Experimental Evaluation of Combustion Characteristics in a Common Rail

Direct Injection Diesel Engine with CONVERGE CFD

Abstract
The combustion process in the engine occurs in different stages from the injection, mixing and
compression of the fuel with the aid of crankshaft and piston linkages by the closure and opening of the
valves. At four loading conditions which chosen for analysis, premixed combustion is highlighted to
define the heat release rate, mean temperature, in - cylinder pressure, ignition delay and combustion
duration as per the fuel injection timing. As the load changes the injection of the fuel is done more
effectively in order to obtain complete combustion. Present work experimentally studied the
combustion parameters in a twin cylinder turbocharged CRDi (Common Rail Direct injection) diesel
engine and the results were compared with simulated data. The percentage change of in cylinder
pressure, ignition delay, heat release rate and the combustion duration are presented with precise values
is about 4.8 per cent, 7.8 per cent, 4.2 per cent and 7.3 per cent. Hence, here the experiment conducted
and model simulation validated reveals that the CFD package, CONVERGE is a prominent tool to
estimate the combustion process.
Keywords: Combustion characteristics, CONVERGE CFD, Heat release rate, Ignition delay, Varying load.

1. Introduction

Major property of the automotive and automobiles is CI (Compressed Ignition) engine. On the other
hand, the sudden rise of expenditure for fuel and its reliance on oil from other countries enforced the
consumers to minimize the fuel consumption [1–3]. CI engine generally exhibit maximum power output
at lower levels of fuel intake within the usage of off – road vehicles such as trucks and considered to be
advantageous. Compression Ratio (CR) and the injection timing of the fuel leverages a great impact in
the combustion process of the CI engine which operates with MahindraSupro CRDI (Common Rai
Direct Injection) engine. In the stage of planning the design of injection parameters are to be estimated.
During the process it is hard to modify the plan criterion. However, the functional constraints can be
altered with minimal effort [6]. In the latest industrial sector, the CI engine is the key driver of the
society. Rise in transportation ease is the key factor for today’s high living standard. However, the
combustion process in the CI engines is restrained by the injection timing of the fuel into particular
cylinders. After all, the combustion process is controlled by the air availability and the pre – injection
of the fuel.As the fuel is considered to be pre – injected the temperature and pressure variation is
estimated that of the Mahindra Supro CRDi engine. The possible load is altered by regulating the fuel
that is injected into the combustion chamber. However, in comparison with SI (Spark Ignition) engine,
as the premixed air fuel mixture is readily available, which is stoichiometric in nature and due to throttle
results in pumping losses and minimizes the efficiency. Therefore, the SI engine exhibit lower
efficiency compared to CI engine at partial loads. Knock restricts the compression ratio in SI engines
within the range of 8 to 12 which results in less efficiency [5]. In case of, CI engines, combustion occurs
at maximum compression ratios ranging from 12 to 24 comparing to SI engines. Here, in the CI engines
the air and fuel mixture are auto ignited whereas in the SI engines the spark plug is utilized. Air is drawn
from the atmosphere and the fuel is pre-injected from the nozzle that occurs within the combustion
chamber and the fuel burns in complex manner and induces the droplet formation, collision, breakup
and evaporation thus by producing the heat. This heat is released into the environment. The rate of
combustion is effectively limited by theseprocesses.Additionally, the fuel injection is considered as the
important factor in the combustion process of the CI engine [7]. In this research, CFD CONVERGE is
utilized to simulate the CRDi diesel combustion and parameters of pressure variation, ignition delay,
heat release rate, combustion duration, mean temperature are estimated. Assessment of modelling and
