Question 1

State the main postulates of Dalton's atomic theory. How does the modern atomic
theory contradict and correlate with Dalton's atomic theory.

Answer

Postulates of Dalton's Atomic Theory:

 Matter consist of small indivisible particles called atoms.

 Atoms are neither created nor destroyed.
 Atoms of the same element are alike in every aspect and differ from atoms of
all other elements.
 Atoms combine with other atoms in simple whole number ratio's forming
compound atoms or molecules.
 An atom is the smallest unit of matter which takes part in a chemical reaction
and all chemical changes result from separation or combination of atoms.

Contradictions with Modern atomic theory:

Dalton's atomic theory Modern atomic theory

Atoms are indivisible and

Atoms are divisible and destructible.
indestructible.

An atom is the smallest

Atoms are divisible - consisting of subatomic
indivisible particle of an
particles like electrons, protons and neutrons.
element

Atoms of the same element Atoms of the same element may not be alike in all
are alike in all respects and respects as seen in the case of isotopes which are
differ from atoms of other atoms of the same element having same atomic
elements. number but different mass numbers.

Correlation with Modern atomic theory:

The modern atomic theory however correlates with Dalton's atomic theory in the fact
that atoms are the smallest unit of matter taking part in a chemical reaction and in a
given compound the relative number and kind of atoms is a constant.

Question 2

Explain in brief the experimental proofs which led to the discovery of –

(i) Electrons

(ii) Protons

(iii) atomic nucleus

(iv) neutrons.
Answer

(i) Electrons — Experimental proofs leading to the discovery of Electrons were given
by William Crookes in 1878 and Sir J.J. Thomson in 1897.

 William Crookes found that when an electric discharge is passed through a

tube containing a gas at low pressure (0.01 mm of Hg), blue rays were emitted
from the cathode and were termed cathode rays.
 Sir J.J. Thomson studied the characteristics and constituents of cathode rays
and found that:
o Cathode rays travel in straight lines from cathode to anode and cast a
shadow of the object placed in their path.
o They are deflected by magnetic and electric field [attracted towards
positively charged plate].
o They have kinetic energy and raise the temperature of a metallic object
on which they fall.

These findings lead to the conclusion that Cathode rays consist of negatively
charged particles now called electrons.

(ii) Protons : Goldstein discovered protons.

 As atoms are electrically neutral there must be equal positively charged

particles in atom. This led to discovery of the protons.
 He used a perforated disc as cathode and found positively charged rays
travelling in opposite direction to cathode rays.
 These rays consisted of positively charged particles which led to the discovery
of protons.

(iii) Atomic Nucleus : Lord Rutherford discovered atomic nucleus in 1911.

 He directed alpha particles towards a metallic sheet.

 The deflection of the alpha particles was observed and concluded that there is
a nucleus in the centre of the atom.

(iv) Neutrons : James Chadwick discovered neutron in 1932.

 He established that an atom contains protons and electrons.

∴ Atomic mass = mass of protons.

 Electrons have negligible mass, hence the mass is concentrated in the nucleus.

 However, in the case of helium - there are two protons in it's nucleus and
hence atomic mass should be equal to twice the mass of each proton i.e., 2 x
1.008 but it's atomic mass is calculated experimentally and found to be 4.003
a.m.u.
 It was therefore proved that, in the nucleus of an atom, there is other particle
called a neutron which has no electrical charge but is almost of an equal mass
as the protons.
 This confirmed the existence of neutrons

Question 3

State in brief the drawbacks of Rutherford's atomic model correlating them with the
postulates of Bohr's atomic model.
Answer

Drawbacks of Rutherford's Atomic Model :

 In Rutherford's model of the atom - the electrons revolve around the nucleus
and the attractive force of the positively charged nucleus would be balanced
by the centrifugal force arising due to the rotation of electron.
 If an electron moves round the nucleus - it must radiate out energy and
gradually move towards the nucleus following a spiral path - till it collides and
ultimately collapses in it.
 Thus, Rutherford's model could not explain correctly the stability of an atom.

