NAME KAPADIA NARAYAN HEMANTKUMAR

ROLL NO. 2314518157

PROGRAM MCA
SEMESTER 2
COURSE NAME Advanced Computer Network
COURSE CODE DCA6204
Set – I
Question – 1
a. Compare and contrast the OSI model with the TCP/IP reference model, highlighting their similarities
and differences in terms of layering and functionality.
Answer:

OSI Model

Layering: It consists of seven layers:

• Physical: Handles raw data transmission.

• Data Link: Ensures error-free data transfer.
• Network: Manages packet routing.
• Transport: Provides reliable data transfer.
• Session: Manages connections.
• Presentation: Translates data formats.
• Application: Offers services to end-user applications.

TCP/IP Model

Layering: It comprises four layers:

• Link: Combines OSI’s Physical and Data Link layers.

• Internet: Manages packet routing.
• Transport: Handles end-to-end communication (TCP/UDP).
• Application: Includes all protocols for process-to-process communication.

Similarities

• Both use a layered architecture to simplify network design and troubleshooting.

• Each model has distinct transport and network layers for routing and data transfer.
• Both feature an application layer that interfaces with end-user applications.

Differences

• Layering: OSI has seven layers, while TCP/IP has four.

• Function Allocation: OSI divides functions into more layers, whereas TCP/IP combines several
functions into fewer layers.
• Theoretical vs. Practical: OSI is more theoretical and used as a reference model, while TCP/IP is
practical and widely implemented.

b. Discuss the differences between Ethernet and Token Ring LAN technologies, focusing on their
architectures and access methods
Answer:

Ethernet vs. Token Ring

Ethernet
 1. Architecture:
o Topology: Ethernet typically uses bus or star topologies. In a bus topology, all devices
connect to a single central cable. In a star topology, devices connect to a central hub or
switch.
o Components: Hubs, switches, and routers manage data traffic in Ethernet networks.
2. Access Method:
o CSMA/CD: Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection.
▪ Carrier Sense: Devices check if the network is clear before transmitting.
▪ Multiple Access: Multiple devices can access the network simultaneously.
▪ Collision Detection: Devices detect collisions and retry after a random delay.
o Efficiency: Effective with moderate traffic; efficiency drops with high traffic due to
collisions.

Token Ring

1. Architecture:
o Topology: Utilizes a ring topology where each device is connected to two others, forming a
circle.
o Components: A Multistation Access Unit (MAU) manages the ring structure.
2. Access Method:
o Token Passing: A token circulates around the ring.
▪ Token: A special data packet that controls access.
▪ Access Control: Only the device with the token can send data.
o Efficiency: Prevents collisions and is efficient under heavy traffic, but performance can suffer
if the token is lost.

Comparison Summary

• Topology: Ethernet uses bus or star; Token Ring uses a ring.

• Access Method: Ethernet's CSMA/CD leads to potential collisions; Token Ring's token passing
prevents collisions.
• Efficiency: Ethernet's efficiency drops with high traffic; Token Ring maintains efficiency but can
have token management issues.
• Components: Ethernet uses hubs, switches, and routers; Token Ring uses a MAU.

Question – 2

a. Explain the concept of Multiplexing. How does Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM) differ from
Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)?

Answer:

Multiplexing

Multiplexing combines multiple signals or data streams into one transmission medium, optimizing
bandwidth use and enhancing data transmission capacity. The combined signals are transmitted over a
shared medium and separated back into individual signals at the receiving end.

Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)

Concept:

• Primarily used in fiber optic communications, WDM transmits multiple data streams on different
wavelengths of light within the same fiber optic cable.

Operation:
 • Each data stream gets a unique wavelength.
• Wavelengths are combined using a multiplexer at the transmitting end and sent over the fiber.
• A demultiplexer at the receiving end separates the signals back into individual wavelengths.

Advantages:

• High Capacity: Significantly increases the capacity of a single fiber optic cable.
• Scalability: New wavelengths can be added without additional infrastructure.
• Low Interference: Different wavelengths don't interfere, allowing high data rates with minimal
cross-talk.

Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

Concept:

• Used in both wired and wireless communications, FDM transmits multiple data streams on different
frequency channels within the same medium.

Operation:

• Each data stream is assigned a unique frequency.

