole in wall project and the power of self-
organized learning. Retrieved on 11/7/2016 from https://www.edutopia.org/blog/
self-organized-learning-sugata-mitra

Jarvela,S. Hakkarainen, K., Lipponen, L. & Lehtinen, E. (2001).Creating

Computer Supported Collaborative Learning in Finnish Schools: Research
Perspectives on Sociocognitive Effects. International Journal of Continuing
Engineering Education and Life Long Learning. 11 (4-6). 365 – 374.

Laurillard, D. (1993). Balancing the Media. Journal of Educational Television.

19(2), 81-93.

Laurilard, D. (2002). Rethinking Teaching for the Knowledge Society.

EDUCAUSE Review January/February 2002. Retrieved on 15th June,2010 from
http://net.educause.edu/ir/library/pdf/erm0201.pdf

Lombardi, M. M. ( 2007).Authentic Learning for the 21st Century: An Overview.

In D.D. Oblinger (Ed.) Educause Learning Intitative. Retrieved on 15th
June,2016 from https://net.educause.edu/ir/library/pdf/ELI3009.pdf

McLoughlin, C.& Lee, M.J.W. (2007). Social Software and Participatory

Learning: Pedagogical Choices with Technology Affordances in The Web 2.0
Era. International Journal of Learning Technology. 3 (1), 87-107.
Owen, M. (2009).From individual learning to collaborative learning. In R.
Hokyoung & D. Parsons (Eds.). Innovative Mobile Learning: Techniques and
Technologies,pp.102-121. USA & UK: Information Science Reference
Parsons, R.D., Hinson S.L. and Sardo Brown D. (2001).Educational Psychology.
Wadsworth Thomson Learning. Canada.
Safran, C. Helic, D. & Gütl, C. (2007 September). E-Learning Practices and
Web 2.0. Paper presented at International Conference ICL 2007 September 26 -
28, 2007 Villach, Austria Retrieved from http://coronet.iicm.tugraz.at/denis/pubs/
icl2007.pdf on 15th June,2010.
Seifert, K.L. (1991). Educational Psychology. Boston :Houghton Mifflin
Company..
Shield, G. (2000). A critical appraisal of learning technology using information
and communication technologies. Journal of Technology Studies.
Spikol, D., Kurti, A., & Milrad, M. (2009). Collaboration in context as a
framework for designing innovative mobile learning activities. In R. Hokyoung
& D. Parsons(Eds.). Innovative Mobile Learning: Techniques and
Technologies,pp.172-196. USA & UK: Information Science Reference.
Sprinthall, N.A. and Sprinthall, R.C. (1990) Educational Psychology – A
Developmental Approach. Mc Grow Hill Publishing Company. USA.
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Suri, S. (2008). Imperatives of the information society: a critical perspective on Learning Theories:
Implications for ICT
ICT policy and practice in distance education. Paper presented at the 5th Pan
COL, Conference, London.

Sutton, M. J. (2003). Problem representation, understanding, and learning transfer

implications for technology education. Journal of Industrial Teacher Education,
40 (4).

UNESCO (2002). Information and Communication Technologies in Teacher

Education: A Planning Guide. Paris : UNESCO.

UNESCO (2008). ICT-Enabled Knowledge Acquisition, UNESDOC. http://

unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0015/001573/157331e.pdf Accessed February 13,
2014.

UNESCO (2011). UNESCO ICT competency framework for teachers. Paris :

UNESCO.

Yin, C., Ogata, H. &Yano, Y. (2009). Participatory Simulation for Collaborative

Learning Experiences.In R. Hokyoung & D. Parsons (Eds.). Innovative Mobile
Learning: Techniques and Technologies,pp.172-196. USA & UK: Information
Science Reference.

3.7 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1) Yes, we need to deign instructional content taking into consideration the
‘readiness; of our learners; provide pleasing learning experiences, include
scope for practice, use symbols intelligently for communicating meanings.

2) It should include logically sequenced, small meaningful segments (frames)

that are followed by scope for assessment of learning and feedback thereon.