Postulates of Bohr's Atomic Model :

 Electrons revolve around the nucleus in fixed orbits or energy levels,

possessing certain amount of energy.
 The integer n represents the various energy levels 1, 2, 3 or K, L, M starting
from the innermost.
 As long as the electrons rotates in one of the energy levels - it neither loses or
absorbs energy. When energy is supplied initially to the atoms - an electron
moves to an orbit of higher energy. When this electron drops back to the
original orbit - energy is radiated by the atom - according to equation E 2 - E1 =
hγ

[E2 and E1 are energy states of the electron in higher and lower orbit.]

Bohr's model gave the preciseness of location and mode of rotation of

electron around the nucleus.

Question 4

What is meant by the terms :

(i) subatomic particles,

(ii) nucleus,

(iii) orbits,

(iv) atomic number

(v) mass number with reference to an atom.

Answer

(i) Subatomic particles : The particles into which an atom is divided (i.e., protons,
electrons, neutrons) are called the subatomic particles.

(ii) Nucleus : The centre or the nucleus of the atom is the place where the protons
and neutrons are found.

(iii) Orbits : The electrons revolve around the nucleus along imaginary paths known
as shells or more accurately orbits or orbitals.

(iv) Atomic number : Number of protons or number of electrons present in an

atom. [Z]
(v) Mass number [A] : The Mass number of an atom is the total number of protons
and neutrons collectively called nucleons in the nucleus of the atom.

Question 5

Represent each of the following :

(i) a proton 'p'

(ii) an electron 'e'

(iii) a neutron 'n'

in terms of it's symbols showing the subscript and superscript values.

Answer

(i) Proton : ^{\enspace 1}_{+1}\text{p}+11p

(ii) Electron : ^{\enspace 0}_{-1}\text{e}−10e

(iii) Neutron : ^1_0\text{n}01n

Question 6

What are 'energy levels'? Explain the arrangement and distribution of electrons in
the various shells with reference to an atom in general and to an atom of
potassium ^{39}_{19}\text{K}1939K with special reference to the 2n 2 rule.

Answer

Electrons revolve around the nucleus in fixed orbits. Each orbit is associated with a
certain amount of energy hence named 'energy levels'.

Arrangement of electrons :

 The shell closest to the nucleus is called K shell [first shell or number one
shell].
 The next shell is called the L shell [second shell or number 2 shell]
 Following shells are M,N...etc.
 An electron has minimum energy in the first or K shell and the energy increase
in the order K, L, M, N.
 The maximum number of electrons which can be present in any shell of an
atom is given by or represented by a formula 2n2, where n is equal to the
number of the shell as counted from the nucleus.

Shell Formula Max

Shell
No.[n] 2n2 Electrons

K 1 2 × (1)2 2

L 2 2 × (2)2 8
 Shell Formula Max
Shell
No.[n] 2n2 Electrons

M 3 2 × (3)2 18

N 4 2 x (4)2 32

 The outer most shell cannot have more than 8 electrons.

 The penultimate shell [last but one ] cannot have more than 18 electrons.
 A new shell is formed as soon as the - outermost shell attains 8 electrons.

With reference to Potassium ^{39}_{19}\bold{K}1939K :

No. of Electrons [e] = 19

No. of Protons [p] = 19
No. of Neutrons [n] = A - Z
= 39 - 19 = 20

The two rules governing the distribution of electrons are:

1. Rule 1 — Maximum number of electrons in each shell is given by the formula

2n2
2. Rule 2 — The outermost shell cannot have more than 8 electrons.

As per rule 1 (2n2 rule), distribution of electrons for Potassium will be:

Shell Electrons

K 2

L 8

9
M
[Last Shell]

But as per rule 2, outermost shell cannot have more than 8 electrons. So M shell will
have 8 electrons and a new shell (N) will be formed with 1 electron. Hence, the final
electronic configuration of Potassium will be:

Shell Electrons

K 2

L 8

M 8
 Shell Electrons

N 1

∴ Electronic configuration of Potassium = 2, 8, 8, 1

Question 7

An element 'A' has mass number 23 and atomic number 11. State the —

(i) no. of neutrons in it's shell,

(ii) electronic configuration of the element 'A'.

