Propositional Logic

Introduction to Logic
• The study of reasoning
• Focuses on the relationship among
statements as opposed to the content of any
particular statement.
• Example:
All cats have 4 legs
Yordana is a cat
Therefore, Yordana has 4 legs

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 Introduction to Logic
• Must follow rules and techniques to get
valid conclusion/argument
• Example of logical fallacy:
All cats have four legs
My dog has four legs
Therefore, my dog is a cat.

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 Introduction to Logic
• Must follow rules and techniques to get
valid conclusion/argument
• Example of logical fallacy:
All cats have four legs
My dog has four legs
Therefore, my dog is a cat.

Fallacy!!!

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 Why we learn Logic?
• The way of reasoning is the root of
computer science
• Applications include:
– Automated reasoning in artificial
intelligence
– Logic gates in computer hardware
– specification and verification in software
engineering
– Semantics and logic in programming
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 Topics in Logic
• Propositional logic
• Predicate logic
• Proof

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Propositional Logic
 Statement / Proposition
• Statement/Proposition : a sentence that is
either TRUE or FALSE, but not both.
(a declarative sentence)
• Examples:
✔ I can run.
✔ I can fly while eating
✔2 > 1
✔1 > 2
✔ Birds can fly and elephants can swim.
✔ University of Malaya is in Malaysia.

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 These are not propositions:
✗
Where is University of Malaya?
✗
Who has taken my pillow?
✗
Please show me your ticket.
✗
Buy me a dozen of eggs when you
come home.

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 Exercise
• Is 3 greater than 2?
• I need a pencil.
• Buy me a pencil.
• If I have a pencil, I can draw.
• 1+1 = 3
• When elephants swim, they uses their wings
as paddles and breath with gills.
• I win the jackpot!
• This sentence is not a proposition.

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What is Propositional Logic?
• The area of logic that
deals with
propositions
• First developed
systematically by the
Greek philosopher
Aristotle more than
2300 years ago.

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 Symbolize Statement
• We can use variables (a, b, c, P, Q, R,
…) to represent propositions.
• Examples:

p: I can run.

q: 1+1 =3

A: Apples in Malaysia are imported

B: Bicycles have windscreens

C: Canada is in Asia

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 Negation, ¬
• Negation of p, denoted ¬p, is the
proposition:
not p
• Example:
p : Bicycles have windscreens
¬p : Bicycles do not have windscreens

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 Negation, ¬
• Negation of p, denoted ¬p, is the
proposition:
not p
• Example:
p : Bicycles have windscreens
¬p : Bicycles do not have windscreens
• Or, in English, we can use “It is not the case
that p” to express a negation.
• Notations: ¬p , ~p , !p , p' or p.
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 Truth value and truth table
• A proposition has a truth value – it is
TRUE or FALSE.
• Example:
 p: 2 is an even number T
 ¬p: 2 is not an even number F

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 Truth value and truth table
• A proposition has a truth value – it is
TRUE or FALSE.
• Example:
 p: 2 is an even number T
 ¬p: 2 is not an even number F
• Truth table
p ¬p
T F
F T 16
 Exercise
State the negations of the following
prepositions:
• Q : Birds can swim
• R : 3+5 = 8
• S : 2+5 < 0

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 AND, ⋀
• We can combine propositions with
AND (conjunction).
• Example:
p: 2+2=4
q: birds can swim.
• “p AND q”, or “p ⋀ q” is
2+2=4 and birds can swim.

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 Truth Table of AND

P Q P⋀Q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F

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 Truth Table of AND

P Q P⋀Q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F
NOTE : TRUE only when both P and Q are TRUE.
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 Exercise
Symbolize the following sentences.
Use AND and negation operators if
needed.
• Vincent Van Gogh is a famous painter
and I have one of his painting.
• Vivaldi played guitar or Michael
Jackson played Tik Tok.
• BTS sings dangdut but P Ramli did not
sing K-POP.