• Frequencies are combined using a multiplexer at the transmitting end and sent over the medium.
• A demultiplexer at the receiving end separates the signals back into individual frequencies.

Advantages:

• Broad Usage: Common in radio, TV broadcasting, and traditional telephone systems.

• Simple Implementation: Relatively simple and cost-effective technology.
• Parallel Transmission: Allows multiple signals to be transmitted simultaneously without
interference if adequately spaced.

Key Differences

1. Medium:
o WDM: Primarily fiber optic.
o FDM: Both wired (coaxial cables) and wireless (radio waves).
2. Signal Separation:
o WDM: Different wavelengths of light.
o FDM: Different frequency channels.
3. Interference and Cross-talk:
o WDM: Minimal cross-talk.
o FDM: Requires careful frequency spacing to minimize interference.4

b. Explain in detail the different types of network topology used in computer networks.
Answer:

Network Topologies

Network topology defines the arrangement of various elements (like links and nodes) in a computer network,
determining how devices connect and communicate. Here are the main types:

1. Bus Topology

• Concept: All devices connect to a single central cable (the bus).

• Characteristics: Simple, cost-effective, and data travels in one direction.
• Advantages: Easy installation, minimal cabling.
 • Disadvantages: Limited length, challenging troubleshooting, and reduced efficiency with more
devices.

2. Star Topology

• Concept: All devices connect to a central hub or switch.

• Characteristics: Centralized management, easy expansion.
• Advantages: Reliable, easy to troubleshoot.
• Disadvantages: Single point of failure, higher cost.

3. Ring Topology

• Concept: Devices connect in a circular path.

• Characteristics: Unidirectional or bidirectional data transmission.
• Advantages: Equal access, handles high traffic.
• Disadvantages: Single failure impacts the network, complex installation.

4. Mesh Topology

• Concept: Devices interconnect with redundant connections.

• Characteristics: Full mesh (all devices connected) or partial mesh.
• Advantages: High reliability and fault tolerance.
• Disadvantages: High cost, complex installation.

5. Tree Topology

• Concept: Combines star and bus topologies in a hierarchical structure.

• Characteristics: Parent-child hierarchy.
• Advantages: Scalable, easier troubleshooting.
• Disadvantages: Backbone dependency, more complex.

6. Hybrid Topology

• Concept: Combines multiple topologies.

• Characteristics: Flexible.
• Advantages: Versatile, scalable.
• Disadvantages: Complex design, higher cost.

Summary

• Bus: Simple, cost-effective, but limited in performance.

• Star: Reliable, easy to troubleshoot, but reliant on a central hub.
• Ring: Equal access, efficient under heavy load, but vulnerable to failures.
• Mesh: Redundant, fault-tolerant, but costly and complex.
• Tree: Scalable, hierarchical, but dependent on the backbone.
• Hybrid: Versatile, flexible, but potentially complex and expensive.

Circuit Switching

Operation: Circuit switching sets up a dedicated communication path between two endpoints for the entire
duration of the connection. This path provides a continuous transmission channel with the full bandwidth
reserved for the call.

Advantages:

• Consistent Quality: Ensures a steady, reliable connection with guaranteed bandwidth.

 • Low Latency: Offers minimal delay once the circuit is established.

Disadvantages:

• Resource Inefficiency: Resources remain occupied for the entire duration of the connection, even
during periods of inactivity.
• Setup Time: The process of establishing the circuit can be time-consuming, leading to initial delays.

Packet Switching

Operation: Packet switching breaks data into packets, each transmitted independently across the network.
Packets may take different routes to the destination, where they are reassembled in the correct sequence.

Advantages:

• Efficient Resource Utilization: Network resources are used only when data is being transmitted,
enhancing efficiency.
• Scalability: Can handle varying levels of traffic without significant delays.

Disadvantages:

• Variable Latency: Packets can experience different delays, resulting in variability in transmission
times.
• Packet Loss Potential: Packets may be lost or delayed, necessitating retransmission and error
correction mechanisms.

Summary

Circuit switching provides consistent quality and low latency but is inefficient in resource use and has longer
setup times. Packet switching is more efficient and scalable but can experience variable latency and potential
packet loss.