3) Links to earlier learning, means for drawing attention like underlining, bullets
etc,. scaffoldings like a concept map, advance organizers, illustrations,
examples and so on, relevant questions, cases, etc. For example a scaffolding
technique has been used in the design of an interactive simulation framework
for developing a participatory simulation game for collaborative in-context
learning, and the scaffolding provided initially is gradually phasing out like
the scaffolds of chilsdren’s bicycles (Yin, Ogata & Yano, 2009). ).

4) It can be useful for reminding the teacher to cover the points she wants to
teach, project illustrations, highlight the main points. Therefore, it serves
more as a tool that supports teaching than learning, and has limited role in
encouraging learners’ activity, thought process and knowledge construction.

5) ICT use for learning rather than teaching and engaging learners in tasks
like carrying out collaborative activities involving search for information,
organising content, making meaning through discussions and negotiations,
creating learning resources, playing educational games, engaging in
simulation .

6) Web 2.0 technologies like wikis and social media that allow learners to
interact, negotiate meaning and develop content collaboratively.
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Understanding ICT
UNIT 4 TEACHING LEARNING SYSTEMS

Structure
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Objectives
4.3 Teaching-Learning Systems: Informal, Formal and Non-Formal
4.3.1 Informal Learning Systems
4.3.2 Formal Learning Systems
4.3.3 Non-Formal Learning Systems
4.4 Design, Development and Potential of ICT for Teaching-learning Systems
4.4.1 Design and Development of ICTs for Teaching and Lerning
4.4.2 Potential of ICT for Student Learning
4.5 ICT for Classroom Teaching
4.5.1 ICT In Teaching-Learning Process
4.5.2 ICT for Diagnostic Testing and Remedial Teaching
4.5.3 ICT for Evaluation Activities
4.5.4 ICT for Psychological Analysis of Learners
4.5.5 ICT for Development of Reasoning and Thinking Among Students
4.5.6 ICT for Instructional Material Development
4.6 ICT for Virtual Learning Situation
4.7 Collaborative Learning with ICTs
4.8 Let Us Sum Up
4.9 Suggested Readings and References
4.10 Answers to Check Your Progress

4.1 INTRODUCTION
Education is a process of lifelong learning. It is brought about through informal,
formal and non formal systems of learning. It has been rightly said: ‘Learning
begins from the mother’s womb and continues upto the grave’. How does learning
take place. This is a very ticklish question and may evoke multiple answers.
Broadly speaking ‘learning’ in the present context, occurs through different means
or systems commonly categorized as informal, formal and non-formal learning
systems. Whether the means or systems, the quality and efficiency of learning
are of central importance. In this unit, you will read about different teaching
learning system – informal, formal and non-formal. You will also read design,
development and potential of ICT for teaching-learning systems, using ICT for
classroom teaching-learning, virtual learning, and collaborative learning.

4.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
• describe in detail the three teaching-learning systems, formal, informal and
non-formal;
• differentiate between different types of teaching-learning systems;
70
• discuss design and development of ICT for teaching-learning systems; Teaching-learning System

• describe the use of ICT for classroom teaching;

• explain the meaning and role of of virtual learning; and
• discuss how ICT can play a role in collaborative learning.

4.3 TEACHING-LEARNING SYSTEMS:

INFORMAL, FORMAL AND NON-FORMAL
Teaching learning Systems are embedded in different learning environments and
social spaces which impact the educational process. These learning environments
have been broadly categorized by educationists into three categories of learning
systems: informal, formal and non-formal systems. Let us understand the
characteristics of each of these learning systems and their impact on the education
of the masses.

4.3.1 Informal Learning Systems

Humans learn in any kind of environment. Truly speaking, learning of an
individual begins from the time of birth and continues through infancy to
childhood to adulthood to old age and beyond. The family or the home is the
first learning environment that the child encounters. This kind of education is a
bit primitive yet diverse, comprising a range of tasks a child learns in a family
setting. All these activities, and behaviours, and actions lead to what may be
termed as “informal learning” and may occur inside the home or may be
institutional, such as i) excursion, fairs, visit to neighbourhood places for fun-
making, entertainment, etc. ii) listening to radio/audio programmes, iii) watching
television, playing games on a mobile phone or outdoor games/activities in groups,
iv) attending a play school or joining community functions, visit to fairs, farms
and religious places, markets etc. v) entering the world of work – as a farmer,
labourer, shopkeeper or some other profession so as to earn one’s own livelihood
and thus become an ‘independent human being’ or a ‘citizen’.