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 Exercise
If p is TRUE, q is FALSE, r: “5>3”, s:
“Durians growth in Malaysia” and t:
“Sundays come after Mondays”.
Find the truth values of:
• ¬p ⋀ ( r ⋀ s)
• q ⋀ ¬ (t ⋀ r)
• ¬p ⋀ ¬( s ⋀ r ⋀ ¬t )

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 OR, ⋁
• We also can combine propositions with
OR (disjunction).
• Example:
p: 10 is odd number
q: 10 is greater then 5.
• “p OR q”, or “p ⋁ q” is
10 is odd number or 10 is greater then
5.
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 Truth Table of OR

P Q P⋁Q
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F

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 Truth Table of OR

P Q P⋁Q
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F
Note : FALSE only when both P and Q are FALSE.
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 Operator precedence
• In propositions involve multiple
operators, order of evaluation:
Negation >> AND >> OR.

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 Operator precedence
• In propositions involve multiple
operators, order of evaluation:
Negation >> AND >> OR.
• Example:
¬ TRUE ⋀ ¬ TRUE ⋁ TRUE

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 Operator precedence
• In propositions involve multiple
operators, order of evaluation:
Negation >> AND >> OR.
• Example:
¬ TRUE ⋀ ¬ TRUE ⋁ TRUE
= FALSE ⋀ FALSE ⋁ TRUE

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 Operator precedence
• In propositions involve multiple
operators, order of evaluation:
Negation >> AND >> OR.
• Example:
¬ TRUE ⋀ ¬ TRUE ⋁ TRUE
= FALSE ⋀ FALSE ⋁ TRUE
= FALSE ⋁ TRUE
= TRUE
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 Conditional Proposition
• The propositions in the form
if p then q
are conditional propositions that denote as :
p → q.
• Example:
If the apple is red,
then it is delicious.
• p: the apple is red (antecedent)
• q: the apple is delicious (consequent)
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 Truth Table of Conditional
Proposition
Given: If the apple is red, then it is delicious.

p q p→q
The apple is red,
T T T it is delicious

T F
F T
F F
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 Truth Table of Conditional
Proposition
Given: If the apple is red, then it is delicious.

p q p→q
The apple is red,
T T T it is delicious
The apple is red,
T F F but not delicious! No
way!

F T
F F
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 Truth Table of Conditional
Proposition
Given: If the apple is red, then it is delicious.

p q p→q
The apple is red,
T T T it is delicious
The apple is red,
T F F but not delicious! No
way!

F T T The apple is green!

F F T The apple is green!

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 Some ways to express
conditional propositions
• if p, then q
• if p, q
• p is sufficient for q
• q if p
• q when p
• a necessary condition for p is q
• q unless ¬p

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 Exercise
Construct truth tables for the following
propositions:
• p⋀q→r
• p ⋁ q → ¬r
• p→(q→r)

Note: Evaluate → after OR operators.

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 Biconditional Proposition
• Bidirectional Propositions – in the form:
p if and only if q
• Example : Integer x is divisible by 2 if
and only if x is an even number.
• Denote as : p↔q
• Can be written as p iff q

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 Truth Table of
Biconditional Proposition
p q p↔q

T T T

T F F

F T F

F F T

Note : TRUE iff both P and Q have same values

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Order of Precedence

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 Exercise
Restate each proposition in the form of a
conditional or biconditional proposition:
• Mary will be a good student if she studies
hard.
• When you sing, my ears hurt.
• I sing if and only if you dance.
• John takes Calculus II if and only if he
has passed his Calculus I.
• If John go, I go , but If John is going to
absent, I will follow. 42
 Converse, Inverse,
Contrapositive
• The converse of the conditional proposition
p→q is the proposition q→p
• The inverse of the conditional proposition
p→q is the proposition ~p →~q
• The contrapositive of the conditional
proposition p→q is the proposition ~q→~p