Internet Protocol (IP)

Internet Protocol (IP) is essential for delivering data packets from the source to the destination based on IP
addresses. It dictates how packets are addressed and routed to reach the correct destination.

Key Features:

1. Packet Switching: Splits data into packets for independent transmission.

2. Addressing: Uses IPv4 (32-bit) or IPv6 (128-bit) addresses to identify devices.
3. Routing: Routers determine the best path for packet forwarding.
4. Best-Effort Delivery: Does not guarantee delivery, order, or error-free communication.

Functions:

• Addressing: Assigns unique IP addresses.

• Fragmentation and Reassembly: Manages packet size for network segments.
• Routing: Directs packets across networks.

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) operates on top of IP, ensuring reliable, ordered, and error-checked
data delivery between applications on IP networks. TCP is connection-oriented, establishing a connection
before data transfer.

Key Features:
 1. Connection-Oriented: Uses a three-way handshake (SYN, SYN-ACK, ACK).
2. Reliable Delivery: Ensures accurate and ordered data delivery.
3. Flow Control: Manages transmission rates to prevent congestion.
4. Error Detection and Correction: Detects and corrects errors using checksums and retransmissions.

Functions:

• Data Segmentation: Breaks data into segments within IP packets.

• Acknowledgments and Retransmissions: Ensures each segment is acknowledged and retransmits
unacknowledged segments.
• Flow Control: Controls data amount sent using the window size.
• Congestion Control: Adjusts transmission rates based on congestion.

Summary

IP handles addressing and routing with a best-effort delivery model, using unique addresses for devices.
TCP provides reliable, ordered data delivery on top of IP, establishing connections, and implementing flow
control, error detection, and congestion control.

a. Explain the operation of Circuit Switching and Packet Switching. Discuss the advantages and
disadvantages of each
Answer:

Circuit Switching

Operation: Circuit switching sets up a dedicated communication path between two endpoints for the entire
duration of the connection. This path provides a continuous transmission channel with the full bandwidth
reserved for the call.

Advantages:

• Consistent Quality: Ensures a steady, reliable connection with guaranteed bandwidth.

• Low Latency: Offers minimal delay once the circuit is established.

Disadvantages:

• Resource Inefficiency: Resources remain occupied for the entire duration of the connection, even
during periods of inactivity.
• Setup Time: The process of establishing the circuit can be time-consuming, leading to initial delays.

Packet Switching

Operation: Packet switching breaks data into packets, each transmitted independently across the network.
Packets may take different routes to the destination, where they are reassembled in the correct sequence.

Advantages:

• Efficient Resource Utilization: Network resources are used only when data is being transmitted,
enhancing efficiency.
• Scalability: Can handle varying levels of traffic without significant delays.

Disadvantages:

• Variable Latency: Packets can experience different delays, resulting in variability in transmission
times.
• Packet Loss Potential: Packets may be lost or delayed, necessitating retransmission and error
correction mechanisms.
Summary

Circuit switching provides consistent quality and low latency but is inefficient in resource use and has longer
setup times. Packet switching is more efficient and scalable but can experience variable latency and potential
packet loss.

SET-II

Question – 4

a. Explain the concept of Multiplexing. How does Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM) differ from
Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)?

Answer:

Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) in Inter-Domain Routing

Operation: BGP (Border Gateway Protocol) is used for routing between different autonomous systems
(ASes) on the Internet, known as inter-domain routing. It functions by exchanging routing information
between BGP peers via TCP connections. Each AS has one or more BGP routers that communicate with
routers in other ASes to share information about reachable IP prefixes. BGP uses path vector mechanisms,
including attributes like AS path, to make routing decisions based on policies rather than just the shortest
path. These policies can consider factors such as path stability, routing cost, and agreements between ISPs.

Differences from Intra-Domain Routing Protocols

OSPF (Open Shortest Path First) and RIP (Routing Information Protocol) are intra-domain routing
protocols designed for routing within a single AS.

1. Scope and Purpose:

• BGP: Handles routing between different ASes (inter-domain), focusing on policy-based routing and
scalability.
• OSPF/RIP: Manage routing within a single AS (intra-domain), emphasizing efficient determination
of the shortest path.