experimental results provides the precise results. The objective of this research is to perform modelling
in CONVERGE and to investigate the combustion process.
2. Literature survey
Numerous researchers are carried out with various CFD codes and the methods to obtain the optimal
fuel injection and its outcome in the process of the combustion as per the fuel timing [8]. Moreover, the
injection timing has also great impact on the engine sector modelling for the simulation. Phase of the
combustion is well defined by the turbulence of the fuel injected and its rate of reaction [9]. The
combustion model in the CRDI engine applies a comparison between the experimental results and the
simulated results with the graph displayed a better outcome [10]. Colaco, has made a trial for simulating
the pressure enclosed in a diesel engine’s combustion chamber when the constraints, as well as the
proportion of diesel and bio-diesel blends, vary. The optimization of the diesel engine’s performance
was achieved through employing an increasing loads at steady state conditions, which is used in
combination with the hybrid optimization algorithm. The released heat from the heat combustion of the
fuel is utilized to estimate the evolution of temperature and pressure [11]. Now-a-days, the researchers
are making the engine operations relative to the steady state conditions. In few cases of transportation
sector, the engine works under varying speeds and load conditions [12]. Estimating the engine
performance by many researchers based on steady state conditions. In 2009, Omran made suggestions
related to optimization by mathematical methods in such a way to introduce optimal control schemes
to explain about combustion in diesel engines. This research is based to overcome the numerous existing
methodologies to alter the functioning of the engine combustion relate to ignition delay, cylinder
pressure and temperature rise relative to the varying load conditions at constant speed [13]. Common
Rail Direct injection (CRDi) is proposed in the year 1978 by Bosch that to be utilized in diesel engine
for the fuel injection system. [14]. Injector in this system is equipped with stepped piston, the piston
helps in fuel injection into the cylinder at pressure in the range of 250 MPa to 850 MPa [15]. However,
this system is beneficial in terms of low noise combustion but the expenditure of this system is high. a
brand new fuel injection system is came into existence with the extension of electronic and high pressure
common rail fuel injector (about 1300 bar). Rinolf, rather used two way solenoid valve and controlled
the fuel injection electronically [16]. Schubiger made research and introduced the pressure of the fuel
in the range of 1600 bar to 1800 bar and developed heavy duty CRDi diesel fuel injector . A researcher
named Cheng, done few experiments to raise the air fuel mixing standards by improvising the pressure
of fuel injection to the pressure of above 1600 bar [17]. In 1995, Shimada extended his research on a
single cylinder combustion process is evaluated by injection of high pressure fuel into the cylinder. This
high pressure is obtained by the modifying the nozzle of the fuel injector and the injection rate as per
the varying load and constant speed conditions [18]. Different parameters of the engine combustion like
start of injection, end of injection, fuel injection pressure, start of combustion, end of combustion,
diameter of injection hole, and EGR are estimated with the help of artificial intelligence [19]. Ignition
delay is estimated by the various renowned researchers and the correlations were provided. Among
them Hardenberg and Hase model is more prevalent with least number of errors [20]. An empirical
formula, developed by Hardenberg and Hase for predicting the duration of the ignition delay period in
DI engines, has been shown to give good agreement with experimental data over a wide range of engine
conditions. This formula gives the ignition delay (in crank angle degrees) in terms of charge temperature
T (kelvins) and pressure p (bars) during the delay (taken as TC conditions) as in Equation 1.
 1 1 21.2 0.63
𝜏𝑖𝑑 (𝐶𝐴) = (0.36 + 0.22𝑆𝑝̅ 𝐸𝑥𝑝 [𝐸𝐴 ( ̃ − )( ) ……….(1)
𝑅𝑇 17,190 𝑝−12.4