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 Converse, Inverse,
Contrapositive
• The converse of the conditional proposition
p→q is the proposition q→p
• The inverse of the conditional proposition
p→q is the proposition ~p →~q
• The contrapositive of the conditional
proposition p→q is the proposition ~q→~p

• Converse and Inverse propositions may

bring different meanings
• Contrapositive propositions are equivalent
to the original ones. 44
Tautologies, Contradictions
and Contingency
• If a proposition evaluates to TRUE
regardless of the input values, then the
proposition is called a tautology.
• If a proposition evaluates to FALSE
regardless of the input values, then the
proposition is called a contradiction
• A proposition that is neither a tautology
nor a contradiction is a contingency

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 Example of Tautology
p V ~(pΛq)

p q (pΛq) ~(pΛq) p V ~(pΛq)

T T T F T

T F F T T

F T F T T

F F F T T
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 Example of Contradiction
(pΛq) Λ ~(pVq)

(pΛq) Λ
p q (pΛq) ~(pVq)
~(pVq)
T T T F F

T F F F F

F T F F F

F F F T F
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 Logical Equivalent
• Assume A and B are two propositions,
A=………
B=……
• A and B are “logically equivalent”, or
AÛB
iff A and B have the same truth values.
• 2 ways to determine logical equivalent:
– Truth Table
– Laws of Logic 48
 Truth Table
• 2 propositions are logical equivalent if
they same truth values
• Example: show that p→q and ~pVq
are logically equivalent

Same truth values

→ logical equivalent

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 Example
• Example: show that p→q and q→p
are not logically equivalent
p q p→ q q→ p

T T T T Different truth values

→ not logical equivalent
T F F T

F T T F

F F T T
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Laws of Logic

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 Laws of Logic

p → q ≡ ¬p ∨ q Law of Implication
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 Example

¬( p∨(¬ p∧q))
=¬(( p∨¬ p)∧( p∨q)) Distributive law

=¬(T ∧( p∨q)) Negation law

=¬( p∨q) Identity law

=¬ p∧¬q De Morgan’s law

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 Example

( p∧q)→( p∨q)
=¬( p∧q)∨( p∨q) Implication law

=(¬ p∨¬q)∨( p∨q) De Morgan’s law

=¬ p∨¬q∨ p∨q Associative law

=(¬ p∨ p)∨(¬q∨q) Associative law

=T ∨T =T Negation law 54
Deductive Reasoning

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 Deductive Reasoning
• Consider the following sequence of
propositions.
a)We are looking for a man either in black or yellow shirt
b)The man with black shirt is wearing jeans.
c)The man we are looking for is not wearing jeans

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 Deductive Reasoning
• Consider the following sequence of
propositions.
a)We are looking for a man either in black or yellow shirt
b)The man with black shirt is wearing jeans.
c)The man we are looking for is not wearing jeans

• Assuming that these statements are true,

it is reasonable to conclude:
The man we are looking for is wearing yellow shirt

• drawing a conclusion from a sequence of

propositions → Deductive Reasoning
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 Deductive Reasoning
The following is an argument.

a)We are looking for a man either in black or yellow shirt

b)The man with black shirt is wearing jeans.
c)The man we are looking for is not wearing jeans
-----------------------------------------------------------------
Therefore, the man we are looking for is wearing yellow shirt

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 Deductive Reasoning
The following is an argument.

a)We are looking for a man either in black or yellow shirt

b)The man with black shirt is wearing jeans.
c)The man we are looking for is not wearing jeans
-----------------------------------------------------------------
Therefore, the man we are looking for is wearing yellow shirt

(a), (b), (c) are called hypothesis / premises

“Therefore, … ….” is the conclusion

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 Arguments
Many proofs in mathematics and computer science
are deductive arguments.