2. Routing Information:

• BGP: Uses path vectors and attributes such as AS path, next hop, and route policies.
• OSPF: Utilizes link-state information to create a comprehensive map of the network, allowing for
shortest path calculation.
• RIP: Employs distance vectors, making routing decisions based on the number of hops to the
destination.

3. Protocol Complexity and Scalability:

• BGP: More complex and designed to handle a large number of routes and large-scale networks.
• OSPF: More complex than RIP, suitable for larger networks but limited to a single AS.
• RIP: Simple and easy to configure, but less scalable due to its hop count limitation (maximum 15
hops).

b. Explain the concept of Integrated Service Digital Network (ISDN). How does Basic Rate Interface
(BRI) differ from Primary Rate Interface (PRI)?

Answer:
. Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN)

Concept: Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) is a standardized system for transmitting voice, video,
and data digitally over digital lines. It utilizes circuit-switched technology to establish direct connections
between endpoints, offering enhanced quality and faster transmission speeds compared to analog systems.

Basic Rate Interface (BRI) vs. Primary Rate Interface (PRI)

Basic Rate Interface (BRI):

• Channels: Includes two bearer (B) channels and one data (D) channel.
• Channel Capacity: Bearer channels operate at 64 Kbps each for data and voice, totaling 128 Kbps.
The D channel operates at 16 Kbps for signaling and control.
• Usage: Typically used in small businesses and residential setups due to its lower capacity.

Primary Rate Interface (PRI):

• Channels: Comprises 23 B channels and 1 D channel (in North America; 30 B channels and 1 D
channel in Europe).
• Channel Capacity: Each B channel operates at 64 Kbps, providing a total bandwidth of 1.544 Mbps
(T1) or 2.048 Mbps (E1). The D channel operates at 64 Kbps.
• Usage: Preferred by larger organizations needing higher bandwidth for voice, video conferencing,
and data.

Key Differences:

• Capacity: PRI offers greater bandwidth with multiple B channels compared to BRI.
• Application: BRI suits smaller applications, while PRI meets the demands of larger enterprises
requiring robust communication capabilities.

Question – 5
a. Discuss the operation of the Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) in network
management. How does SNMPv3 enhance security compared to SNMPv2?

Answer:

Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) in Network Management

Operation: The Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) is crucial for managing network devices
and monitoring their performance. It functions by gathering and organizing data from various network
devices like routers, switches, servers, and printers. SNMP allows administrators to remotely manage
devices, monitor network performance, and troubleshoot issues effectively.

Key Functions:

• Management Stations: SNMP relies on management stations (servers or software applications) that interact
with SNMP agents installed on managed devices.
• Data Collection: It collects information through SNMP agents, which retrieve data from managed devices and
store it in a Management Information Base (MIB).
• Monitoring and Control: SNMP enables continuous monitoring of device status, performance metrics (such
as CPU usage and network traffic), and remote configuration of devices.

SNMPv3 Security Enhancements compared to SNMPv2

1. Authentication: SNMPv3 offers stronger authentication methods compared to SNMPv2. It supports
HMAC-SHA (Hash-based Message Authentication Code with Secure Hash Algorithm) for ensuring message
integrity and authentication, preventing unauthorized alterations during transmission.

2. Encryption: SNMPv3 includes data encryption capabilities, a feature absent in SNMPv2. It employs
protocols like AES (Advanced Encryption Standard) to safeguard sensitive information transmitted between
SNMP entities, ensuring confidentiality.

3. Access Control: SNMPv3 improves access control mechanisms, allowing administrators to define and
enforce policies regarding who can access and manage network devices. It supports user-based security
models (USM), providing granular control over access permissions.

4. Message Integrity: SNMPv3 ensures message integrity by verifying that data remains unaltered during
transmission, utilizing techniques such as HMAC-SHA.

b. Describe the ATM protocol architecture. How are virtual channel connections established in ATM
networks?

Answer:

ATM Protocol Architecture

ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode) protocol architecture is structured around fixed-sized cells of 53
bytes each, designed for high-speed transmission of voice, video, and data over networks. The architecture
comprises several layers:

1. Physical Layer: Defines the physical media and signaling standards for transmission, such as fiber
optic cables or copper wires.
2. ATM Layer: Manages cell switching and routing within the network. It handles virtual channel
connections and ensures cells are routed to their correct destinations based on Virtual Path Identifier
(VPI) and Virtual Channel Identifier (VCI).
3. ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL): Adapts higher-layer protocols to the ATM layer by segmenting
and reassembling data into cells. AAL types (AAL1, AAL2, AAL5) define how different types of
data (like voice or video) are formatted and transmitted over ATM.
4. Signaling: Controls the setup and teardown of connections, management of bandwidth, and quality
of service parameters.