In brief, the ‘informal learning system’, as it might have existed before the
beginning of the formal learning system remains mostly rooted in home, family,
neighbourhood, local community or village.

A time demarcation between the types of learning activities comprising informal,

formal and non formal systems is difficult. Learning activities can, of course, be
grouped under any of the three learning systems.

We may now list out some of the characteristics of the ‘informal learning system’.
These are as follows:

i) The informal learning system encompasses a diverse range of activities

which result from learners’ interaction with their physical and social
environment.

ii) There is absence of “organised” and “structured learning” experience in the

informal learning system.

iii) Activities and tasks that lead to desirable learning outcomes may be termed
as informal education/learning.
71
Understanding ICT iv) Informal learning can take place in various social and physical spaces since
it has no prescribed/ organized structure. However, it does have had a rigid
‘traditional structure’ upon which the present formal learning system is built.

v) Informal learning system is purposeful but can also be ‘incidental’

vi) Like formal learning and non-formal learning, ‘informal learning’ is a

lifelong process as it begins from birth and continues to death of the
individual.

In conclusion, we may say that seemingly there are no explicit or defined

objectives of the informal learning system, yet the major objectives of (i)
preparation for leading a fruitful adult-life, (ii) becoming a self-sufficient, and
productive citizen (iii) adjusting with others in the society and (iv) evolving as a
responsible citizen, are definitely achieved in a fair degree. In fact, the informal
system is most natural form of socialization and education.

4.3.2 Formal Learning Systems

Formal learning system of education corresponds to an organized, systematic
and structured mechanism of transmission of knowledge, skills, attitudes, beliefs,
customs, traditions and values which the society holds, propagates and preserves.

The process of formal education is contiguous involving the learner, teacher and
or the school. As rightly said, ‘the school is an institution of the society’ established
and administered by it as per the broad societal goals. The present day education
system adopted by schools, colleges and universities are established by the
government and/or other private bodies of the society and regulated by the state
according to broad constitutional norms and societal beliefs and practices.

Most of us – you, the students and we, the teachers- are the product of the huge
edifice of the formal learning system as prevalent today. Let us examine some of
the characteristic features of the formal learning system in general. These are as
follows:

i) Well-defined goals: The formal learning system is rooted in and primarily

based on broader societal aims, stated explicitly and are targeted to be
achieved over a long time frame. These long-term goals are designed to be
achieved through short term and intermediate goals.

ii) Fixed timing: ‘Learning’ in a formal education system takes place within a
time frame defined and prescribed by the school or the state. As you know,
from your own experience, the formal learning system is afflicted with a
very rigid time frame, strict rules and regulations.

iii) Defined content and curriculum: The curriculum and the content are
generally determined and regulated by the state or its agencies and are based
on broad societal needs, demands and conditions.

iv) Entry requirements: The entry requirements are fixed and decided by the
state for every level of education- primary, secondary and tertiary. For
example, entry to college education is subject to completion of school
teaching.
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v) Transaction of curriculum: Curriculum as transacted at different levels is Teaching-learning System
mostly structurally rigid. The learner has little freedom and remains
embroiled in rules and regulations. The teacher exercises greater control.

vi) Assessment of achievement of learning objectives: Well defined and

structured mechanisms are in place in the formal education systems to assess
the attainment of learning objectives. Achievement of objectives is assessed
mainly by conducting periodic tests and examinations.

With all their inadequacies and inflexibilities. the formal learning system today,
have become the integral part of education mechanisms the world over.
Unquestionably, their huge contributions to the cause of education at large, are
momentous in all respects.

However, in view of ever-increasing and rapidly changing needs and demands

of the society, the formal learning systems are giving way to non-formal learning
and open and distance learning (ODL) systems all over the world.

4.3.3 Non-Formal Learning Systems

Formal learning system is characterized by its well-defined features. In the
absence of any of the features described in the foregoing sub-sections, the
education process acquires non-formal characteristics (Claudia, 1988). For
example, if the communication is non-contiguous, or if period of completion of
study is flexible, we may say that the learning system is ‘non-formal’.