where S, is the mean piston speed (meters per second) and R" is the universal gas constant (8.3143
J/mol- K). E, (joules per mole) is the apparent activation energy, and is given by Equation 2.
618840
𝐸𝐴 = 𝐶𝑁+25
…………(2)

where CN is the fuel cetane number. The apparent activation energy decrease with increasing fuel
cetane number. The delay in milliseconds is given by Equation 3.
𝜏𝑖𝑑 (𝐶𝐴)
𝜏𝑖𝑑 (𝑚𝑠) = 0.006𝑁
………(3)

3. Working conditions of engine

3.1 Test Engine: A four stroke twin cylinder CRDi engine is utilized as the test engine to record and
read the experimental results are recorded. Open ECU is used to control the high pressure common rail
fuel system and a intercooler helps in cooling the engine at high temperature. The experimental setup
is represented in figure 1. In - cylinder temperature, in - cylinder pressure and instantaneous heat release
rate along with the crank angle and load of 15 Nm, 20 Nm, 25 Nm and 30 Nm is estimated with the in-
depth analysis results obtained from the CONVERGE software. Eddy current dynamometer is made
attached to the engine to vary the load on the engine as per the requirement with the help of the
dynamometer controller.

Figure 1: Experimental setup

3.2 Engine operating parameters

The initial condition of the operating is to vary the load (15 Nm, 20 Nm, 25 Nm and 30 Nm) and at
constant speed (2200 RPM). The diesel fuel is injected in to the cylinder at injection pressure of 700
bar with seven nozzle orifice. The detailed engine operating parameters are provided in the Table 1.
Table 1. Engine specifications
Item Value
Cylinder bore (m) 0.083
Cylinder Stroke (m) 0.084
Connecting rod length (m) 0.1405
Compression Ratio 16.5
Initial swirl ratio 0.978
Number of nozzle orifices 7
Nozzle diameter (m) 0.000259
Spray cone angle (degree) 9
Speed (rpm) 2200
Injection Pressure (bar) 700

Additionally, engine combustion parameters relating to start of injection, end of injection, start of combustion
and end of combustion with respect to crank angle degrees are given in the Table 2.

Table 2. Engine operating conditions

Injection SOI (Start of EOI(End of SOC(Start of
Speed Load pressure Injection) Injection) Combustion)
EOC(End of
RPM Nm bar btdc atdc atdc Combustion)

`2200 15 700 4.74 2.52 8.45 26.42

2200 20 700 4.75 2.86 8.04 27.75

2200 25 700 4.75 3.24 7.61 28.9

2200 30 700 4.76 3.59 7.32 29.6

4. Engine modeling and simulation using CONVERGE

For the present analysis, cylinder under consideration has the fuel injector of seven holes,
because of this symmetry, a sector model has been considered with 51.42 - degree sector angle. The
sector model in CONVERGE window is shown below. The following sequence of operations has been
carried out:

• An axis symmetric CAD model with 51.42 - degree sector angle signifies that 7 - hole nozzle
has been used for the present analysis. Initially the “surface.dat” file is imported in
CONVERGE Studio. The Top, front and side (Right & Left) views of the surface .dat file is
shown below in the figure 2.
• Then in case set-up step, a set of initial and boundary conditions have been assigned to the
geometry using input files, which are written in ASCII format.
 • After assigning all these input and boundary conditions, these files were exported to a
specified folder and runs has been taken using CONVERGE solver.

Figure 2: Representation of engine in CONVERGE software.

5. Results & discussion

5.1 In – cylinder pressure variation

The pressure rise variation is due to availability of more time within premixed phase and largely
depends on fuel fraction burnt due to piston motion toward top center crank position. The fuel is injected
as a large number of smaller droplets, the high-pressure injection of fuel provides power and fuel
consumption benefits by creating higher ratio of surface area to volume. A varying load of 15 Nm, 20
Nm, 25Nm and 30 Nm the experimental values of 72.8 MPa, 74.65 MPa, 76.77 MPa and 78.87 MPa
and the simulated values of 72.50 MPa, 73.10 MPa, 72.11MPa and 78.19 MPa are recorded and the
graph variation is provided in the Figure 3a, Figure 3b, Figure 3c and Figure 3d respectively with in–
cylinder pressure variation with respect to crank angle.
The difference in range of value is due to ignoring the respective losses during engine simulation
during the combustion phase. As the load is increasing the pressure is also increasing; this relates to the
vaporization of the fuel during the combustion state and start of the combustion. The spray droplets of
the fuel allows enhanced vaporization within the surface of the fuel droplets and higher availability of
oxygen helps in cleaner and complete combustion. The fuel injection pressure is maintained at 700 bar
within the cylinder

Figure 3b: Effect of bTDC for pre – injection of 15 Nm.

Figure 3b: Effect of pressure at bTDC for pre – injection at 20 Nm

Figure 3c: Effect of pressure at bTDC for pre – injection at 25 Nm

Figure 3d: Effect of pressure at bTDC for pre – injection at 30 Nm

5.2 Ignition Delay

As the ignition delay is stated as the interval between the SOI (Start of Injection) to SOC (Start of
Combustion). Increased error ignition delay is observed at the early phase of fuel injection and relatively
more fuel is injected. As the ignition delay differed with 0.41 CA from 15 Nm to 20 Nm, this minor
change doesn’t affect the droplet formation, fuel evaporation, pre-flame reaction. This enables
prediction of delay period and location of ignition accurately. Hence, the complete combustion takes
place due to good atomization of fuel at high in – cylinder pressure, high temperature, high fuel injection
pressure and optimum fuel viscosity. Table 3, shows the ignition delay variation and the difference is
about 6.07 per cent from the load of 25 Nm, as the ignition delay is affected by the ignition
characteristics which govern the ignition of fuel throughout the combustion process.
The experimental values of the ignition delay as per the load conditions are 72.8 CA, 74.65 CA, 76.77
CA and 78.87 CA and the simulated values are 72.5 CA, 73.1 CA, 72.11 CA and 78.19 CA respectively
as shown in the Figure 4. Like the conventional diesel engine, ID kept on decreasing with increasing
load. As the ignition delay decreases during the start of injection phase at an angle of 4.74 degrees at
15Nm and 4.76 degrees ate 30 Nm load, the maximum error obtained is about 6.07 per cent.
 Ignition Delay
13.5
13
Ignition Delay (ºCA)