Establishing Virtual Channel Connections in ATM Networks

Virtual channel connections (VCCs) in ATM networks are established through a signaling process
involving the following steps:

1. Connection Request: A user or application initiates a connection request by specifying the desired
QoS parameters (such as bandwidth, delay, and reliability).
2. Routing and Switching: The ATM layer uses the VPI and VCI identifiers to route cells through the
network. These identifiers are used to set up a path through the network from source to destination.
3. Path Setup: The network establishes a virtual path (VP) and one or more virtual channels (VCs)
along this path based on the requested parameters. Each VC is identified uniquely by a combination
of VPI and VCI.
4. Acknowledgment: Once the path and VCs are established, the network sends an acknowledgment
back to the initiating user or application.
5. Data Transfer: Data cells can now be transmitted between the endpoints using the established VCC.
The ATM layer ensures that cells are delivered in sequence and within the specified QoS parameters.

Question – 6
 a. Discuss the requirements for Web Security and the role of Secure Socket Layer (SSL) in ensuring
secure communication over the Internet.

Answer:

Web Security Requirements and the Role of Secure Socket Layer (SSL)

Web Security Requirements: Web security encompasses critical aspects to protect data, ensuring privacy,
integrity, and availability of resources on the Internet. Essential requirements include:

1. Data Confidentiality: Ensuring that data exchanged remains private and inaccessible to
unauthorized parties.
2. Data Integrity: Verifying that data transmitted over the Internet is unchanged and unaltered during
transmission.
3. Authentication: Validating the identity of users and websites to prevent unauthorized access and
impersonation.
4. Non-Repudiation: Ensuring that both parties cannot deny sending or receiving specific information.
5. Availability: Ensuring continuous access to web services and resources for legitimate users.

Role of Secure Socket Layer (SSL): SSL, now TLS (Transport Layer Security), plays a pivotal role in
meeting these security requirements:

• Encryption: TLS encrypts data exchanged between a web server and client, safeguarding
confidentiality and preventing interception.
• Authentication: SSL/TLS certificates authenticate website identities, assuring users of interacting
with genuine entities.
• Integrity: TLS ensures data integrity using cryptographic hash functions, verifying data remains
intact and unaltered.
• Trust: SSL/TLS certificates from trusted Certificate Authorities (CAs) establish trust between
parties, validating server identities.

b. Explain the principles of Cryptography and discuss the differences between Symmetric Key
Encryption and Public Key Encryption. How does the RSA algorithm ensure secure communication?

Answer:

Principles of Cryptography and Differences Between Symmetric Key Encryption and

Public Key Encryption

Cryptography Principles: Cryptography, the science of securing communication and data, relies on
mathematical algorithms and keys to ensure:

1. Confidentiality: Keeping data private and inaccessible to unauthorized users.

2. Integrity: Verifying data remains unaltered during transmission or storage.
3. Authentication: Confirming the identity of communicating parties.
4. Non-Repudiation: Preventing parties from denying their actions or transactions.

Symmetric Key Encryption:

• Single Key: Uses one secret key for both encryption and decryption.
• Speed: Processes faster due to simpler algorithms.
• Security: Requires secure key distribution to prevent interception.

Public Key Encryption:

• Key Pairs: Utilizes a pair of keys (public and private) for encryption and decryption.
• Flexibility: Allows secure communication without prior key exchange.
• Complexity: Slower processing compared to symmetric encryption.
RSA Algorithm for Secure Communication: The RSA (Rivest-Shamir-Adleman) algorithm ensures secure
communication by:

• Key Generation: Generating a public-private key pair for each user.

• Encryption: Using the recipient's public key for encryption and their private key for decryption.
• Digital Signatures: Signing messages with private keys to authenticate senders.
• Security: Relies on the challenge of factoring large prime numbers, ensuring robust encryption.