In fact, the non-formal learning system has not been singularly and
comprehensively defined to distinguish it from the formal learning system.
However, non-formal education has been defined as any organized educational
activity outside the established formal system- whether operating separately or
as an important feature of some broader activity that is intended to serve
identifiable learning clienteles and learning objectives. (Coombs, Processor and
Ahmed, 1973).
Non-formal learning system began to evolve nearly five decades ago in the 1960s,
when a global concern was expressed regarding the unsuitability of curricula to
meet individual and societal needs. Countries across the world experienced the
constraints of prohibitive costs involved in providing education through the formal
system. The ideas of ‘lifelong learning’ and ‘a learning society’ emerged through
the report of the UNESCO International Education Commission, ‘Learning to
be’ in 1972. The concept of “de-schooling” by Ivan Illich highlighted the rigidity
and redundancy of formal learning systems like schools and colleges, to meet
newly emerging needs of society. Initially the non-formal learning processes
began nearly a century ago in the form of correspondence studies. Correspondence
learning dates back to 1856 in Berlin. In 1886, England introduced a
correspondence learning course. Similarly, ‘A Society to Encourage Study at
Home’ was set up in 1873 in Boston and so on. This form of education was
basically a two-way postal communication of educational materials.
Distance learning mode essentially evolved from correspondence education.
According to Holmberg, “Learning supported by those teaching methods in which,
because of physical separateness of learners and teachers, the interactive as well
as pre-active phase of teaching is conducted through print, mechanical or
electronic devices”. (Claudia, 1988) 73
Understanding ICT A more broad-based model of non-formal learning is that of ‘open learning’.
Some examples of non-formal learning systems in the world are the Open
Universities, Open Schools, Flexi Learning Models, etc. The initiatives in India
under non-formal education models are the adult literacy programmes, national
literacy mission, health awareness programmes and other such initiatives which
focus on learning needs of specific target groups. (Claudia,1988)

Let us now discuss some characteristic features of Non-formal education (NFE)

Systems.
i) NFE programmes are targeted to achieve special educational goals and
objectives, for example specific goal of Open University system is to provide
the disadvantaged segment of the population access to quality higher
education.
ii) Some NFE programmes have fixed time limits and are to be completed
within stipulated time frames. For example, health awareness programmes
and agriculture extension programmes, which may be organized on a
recurrent basis till the goals are achieved.
iii) The curricula are tailored to meet the educational needs of the specific target
groups and are more individualized. For example, curricula of extension
and development programmes vary for target groups of rural and urban
areas.
iv) The pedagogy is more learner-centric and flexible, and it derives resources
from the community.
v) NFE mechanisms are administrated in a self-governing mode adopting a
democratic approach.
vi) Assessments are carried out mid-term and end-of-term basis through
formative and summative methods.

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space provided.
b) Compare your answers with the one given at the end of the unit.
1) Give two differences between informal ane non-fomal learning systems
with appropriate examples.
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 Teaching-learning System
4.4 DESIGN, DEVELOPMENT AND POTENTIAL OF
ICT FOR TEACHING-LEARNING SYSTEMS.
After having understood three different forms of teaching-learning systems,
let us discuss how ICTs can be designed and developed for teaching-learning
systems.

4.4.1 Design and Development of ICTs for Teaching and

Learning
Let us see how ICTs can be integrated in the learning experiences of the learners.
The important aspects to be considered in the learning design particularly using
ICTs according to Oliver (1999) are:
1) Learning tasks to be done
2) Learning resources to be provided for doing the learning tasks
3) Support systems to be used by the teacher to facilitate learning
This is illustrated in Figure 4.1.