12.5
12
11.5
11
10.5
15 20 25 30
Load (Nm)

ID(Ignition Delay) Experimental Crank Angle(Degrees)

ID(Ignition Delay) Simulation Crank Angle(Degrees)

Figure 4: Ignition delay at loads of 15 Nm, 20Nm, 25Nm, 30Nm.

From Table 3, it is clear that at constant speed of the engine, at initial loading conditions of 15 Nm, the error
percentage recorded is 6.74 per cent, this states that the ignition delay is shorter due to high temperature cylinder
walls is about 1883 K and the start of injection is taking place at 4.74 crank angle degrees before top dead centre
(bTDC). As the load is increasing from 15 Nm to 30 Nm, ignition delay is smaller as the mean temperature and
as higher as 1974 K. It is known that as the load increases the temperature increases in the cylinder and this results
in decrease of ignition delay, assisting in complete combustion of the fuel.

Table3 : Ignition delay parameters at load of 15 Nm, 20 Nm, 25 Nm and 30 Nm

Ignition delay Ignition delay
Sl. No Speed Load Experimental Simulation Error
Crank Angle
rpm N-m Crank Angle Degrees Degrees %
1 2200 15 13.19 12.30 6.747536
2 2200 20 12.79 11.86 7.271305
3 2200 25 12.36 11.56 6.472492
4 2200 30 12.08 11.49 4.884106

5.3 Heat release rate

In the injection stage, heat release is formed in instantaneous heat release and integrated heat release is
formed. The experimental values for the load variation of 15 Nm, 20Nm, 25Nm and 30 Nm are 110 J /
CA, 125 J/CA, 119 J/CA and 122 J / CA. The effect of the heat release rate is shown in the Figure 5a,
Figure 5b, Figure 5c and Figure 5b. As the fuel evaporation takes place, the heat release rate decreases
from the start of injection to start of combustion. At the 30 Nm load condition, high heat release rate is
observed due to premixed combustion is related to the ignition delay during the combustion process, at
which, the fuel is being prepared for the combustion. The heat release is related to the proper mixing of
air and fuel before expansion stroke which occurs at 0.001 second. Heat release rate directly relates to
the combustion duration and mass of the fuel burnt during the combustion phase. Here in this
experiment the mass of the fuel burnt for 15 Nm is about 23.70 mg/cyl, for 20 Nm it is 27.09 mg/cyl,
for 25 Nm the fuel burnt is 29.97 mg/cyl and at load 30 Nm more amount of fuel is burnt that is about
33.13 mg/cyl. This raise in fuel mass burnt replicates the combustion process and more amount of fuel
is burnt in order to achieve complete combustion.
The fuel burnt and the heat released are based on the amount of fuel injected and the amount of fuel
burnt during engine cycle of combustion process by considering the amount of air. The characteristics
of heat released are completely based on the combustion duration of the before the timing of exhaust
valve open and the amount of heat is released during the 90 per cent of the fuel burnt. After determining
the quantity of the fuel dose burned during one working cycle and the quantity of the working medium
executing this cycle, as well as the excess air ratio, the characteristics of the relative released heat
quantity.

Figure 5a: Effect of heat release rate for 15 Nm.

Figure 5b: Effect of heat release rate for 20 Nm.

Figure 5c: Effect of heat release rate for 25 Nm

Figure 5d: Effect of heat release rate for 30 Nm.