Arguments have the form:

If p1 and p2 and · · · and pn, then q.
Arguments are said to be valid if the conclusion
follows from the hypotheses; that is:
if p1 and p2 and · · · and pn are true,
then q must also be true.
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 Valid or Invalid
• In a valid argument, we sometimes say
that the conclusion follows from the
hypotheses.
• Note: We are not saying that the
conclusion is true; we are only saying
that if you grant the hypotheses, you
must also grant the conclusion.
• An argument is valid because of its
form, not because of its content.
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Examples of Valid Argument
• If I study hard, then I get A’s. I study
hard. Therefore I get A’s.

• If I study hard, then I get A’s or I get

rich. I don’t get A’s and I don’t get rich.
Therefore I don’t study hard.

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 Rules of Inference
• A proof uses the hypotheses, axioms,
definitions, and so on to reach a
conclusion. Each step of the proof
involves drawing intermediate
conclusions.

• For the proof as a whole to be valid,

each step of the proof must result in a
valid, intermediate conclusion.
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 Rules of Inference
• When we construct a proof, we often
use intuition to guide us in drawing
valid, intermediate conclusions;
however, the process can be
formalized.

• Rules of inference, which are brief,

valid arguments, can be used to prove
a larger argument such as a proof.
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 Rules of Inference
Modus Example
Ponens

p→q
p
---------
∴q
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 Rules of Inference
Modus Example
Ponens
If this object is made of copper,
p→q it will conduct electricity.
p This object is made of copper.
---------
∴q Therefore, it will conduct
electricity
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 Rules of Inference
Modus Example
Tollens

p→q
~q
---------
∴ ~p
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 Rules of Inference
Modus Example
Tollens

p→q If I am hungry I eat a lot

~q I don’t eat a lot
---------
∴ ~p
So I am not hungry
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 Rules of Inference
Conjunction Example
elimination

p /\ q
---------
∴p
∴q
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 Rules of Inference
Conjunction Example
elimination
2 is a prime number, but
p /\ q it is even
---------
∴p 2 is a prime number
∴q 2 is an even number

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 Rules of Inference
Disjunction Example
introduction

p
---------
∴pVq

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 Rules of Inference
Disjunction Example
introduction
Socrates is a man.

p
--------- So, either “Socrates is a man”
or “ice is cold”
∴pVq
So, either “Socrates is a man”
or “ice is hot”
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 Rules of Inference
Disjunctive Example
Syllogism

pVq
~p
---------
∴q
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 Rules of Inference
Disjunctive Example
Syllogism
Mr Bean is handsome or
pVq funny
~p
--------- Mr bean is not handsome
∴q
Mr Bean is funny
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 Rules of Inference
Hypothetical Example
Syllogism

p→q
q→r
---------
∴p→r
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 Rules of Inference
Hypothetical Example
Syllogism
If it rains, we will not have a
p→q picnic.

q→r If we don't have a picnic, we

won't need a picnic basket.
---------
Therefore, if it rains, we
∴p→r won't need a picnic basket.

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 Rules of Inference
Dilemma Example

pVq
p→r
q→s
---------
∴rVs
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 Rules of Inference
Dilemma Example

pVq Either we take LRT or we drive

p→r If we take LRT, we pay the fare

q→s If we drive, we pay tolls
--------- So, either we pay LRT fare or
∴rVs we pay tolls

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There are some common
fallacy
Affirming the consequent

p→q
q
---------
∴p
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There are some common
fallacy
Affirming the consequent

p→q If am in Thailand, then I am in Asia.

q I am in Asia.
---------
∴p Therefore I am in Thailand.

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There are some common
fallacy
Denying the antecedent

p→q
~p
---------
∴ ~q
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There are some common
fallacy
Denying the antecedent

p→q If am in Thailand, then I am in Asia.

~p I am not in Thailand.
---------
∴ ~q Therefore I am not in Asia.

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 Exercise
• Fishing is a popular sport or reading
poetry is wildly popular in Malaysia.
Reading poetry is not wildly popular in
Malaysia. Therefore, fishing is a
popular sport.
• If birds can fly or swim, then they can
find food. Birds can fly. Tigers can find
food. Therefore, birds and tigers can
find food.
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