Fig. 4. 1: Components of a Learning Design

Source: Oliver, R. (1999): Exploring Strategies for Online Teaching and Learning. Distance
Education, 20(2, 240-254) (http://www.learningdesigns.uow.edu.au/project/learn_design.
htmretrieved on 07-06-2017)

Development of a learning design sequence using ICT

The above learning sequence illustrates a framework that can be used to provide
ICT mediated learning experiences. The format primarily deals with contents or
resources that learners use, the tasks or activities performed by them and the
support mechanisms made available to them to complete the assigned learning
tasks.
75
Understanding ICT Let us see how a learning design can be developed using ICT based on the model
discussed above with an example shown in Figure 4.2

Fig. 4.2: An illustration of a learning design employed in a fictitious Educational

Technology subject about Evaluation methods
Source: Oliver, R. (1999): Exploring Strategies for Online Teaching and Learning. Distance
Education, 20(2, 240-254) (http://www.learningdesigns.uow.edu.au/project/learn_design.htm
retrieved on 07-06-2017)

The components represented in the Figure4. 2 above are explained as follows:

i) Activities: The rectangles represent the learning tasks and the assessable
activities are marked by an asterisk, for e.g., produce an evaluation proposal.
ii) Learning resources: The triangles represent the learning resources, for
e.g., website support. Arrow from the activity (square) to the resource
(triangle) indicates that a resource is created during the activity and later
becomes a resource for others. For e.g., during the given activity of writing
in a group, the summary paper produced can be used later by other learners.
When the arrow is shown from the resource (triangle) to the activity (square
it) it indicates the resource is being provided to the learner for executing the
task. For e.g., students use the web (resource) to write the evaluation proposal
(activity) in the above figure 4.2.
iii) Learning supports: Circles shown to the right of the activity represent the
support structures for facilitating learning, for e.g., synchronous and/or
asynchronous group activities, discussions.
The design using ICT mediation may comprise different combinations of
activities, resources and support systems. The resources and support may either
be used for the entire duration of the activity or may be used for a specific activity.
In the latter instance, a horizontal arrow points to the specific activity and if the
same support is provided for the entire duration, then a vertical arrow is shown
beginning at the point of initial use of resource to the end. The product of one
76 learning activity can be used as a resource subsequently.
Developing an ICT integrated learning design requires a lot of thoughtful planning Teaching-learning System
by teachers. Simply combining hardware and software will not result in effective
learning design, though it has attracted the attention of teachers. Teachers need
to have the appropriate tools, resources, and adopt strategies depending upon
learning objectives and on the specific target group of learners. Many models,
that are in place, provide guidelines and teachers can choose their teaching
strategies for ICT integration. Some examples are: ASSURE model (Analyse
learners; State objectives; Select media and materials; Utilize media and materials;
Require learner participation; Evaluate and revise) given by Heinich, Molenda,
Russel and Smaldino (2001). Certain components are basic in all models and
can help teachers to develop an effective ICT mediated teaching model.

4.4.2 Potential of ICT for Student Learning

ICTs have enormous potential to enhance students’ learning achievement and
learning of teachers (Bransford et al, 2000, cited in Bingimlas, K.A., 2009).
Research findings by Grabe and Grabe (2007), mention that technologies impact
students’ skills, motivation and knowledge. ICTs can be used by teachers to
assign the task to learners, who then complete the task using ICTs. A World
Bank report has stated the impact of ICTs on student achievement as follows:
a) The positive impact of ICT on student achievement is more likely when
ICT is linked to pedagogy.
b) Test scores are slightly better when students do self-study though Computer
Aided Instruction (CAI) i.e.,takes tutorials on a computer.
c) Specific and clearly defined goals for use of ICT in education are required
for effective technology enabled learning.
d) Use of ICTs motivates teachers and learners. There is evidence that ICTs
promote learner autonomy.
e) There are successful models of ICT integration in school learning and in
informal settings, i.e., outside the classroom. However, the age at which
computer based learning may be introduced is being debated.
Source: Trucano, Michael. 2005. Knowledge Maps: ICTs in Education.
Washington, DC: infoDev / World Bank. Retrieved from http://www.infodev.org/
articles/knowledge-maps-icts-educationon 29-07-2017

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space provided.
b) Compare your answers with the one given at the end of the unit.
2) What are the components of an ICT mediated learning design?
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Understanding ICT
3) Explain the importance of technology support in an online learning
model.
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4.5 ICT FOR CLASSROOM TEACHING

After providing an understanding of design and development of ICTs for teaching-
learning, we will explain the need of ICT for classroom teaching.

The ICTs are needed at school level for the following activities (Sansanwal,
2009):
• Teaching-learning process
• Diagnostic Testing and Remedial teaching
• Evaluation activities
• Psychological analysis of learners
• Development of reasoning and thinking abilities among students
• Instructional material development

Fig. 4. 3: Need of ICT in Teaching and Learning Process

4.5.1 ICT in Teaching-learning Process

Most teachers feel comfortable in using lecture method, which is not capable of
achieving various objectives of classroom instruction. ICT may be of great use
in achieving various objectives of teaching –learning process. It provides correct
information in a comprehensive manner with different examples. It helps learners
78 to broaden their information base. ICT provides variety in the presentation of
content, which helps learners to learn according to their own pace. It helps in Teaching-learning System
better understanding, and long retention of information.

4.5.2 ICT for Diagnostic Testing and Remedial Teaching

Being a teacher, you must have experienced that there are some students who
fail to understand certain concepts or retain certain information for a long time.
Due to large class size, non-availability of diagnostic tests in different subjects,
lack of training, resources and desire on the part of teacher, etc. teachers do not
conduct diagnostic tests and provide remedial teaching. Here, ICT can help the
teachers as well as students in identifying the problem area. Tests can be made
available on the website of the school and students can access them from home
also. These practices can be monitored by parents also. It is not easy to organize
remedial programme for individual students as problems identified may be of
varied nature. For this, ICT can be used for developing preparing and delivering
individual Remedial Programmes. These programmes may be online or off-line.
The instructional materials, if designed specifically for meeting the individual
needs of students, and are uploaded on the School website, would definitely
benefit students. In this way, ICT can be used for providing remedial teaching to
students.

4.5.3 ICT for Evaluation Activities

The objective of school examination system is to assess the academic performance
of students. ICT can be used in educational evaluation. Online tests can be used
by individual student to evaluate his/ her learning. Students can instantaneously
get the feedback about the status of his/ her understanding. If the answer is wrong,
he/ she even can get the correct answer. Not only students, even teachers, can
also use it to assess their own understanding of the subject.

4.5.4 ICT for Psychological Analysis of Learners

There are individual differences. Schools do not have a trained psychologist
who can assess students on some of the correlates of academic achievement. It is
easy to digitalize all the psychological tests including the scoring process and
evaluation. The same may be available on the website and students and teachers
can use them, whenever required. Even student can use it individually and can
share the results with the teacher who can help him/ her to improve his/ her
academic performance. Thus ICT can be used in psychological testing also.

4.5.5 ICT for Development of Reasoning and Thinking Among

Students
ICT can be used in many subjects. ICT provides students a variety of instructional
materials and they can choose those that suit them the best. ICT can be used for
developing reasoning and thinking abilities among students belonging to different
age groups. This is important in the present context as most educational
institutions do not pay attention to development of reasoning and thinking abilities
among students.

4.5.6 ICT for Instructional Material Development

At present there is a shortage of qualified and competent teachers in almost all
subjects at all levels. Sometimes, instructional materials available in the print
79
Understanding ICT form are not of quality and updated. The text book reading is very often not
enjoyable and does not help students in understanding the concepts and retaining
the information. There are many teachers who are well known in different subject
areas. Their lectures should be recorded in CD-ROM, or should be made available
to all the users through broadcast on radio and television. It enhances the quality
of instruction in the classrooms. The teacher can also use them to organize
discussion after their presentation or broadcast. Teachers can even directly
download those lectures. It makes teaching effective, participatory and enjoyable.
Digitalized lectures can be uploaded on websites and student teachers can access
them as per their needs.

Activity 1
Enlist some activities using ICT, which you would like to plan for diagnostic
testing of your students in your subject.

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space provided.
b) Compare your answers with the one given at the end of the unit.
4) Discuss the uses of ICT in classroom teaching?
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5) Apart from areas discussed above, what are other areas, where you can
use ICTs for improving teaching and learning?
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4.6 ICT FOR VIRTUAL LEARNING SITUATION

One of the applications of Internet based computer learning system is Virtual
Learning (VL). In online discussion forum, learners learn more from one another
and from lecture and course material in a virtual learning environment (VLE). It
is a form of collaborative learning wherein students offer their ideas and share
knowledge on an online platform and expand their knowledge base through
discussions and reflections of peers. By such reflective processes learners progress
towards higher order information processing, construct meaning based on peer
interaction and collaboration. (Judd et al as cited in Pinhiero, Simon, 2012).

80
It is important for you to understand the meaning of VLE. “It is a software tool Teaching-learning System
that brings together an integrated environment, a range of resources that enable
the learners and staff to interact online and includes content delivery and tracking”
(Becta, 2004).
VLE is a combination of some or all the features that are listed below:
i) Communication tools: emails, chat rooms, bulletin boards
ii) Collaboration tools: online forums, intranet
iii) Tools for creating online content: WIKI, weblogs
iv) Online assessment methods
v) Student access to content and communication devices beyond the school.
It is pertinent to look at some advantages of VLE. These are:
i) Teachers and students experience greater ease of use in an ICT integrated
environment
ii) There is greater communication and dialogue through VLE tools, as stated
above.
iii) Learners have the benefit of accessing the learning process, “anytime
anywhere”.
iv) There is greater motivation and engagement of learners.
v) It facilitates development of higher order learning skills.
vi) It provides passive learners opportunities to interact and contribute.
vii) It boosts learners’ levels of motivation as it promotes increased participation
and collaboration through practice.
viii) Parents can easily monitor their child’s progress and can be more engaged
in the school community.
(The above section is abstracted from Becta, 2004, retrieved from: www.becta.org.
uk/research)

4.7 COLLABORATIVEL EARNING WITH ICTs

The concept of collaborative learning as a pedagogical tool has been in existence
for several years dating back to the age of Socratic dialogue. The technique is
witnessing a revival in the present times in keeping with the demands of
knowledge based economy, requiring knowledge workers to work in teams and
share the output.

As the term “collaborative learning” implies, learning takes place in a group

through sharing of knowledge among the members of the group. It is a joint
activity of meaning making which is attained in a group by setting common
learning goals and working together to achieve them. Some educationists also
refer to collaborative learning as cooperative learning. In cooperative learning,
the task is divided into several parts and the members perform those parts and
after individual work, the parts are reorganized into one whole. The task is dealt
with in a group and activities are accomplished through shared understanding
and meaning making. (Chai and Tan, 2010)
81
Understanding ICT Features of Collabrative Learning
The features of collaborative learning as revealed through a review of researches
on successful groups are as follows:
a) Setting up of common goals.
b) Clear cut division of labour, i.e. distribution/allocation of tasks among
members.
c) Making the groups and individuals accountable and responsible.
d) Ensuring interactivity and negotiability in the group.
e) Mature group processing.
ICT mediated collaborative learning
Collaborative learning has academic, social and psychological advantages over
other learning designs. Learner is a co constructor of knowledge, is able to examine
a situation from different perspectives, and develops leadership attributes and
experiences a satisfactory learning experience (Valcarcel,A.G., Basilotta, V.,
Garcia, L. C., 2014).
ICTs have the potential to further strengthen the collaborative learning design
and make it more effective.
As stated by Chai and Tan (2010), ICTs can support collaborative learning in
three main ways:
i) As a tool for interpersonal communication, in face-to-face settings.
ii) Collaborators activities using a computer, where members are assigned
common tasks.
iii) Collaborative learning supported by a computer with the objective of
supporting members to negotiate meaning making.
You will learn more about collaborative learning and use of of ICT for
collaborative learning in Unit-12 of Block-3 of this course.

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space provided.
b) Compare your answers with the one given at the end of the unit.
6) What is meant by virtual learning?
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7) Explain the concept of collaborative learning.
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 Teaching-learning System
4.8 LET US SUM UP
In this unit, you learnt about teaching learning systems which are categorized as
formal, informal and non-formal. Their emergence, characteristic features and
impact on the individuals were discussed. Basic components, steps and process
in the design and development of ICT mediated teaching learning systems were
discussed. Role of ICTs for classroom teaching was described. We explained
Virtual Learning Environment and its features. Collaborative Learning, its features
and use of ICT for collaborative learning were highlighted at the end of the Unit.