5.4 Combustion duration

Combustion duration is estimated as the interval of heat release rate and the maximum of rate of pressure
rise. The heat release is considered from the start of combustion at 8.45 crank angle degree after TDC.
Combustion duration can be defined when 90 per cent of the fuel gets burnt. For the load values of 15
Nm, 20 Nm, 25 Nm and 30 Nm, the respective experimental values are 17.97 CA, 19.71 CA, 21.29 CA
and 22.28 CA and the simulated values for combustion duration by back end governing equations and
the engine geometry are 16.72 CA, 18.26 CA, 19.81 CA and 20.11 CA as shown in the Table 4. It is
clear that the combustion duration is more as the load is increasing due to the in–cylinder temperature
and in–cylinder pressure. These physical parameters and other fuel additives influence the combustion
duration. This helps in complete combustion and improves the efficiency. Figure 6 shows the variation
in the experimental and simulated values at different loads for combustion duration. Mass burn fraction
also effects the combustion duration with respect to crank angle with respect to the swirl motion of the
fuel inside the cylinder. By contrast there is a rise of 7.35 per cent when the load is at 20 Nm.

Figure 6: Combustion duration at loads of 15Nm, 20 Nm, 25 Nm and 30Nm.

Table 4: Combustion duration for the load of 15Nm, 20Nm, 25Nm and 30Nm.
Combustion
Combustion duration duration
Sl .No Speed Load Experimental Simulation Error
Crank Angle
rpm N-m Crank Angle Degrees Degrees %
1 2200 15 17.97 16.72 6.956038
2 2200 20 19.71 18.26 7.356672
3 2200 25 21.29 19.81 6.95162
4 2200 30 22.28 20.11 9.739677
5.5 Mean temperature
The mean temperature is the cylinder temperature during the fuel injection into the cylinder. The fuel
is injected at 7.840 crank angle and the effect of temperature is shown in the Figure 7a, Figure 7b, Figure
7C and Figure 7bd respectively for varying load 15 Nm, 20 Nm, 25 Nm and 30 Nm. 1833 K, 1884 K,
1916 K and 1974 K temperature is observed respectively for the varying load conditions. As the load
increases the temperature increases in cylinder the fuel injection timing also results in the rise of the
temperature. The maximum HRR described by the maximum rate of fuel burning of around 60% occurs
at 18.26° aTDC for diesel. At compression ratio of 16.50 It is clear that the mean temperature factor
depends on the in cylinder pressure and heat release rate.
At uncontrolled premixed combustion stage, due to advance in timing of fuel injection, low temperature
and pressure are observed in the cylinder walls. As the load increases gradually at constant speed,
controlled combustion is achieved and results to maximum pressure and high temperature. The HRR
increased due to the occurrence of combustion after TDC during expansion stroke.

Figure 7a: Effect of mean temperature at 15Nm.

Figure 7b: Effect of mean temperature at 20Nm

Figure 7c: Effect of mean temperature at 25Nm

Figure 7d: Effect of mean temperature at 30Nm.

6. Conclusion
However, due to injection of the fuel at 7.840 bTDC, it is evident that homogenous mixture formation
is beneficial and efficient combustion takes place in the CRDi engine. The following statements are
made for the combustion process of the CRDi engine. This research is focused on the combustion
process and to provide the best result. Due to injection, there is an increase in values of peak temperature
and pressure and shift towards TDC. Due to injection of the fuel into the combustion chamber, efficient
combustion takes place as the air - fuel mixture will burn completely in the cylinder.

• The in – cylinder pressure is varying as the load is increasing due to high pressure and
temperature condition. At the load of 15 Nm, 20 Nm, 25 Nm and 30 Nm, 72.8, 74.65, 76.77
and 78.87 MPa pressure is created for the complete combustion of fuel injected. 4.8 per cent
of variation is achieved from the simulated and experimental values.
• Ignition delay is maximum at the 15 Nm load condition and minimal at 30 Nm load condition.
The delay increases the mass of the fuel injected also increases. The recorded percentage
variation is about 6.07 per cent from the experimental and simulated results. This helps in
complete combustion at minimal fuel injection.
• At the given load conditions, the simulated heat release rate is higher at 15 Nm load (about
110 J / CA) than of 30 Nm load condition (about 122 J / CA). Hence, complete combustion of
the fuel injected is taking place.
• Combustion duration is quite increasing as the load condition is increasing enhancing in
complete combustion with proper injection of fuel during the rise of heat release rate and the
maximum pressure rise. Hence, the recorded percentage variation is 6.95 per cent.
• The mean temperature kept on increasing as the load is increasing from 1833 K to 1974 K,
this may result in generation of the higher temperatures of the cylinder due to injection of the
fuel at maximum pressure rise and related to the injection timing as per the crank angle.

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