Answer

Given, mass number 23 and atomic number 11. So, Protons (P) = 11 and

(i) Neutrons (n) = A - P = 23 - 11 = 12

(ii) As number of electrons (e) = 11

∴ Electronic configuration of A = 2, 8, 1

Question 8

The following elements U to Z are given 3U, 6V, 9W, 14 X, 18 Y, 20 Z

State the electronic configuration of each and state whether they are metals, non-
metals or inert gases.

Answer

Elemen Electronic metals, non-metals or inert

t configuration gases

3 U 2,1 Metal

6 V 2,4 Non-metal [s]

9 W 2,7 Non-metal [g]

14 X 2,8,4 Metalloid

18 Y 2,8,8 Inert gas

20 Z 2,8,8,2 Metal

Question 9
Draw the geometric atomic structure of each of the following atoms showing the
number of electrons, protons and neutrons in each of them :

(i) ^{12}_6 \text{C}612C

(ii) ^{23}_{11} \text{Na}1123Na

(iii) ^{31}_{15}\text{P}1531P

(iv) ^{39}_{19} \text{K}1939K

(v) ^{40}_{20} \text{Ca}2040Ca

Answer

(i) Atom of Carbon [ ^{12}_6 \text{C}612C] —

No. of Electrons [e] = 6

No. of Protons [p] = 6
No. of Neutrons [n] = A - Z
= 12 - 6 = 6
Electronic configuration = 2, 4

(ii) Atom of sodium ^{23}_{11} \text{Na}1123Na —

 No. of Electrons [e] = 11
No. of Protons [p] = 11
No. of Neutrons [n] = A - Z
= 23 - 11 = 12
Electronic configuration = 2, 8, 1

(iii) Atom of Phosphorus ^{31}_{15}\text{P}1531P —

No. of Electrons [e] = 15

No. of Protons [p] = 15
No. of Neutrons [n] = A - Z
= 31 - 15 = 16
Electronic configuration = 2, 8, 5

(iv) Atom of Potassium ^{39}_{19} \text{K}1939K —

 No. of Electrons [e] = 19
No. of Protons [p] = 19
No. of Neutrons [n] = A - Z
= 39 - 19 = 20
Electronic configuration = 2, 8, 8, 1

(v) Atom of Calcium ^{40}_{20} \text{Ca}2040Ca —

No. of Electrons [e] = 20

No. of Protons [p] = 20
No. of Neutrons [n] = A - Z
= 40 - 20 = 20
Electronic configuration = 2, 8, 8, 2

Question 10

Define an 'isotope'. Give reasons why isotopes have same chemical but different
physical properties.

Answer

Isotopes are atoms of the same element having same atomic number but different
mass numbers.
Chemical properties of isotopes of the same element are similar because chemical
properties are dependent on the electronic configuration of an atom. As Isotopes
have same atomic number so they have same number of electrons and hence same
electronic configuration.

Physical properties of isotopes of the same element are different because physical
properties are dependent on the atomic mass. Isotopes have different mass number
[A], different number of neutrons and hence different atomic masses giving them
different physical properties.

Question 11

Draw the geometric atomic structure of the three isotopes of hydrogen and the two
isotopes of chlorine.

Answer

Geometric atomic structures of three isotopes of hydrogen is shown in the diagram

below:

Geometric atomic structures of two isotopes of chlorine is shown in the diagram

below:

Question 12

Four elements A, B, C, D are given :

A shows the presence of 20 neutrons, 17 protons and 17 electrons.

B shows the presence of 18 neutrons, 17 protons and 17 electrons.

C shows the presence of 10 neutrons, 9 protons and 10 electrons.

D shows the presence of 4 neutrons, 3 protons and 2 electrons.