4.9 SUGGESTED READINGS AND REFERENCES

Becta (2004). A review of the research literature on barriers to the uptake of ICT
by teachers Retrieved from http://dera.ioe.ac.uk/1603/1/becta_2004_
barrierstouptake_litrev.pdf and www.becta.org.uk/researchon 10-06-2017

Becta, (2003).Virtual Learning Environments in education: a review of the

literature. Retrieved from http://www.becta.org.uk/page_documents/ research/
VLE_report.pdf, on 28-07-17

Bransford, J., Brown, A.L., and Cocking, R.R., (Eds). (2000). How people learn:
brain, mind experience and school (2nd ed.) Washington D.C.: National Academy
Press,in Bingimlas, K.A., 2009, Barriers to the Successful Integration of ICTs in
Teaching and Learning Environments. A Review of the Literature. Eurasia Journal
of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education, 2009, 5 (3), 235-245.

Chai, C.S. and Tan, S.C. (2010). Collaborative Learning and ICT, in C.S. Chai
& Q.Y. Wang (Eds.), ICT for self-directed and collaborative learning (pp 52-
69). Singapore: Pearson/Prentice Hall. Retrieved from: file:///C:/Users/panth/
Desktop/Unit4/04_collaborative_learning_280409.pdfon 28-03-17 on 28-03-17

Claudio Zakib, Dib, (1988). Formal, non-formal and informal education:

Concepts/Applicability. Presented at the “Interamerican Conference on Physics
Education”, Oaxtepec, Mexico, 1987. Published in “Cooperative Networks in
Physics Education - Conference Proceedings 173”, American Institute of Physics,
New York, 1988, pgs. 300-315. Retrieved from http://techne-dib.com.br/
downloads/6.pdf on 07-06-2017.

Coombs, Processor & Ahmed, (1973).New paths to learning for rural children
and youth, ICED, NewYork, in Sharma, A., and Chowdhary, P. Learning in
Different Educational Settings; Methodological concerns. IOSR Journal Of
Humanities And Social Science (IOSR-JHSS) Volume 20, Issue 4, Ver. IV (Apr.
2015), PP 18-25 e-ISSN: 2279-0837, p-ISSN: 2279-0845. Retrieved from http:/
/www.iosrjournals.org/iosr-jhss/papers/Vol20-issue4/Version-4/D020441825.
pdfon 07-06-2017.

Delors, J., (1996). Learning- The Treasure Within-Report to UNESCO of the

International Commission on Education for the 21st Century, Paris: UNESCO.

Grabe, M., and Grabe, C., (2007). Integrating technology for meaningful learning
(5th ed). Boston, New York: Houghton Miffin, in Bingimlas, K.A., 2009, Barriers
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4.10 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1) Informal learning systems are those which do not have a definite organization
and structure. Learning goals are not specified in such systems, however,
meaningful learning outcome is expected in informal education systems.
Examples: Reading and educational magazine, watching a good film,
listening to radio programmes, undertaking visits and excursions historical
places, national museums.
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 Non-formal learning systems are those which are more structured than Teaching-learning System
informal systems but allow greater flexibility to the learner to progress
through the programme of study. Learning outcomes are specified. Such
learning designs are learner centric and aim to democratize education by
enhancing access and outreach of education.
Examples: Open Distance Learning sysytems, i.e., Open Universities, Open
Schools, Online and digital learning systems.
2) The components of ICT mediated learning designs are, Pedagogy, i.e., the
teaching-learning style, social settings in which learning occurs and the
technology support used for facilitation of learning.
3) Technology support is crucial for ICT mediated learning systems as it aims
to facilitate the learner for effective and faster completion of the assigned
learning task. The technology support can be used throughout the period of
learning or only for a short duration depending on the structure of the activity
or task assigned. A tech mediated design enables greater interaction of the
learner with the content, peers and with the teachers, provided it is accessible,
available and easily operable by the users.
4) ICTs can be used in many areas of classroom teaching such as diagnostic
testing, remedial teaching, evaluation activities, psychological analysis of
learners, development of reasoning and thinking among students and
instructional material development.
5) Write on the basis of your own observations.
6) Virtual learning is a form of collaborative learning wherein the students
offer their ideas and share knowledge on an online platform and expand
their knowledge base through discussions and reflections of peers.
7) Collaborative learning is a joint activity of meaning making which is attained
in a group by setting common learning goals and working together to achieve
them.

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