State which of the above is —

(a) an anion

(b) a cation

(c) a pair of isotopes.

Write the formula of the compound formed between D and C.

Answer

(a) C is an anion.
Reason — C has 10 electrons but 9 protons. It means that C accepted 1 electron to
achieve a stable electronic configuration. Hence, it is an anion.

(b) D is a Cation.
Reason — D has 2 electrons but 3 protons. It means that D donated one of its
electrons to achieve a stable electronic configuration. Hence, it is a cation.

(c) A and B form a pair of isotopes.

Reason — Both A and B have the same number of protons and electrons i.e., 17 but
differ in the number of neutrons. Hence, they form a pair of isotopes.

Formula of the compound formed between D and C:

D donates one electron and C accepts one electron. Hence, formula of compound
formed between D and C is DC.

Question 13

What are noble gases. Give a reason why noble gases have stable electronic
configuration.

Answer

Noble gases have stable electronic configuration i.e., their valence shell is complete.
They do not gain, lose or share electrons. Their atoms are extremely unreactive.

For an atom to achieve stable electronic configuration, it must have:

1. Two electrons in the first shell (outermost) like that of noble gas Helium. This is
termed the Duplet Rule.
2. Eight electrons in the outermost shell like that of noble gases other than
Helium. This is termed the Octet Rule.

The octet and duplet arrangement of elements represents stability and hence noble
gases have stable electronic configuration.

Question 14

Explain the reason for chemical activity of an atom with reference to it's electronic
configuration.
 Answer

Reasons for chemical activity of an atom are:

1. Unstable electronic configuration — Atoms of elements other than noble

gases are assumed to have unstable electronic configuration.
2. Attaining stable electronic configuration — The driving force in
combination of atoms is related to the tendency for them to attain a stable
electronic configuration of the nearest noble gas.

Question 15.1

Differentiate between the terms —

Stable and unstable electronic configuration

Answer

Stable Electronic Configuration Unstable Electronic Configuration

Atoms having their valence shell Atoms which do not have their valence
completely filled are said to have shells completely filled are said to have
Stable Electronic Configuration. Unstable Electronic Configuration.

Atoms of noble gases have Stable Atoms of elements other than noble gases
Electronic Configuration. have Unstable Electronic Configuration.

In atoms with Stable Electronic In atoms with Unstable Electronic

Configuration, electrons are arranged Configuration, arrangement of electrons
as per Duplet or Octet rule. does not follow Duplet or Octet rule.

Question 15.2

Differentiate between the terms —

Duplet and octet rule.

Answer

Duplet Rule Octet Rule

For an atom to achieve stable electronic For an atom to achieve stable electronic
configuration it must have 2 electrons in configuration it must have 8 electrons in
the first shell [outermost] like that of outermost orbit like that of noble gases
noble gas Helium. other than Helium.

Question 16

Explain the octet rule for formation of —

(a) Sodium chloride from a sodium atom and a chlorine atom.

(b) Nitrogen molecule from two nitrogen atoms.

Answer

(a) As Na atom has atomic number 11 and electronic configuration [2, 8, 1].
Therefore, it tends to lose 1 electron from its valence shell forming Na 1+ (cation) to
attain a stable octet configuration of the nearest noble gas Neon [2, 8].

Cl, on the other hand has atomic number 17 and electronic configuration [2, 8, 7].
Therefore, it tries to gain one electron in its valence shell forming Cl 1- (anion) to
attain a stable octet configuration of the nearest noble gas Argon [2, 8, 8].

The oppositely charged cation and anion attract each other with a force -
[electrostatic force of attraction] resulting in formation of an ionic or electrovalent
compound [NaCl] as shown below.

(b) Nitrogen atom (147N) has atomic number 7 and electronic configuration [2, 5]. To
attain stable octet structure of the nearest noble gas Neon [2, 8], Nitrogen needs
three electrons in the valence shell. Nitrogen atom shares electron pairs with other
nitrogen atom resulting in the formation of a molecular or covalent bond as shown
below: