!

\/"
382 Practical Physics for Degree Students 383

The shunt protects the galvanometer from damage by allowing Hence by simply measuring Rr, G can be found out.
the large proportion of the maln current to flow through it, Apparatus : Suspended coil galvanometer, shunt box S'
thereby reducing the current through the galvanometer. resistance R and R1, commutator K, cell E' connecting
5. What wtLL be the chonge tn the galuanometer d.eJlecdon Jor a w'ires.
change tn the shunt resistance? Description of the apParatus :
The galvanometer deflecilon wlll increase with the lncrease of i. Galvanometer: Art. 7.3
shunt resistance and wlll decrease wlth decrease of shunt ii. Commutator : Art. 7.1
resistance. Procedure : (i) Make connection as shown in Fi$. 7.36.
6. What should be the galuanometer d.eJlectton tn thts expertment Bring one sharp edge of the spot of light at the zero mark of
and.whg? the scale.
The current is proportional to the deflecilon when the latter ls (ii) Insert a resistance (R) of the order of 1OOO ohms in
smail. This happens when the deflection is round about lO cm. the battery circuit. Make Rt = o by putting all the plugs in
7. What uttll be the resistance oJ a shunted. galuaram.eter? the box. Begining with the smallest value (S = 0.1 ohm) of
Even less than the resistance of the shunt applied.
/ the shunt resistance S, go on increasing S until you obtain a
/' deflection of about lO cm on the scale. Note this deflection.
- y*er. sB. To DETERMTNE TrrE REsrsrAIrcE orA (iii) Keeping the resistance R
-cAlvanroMETER By ITALF.-DEFLECTIoN METHoD. constant, adjust the value of the
resistance R1 until the deflection
Theory : In the arrangement shown in Fig. 2.86 if the is reduced to half of the former.
shunt resistance S is very small compared to the Record this value of R1 which is
galvanometer resistance G, then the potential difference (V) the value of the galvanometer
between the ends of the shunt resistance S remains nearly resistance G.
constant for all values of R1. (iv) Stop the current in the
Thus when Rr= O, then the galvanometer current Co is
\/ -- l> circuit and examine if the same
given by
G= kd... ... ... (l) sharp edge of the spot of light is
where d is the deflection of the spot of light on the scale still at zero of the scale. If not,
and k is lhe galvanometer constant. If now a resistance Ry is adjust the scale to bring it to
introduced in the galvanometer circuit such that the zero. Make the value of R1 zero
deflection reduces to
and keep R the same. Now
$, reverse the current with the
then c'g =
Cft = t$... ... tzt commutator K. Repeat the whole
operation to get another value of E
where C'g is the new galvanometer current in the G Fig. 7.36
changed circumstances.
(v) Keeping the value of the rsistance R the same, change
Dividing (1) by (2), we get
the value of the shunt reesistance S to obtain a different
G+Rr deflection of round about lO cm and similarly determine the
-G= = 2, or G+R1 - 2G value of G.
(vi) Repeat the operation three times with different value
or G = Rt... (3)
of R in the battery circuit and two values of S for each R.

i
)
 !
384 Practical Physics / s85
for Degree Students

Results : In the following table R is the resistance in the 3. Is the methcx1 apptlcable Jor gat"anonets ang teslstance?
oJ
battery circuit and R1 is the resistance in the galvanometer The method ts appllcable for galvanometer of high resistance
circuit and G is the galvanometer resistance to be
only. In case of a low reslstance galvanometer' the shunt
determined. Numerica| oalues are onlg examples.
resistance becomes comparable and the method fdls'
No. Resistance Shunt Resistance Lrenec- tr=Kl MCANU
of Cunenls R in ohms resistance R1 in tions ohms h 4. Hou: do you jnd" the reslstonre oJ a gabatwneter' uthen the {|/
ohs S in ohms ohms ohms
reslstonce Is uetY low?
l)uect I(ruU U.I o lu.0
80 5.3 80 In the case of galvanometer of low reslstance' tt ls best to
I Reverse U lo.4 81 clamp the coll and to find lts resistanee by a rretre brtdge or
8l 5.2
t il'ect 0.14 0 to.2 It0 P.O. Box
80 5.1 5. WILL a louo or hlgh reststance oJ a shunt?
gou preJer
Kevelse 0 lo.4
Theory shows that the method gives a correct value of the
2
79 5.2 79
Direct /)u 0..t 6 0 galvanometer resistance when the shunt ls very low' So a very
low resistance of the shunt ls preferred'
Reve$e U

EXPT. 59. TO DETERMINE A EIGE RESISTANCE BY TEE

erc.
METIIOD OT DETLECTION.
Discussions : {i) The series resistance R should never be
made equal to zero when the circuit is closed otherwise the Theory : In the arrangement of Fig-7-37, if the unknown
galvanometer will be damaged.
resistance X (of the order of not
(ii) For a steady deflection a storage battery should be less than loa ohms) is included in
used.
the battery circuit bY closing the
{iii) The position of the scale should be normal to the gap OB1 and if 51 be the value of
beam of light when no current flows through the the shunt resistzrnce S and d1 cm
galvanometer. be the deflection of the spot of
Oral Questions and their Answers.
light on the scale, then the
current C* flowing through the
galvanometer is given bY
1. V[hot is meant bg the term galttanometer reslstance? ESr
The resistance of a galvanometer ls the reslstance of the coll Cs = XS;ffiT,rc = kdr (l)
of wlre wound over a rectangular frame kept suspended where k is the constant of
between the pole pleces. proportionalitY.
2. Whg do Uou matnta;tn the deulatlon near about 1O qn?
If now the known resistance R is
introduced in the battery circuit
If thegalvanometer is not provtded wlth concave cyllndrlcal
by closing the gaP OB2 and if 52 be
pole pieces the current is not proportional to the deflectlon
the shunt resistance and d2 be the
and hence the deflection of the spot of light ls kept small' say
deflection {nearly equal to dr} of
near about lO cm. Even when the galvanometer ls provlded
the spot of light on the scale, then
with coneave pole pieces the current is proportlonal to tan0,
the galvanorneter current Cg is
where 0 ls the angle of rotalon of the coil ln radian and is given by
small. FtE-7-37
I

l
E3: Verification of Biot-Savart law and Tangent law

Theory:
The magnetic field at a point due to a current flowing through a wire is found to vary

i) directly with the strength of the current

ii) inversely as the perpendicular distance of the point from the wire
→
The relationship between the magnetic field B and the current i is given by

→ →

 B . dl =  io (1)

where o is the magnetic permeability in vacuum and is equal to 4  10-7 WbA-1m-1 and dl is
the smallest element of the wire. This is known as Ampere’s law. This law can be used to
calculate magnetic field only for the symmetry distribution of the current. However, to
→ →
compute B at any point due to arbitrary current distribution, the relation between B and i
becomes

 o i dl sin 
dB = (2)
4 r2 

where dB is the field due to the current element idl . This is called Biot-Savart law, where r
→ →
is the displacement vector from the element dl to a point and  is the angle between r and
→
dl .

→
Applying Biot-Savart law we can calculate B at a distance x from the center of the circular
loop of radius R carrying a current i as shown in Fig. 1.

R 


x P

Fig. 1: A circular loop of current. The current element idl

of the loop sets up a field dB at a point P on the.
axis of the loop
 →
The field dB can be resolved into two components: (i) dB ⊥ along the axis of the loop and (ii)
→ → →
dB11 at right angle to the axis. Only the dB11 contributes to the total induction B at the
→
observation point P (Fig. 1). This is because the component dB11 due to all the current
→
elements id l point in different directions perpendicular to the axis, and their resultant for the
complete loop is zero.

Page 1 of 7 Prepared by - Department of Physics, BUET

Updated on UG semester July-2022
Thus
→
B =  dB ll (3)
→
From Fig. 1 we have dB ll = dB cos
Putting the value of dB from equation (2), we have
→  i dl sin 
dB ll = o cos  (4)
4 r 2
Since  = /2
→  i cos 
dB ll = o dl (5)
4 r 2
From Fig. 1, we have
R R
r = R 2 + x 2 and cos =
r R2 + x2
Putting these values in equation (5), we obtain
→ i R
dB11 = o dl (6)
(
4 R 2 + x 2 3 / 2 )
From equation (3)
→ oi R
B =  dB ll =
4 (R 2 + x 2 )3 / 2 
dl   dl = 2R

or
oi R2
B=
2 (R 2
+ x2 )
3/ 2 (7)

If N is the number of loops in the coil then equation (7) becomes

 iN R2
B= o (8)
(
2 R2 + x2 3/ 2 )
at x = 0,
 N
B = o  i (9)
 2R 
 N
If K =  o  , then
 2R 
B=Ki (10)

If a magnetic compass needle is placed freely, it will align itself with the horizontal
→
component of the earth’s magnetic field, B e . If there are other magnetic fields around the
compass, its alignment will represent the result of multiple fields. When a compass needle is
→
placed in the magnetic field B , the needle will be deflected from the magnetic meridian to an
angle δ as shown in Fig. 2.

Page 2 of 7 Prepared by - Department of Physics, BUET

Updated on UG semester July-2022
At equilibrium, the deflecting and controlling couples are equal. Thus
→ →
mB NP = mBe  SP
→
where, m is pole strength and B e is the horizontal component of Earth magnetic field.

→
B SP
→
= = tan 
Be NP
→ →
B  tan  [ B || is constant at a particular place] (11)

B = M tan δ (12)
where, M is the proportional constant.

Using equation (10), the value of B can be evaluated for any particular current i, and the
corresponding deflection δ can be obtained from the compass. Thus, the tangent law can be
verified from the plot (i.e. straight line) of B versus tanδ.

Page 3 of 7 Prepared by - Department of Physics, BUET

Updated on UG semester July-2022
 Magnetic Field, B
Slope, M= B/tan

tan

Fig. 3: Magnetic field vs tanδ graph.

1 1
On the other hand, according to equation (8) B  . To prove B  , the magnetic needle will
x x
have to be placed at different distances x from the centre of the coil. For a particular position (x) of
the needle and for a particular current (i), the value of δ can be observed from the deflection of the
needle. But to obtain the value of B at different x, equation (12) can be used. For this, the only value
of M is required, as δ is known. From the plot of B vs tanδ graph, the slope M can be obtained. Hence
a different x values, the different B values can be obtained from equation (12). The plot of B vs x will
1
verify B  and hence the Biot-Savart law. The increase of B with the increase of current element
x
can be demonstrated by the increase of coil turns N.

Apparatus:
1. Multimeter
2. D.C. power supply
3. A current carrying coil attached in a table
4. Compass needle
5. Resistor

Procedure:

1. Arrange your apparatus as shown in Fig. 1.

2. Before connecting the power supply, place the compass on the table at the center of
the coil.
3. Rotate the compass until 0 and 180 align with 50 cm of the meter scale.
4. Rotate table until the compass needle points to North (0) on the scale (see Fig. 2).

Page 4 of 7 Prepared by - Department of Physics, BUET

Updated on UG semester July-2022
5. Before connecting the power supply, be sure the output regulator knobs in the power
supply are at extreme left. Do not change current knob during the experiment
time.
6. Set the multimeter at 10 amp range.
7. Switch on the power supply and adjust the current i, by using voltage knob (keep the
current knob at extreme left), at 0.02 amp (approx) and record the deflection δ of the
compass needle.
8. Measure δ for at least ten different currents in the circuit (multimeter) within the
range from 0 to 2 amp and voltage range from 0 to 15 volt. Do not exceed current
above 2 amp and voltage above 15 volts.
9. Using voltage knob, adjust the current i in the circuit (multimeter) for which the
deflection δ of the compass needle is to be about 70. Record δ at the center of the
coil.
10. Keeping current i and voltage V constant, move the compass from the center of the
coil along the line OB without rotating it, and measure δ for different distances x (say
at 10 different positions using 3 cm interval).
11. Repeat procedure 9 along the line OA.
12. Draw a graph, B along vertical axis and tanδ along horizontal axis where value of B is
calculated using equation (9) and tanδ from table 1. Find the slope M from this graph
(see Fig.3).
13. Draw a graph, B along vertical axis and x along horizontal axis for the data taken in
steps 9 and 10 (see Fig.4). Calculate B using equation (12) where value of M is
measured in step 12.

Variable D.C.
power supply

Data Collection:

Radius of the coil, R = (in meter)

Number of turns, N =

Page 5 of 7 Prepared by - Department of Physics, BUET

Updated on UG semester July-2022
 Table-1 Data for B and tanδ at center of the coil

No. Current i (A) Deflection, δ tanδ Magnetic field, B

Observations (degree) (Wbm-2)
1
2
3
..
..
9
10

Table-2 Data for B at various distances

No. Observations x (m) δ (degree) tanδ B=M tanδ

(Wbm-2)
Along OA
1
2
3
... ...
... ...
9
10
Along OB
1
2
3
... ...
... ...
9
10

Results:
1. Plot of B versus tanδ verifies the Tangent law.
2. Plot of B versus x verifies the Biot-Savart law.

Page 6 of 7 Prepared by - Department of Physics, BUET

Updated on UG semester July-2022
 12
B vs x

10

Magnetic Field, B (Wbm-1)

8

0
30 24 18 12 6 0 6 12 18 24 30
Distance along OB (cm) Distance along OA(cm)

Fig. 4: Magnetic field B vs distance x graph

Discussion:

Page 7 of 7 Prepared by - Department of Physics, BUET

Updated on UG semester July-2022
M1: Determination of the threshold frequency for the material of a photocathode and
hence find the value of the Planck’s constant

The experiment is based on the phenomenon of photoelectric effect.

Photoelectric effect

When light or any other electromagnetic radiation of suitable wavelength (or frequency) falls
on metal surfaces, electrons are ejected from these metals. This phenomenon is called
photoelectric effect. Although electrons emitted in this process are not different from
ordinary electrons, they are usually referred to as photoelectrons.

From experimental studies the following characteristics of photoelectric effect were

established.

i. Photoelectric current is directly proportional to the intensity of radiation.

ii. For every metal there is a limiting or critical value of the frequency of the incident
radiation, below which no photoelectrons are emitted. This limiting frequency is called
the threshold frequency whose value depends on the nature of the material irradiated, i.e.
different for different materials.

iii. The stopping potential is independent of the intensity of the incident radiation but is
directly proportional to the frequency of the radiation. The stopping potential is defined
as that value of the retarding potential difference between the two electrodes with the
photocathode positive, which is just sufficient to halt the most energetic photoelectrons
emitted i.e., to reduce the photoelectric current to zero.

Theory

Einstein's photoelectric equation

Einstein explained the photoelectric effect based on Planck’s quantum theory of light.
According to quantum theory, light consists of energy quanta

E = h ... .... (1)

where  is the frequency of the light and h is the Planck's constant. These quanta are known
as photons. Thus, according to Einstein, radiation is regarded as a shower of photons each of
energy h moving in space with the speed of light. When a single photon is incident on a
metal surface, it is completely absorbed by atom. The energy is subsequently imparted to one
of the electrons of the atom. This energy is utilized for two purposes;

(1) Partly for getting the electron free from the atom. This energy is known as photoelectric
work function of the metal and is represented by  = ho or Wo.
(2) The balance of the photon energy is used by the free electron to gain a Kinetic energy of
½mv2, where m is the mass of electron and v is the velocity of electron.

Einstein expressed this assumption in his photoelectric equation as

Page 1 of 4 Prepared by - Department of Physics, BUET

Set up no. 1 (UG lab – 1)
Updated on UG semester July-2022
 h =  + ½mv2 ... .... (2)
Where,
h = energy of the incident photon
 = work function of the photocathode material
½mv2 = maximum kinetic energy of the emitted electrons.

Now, if 0 is the threshold frequency for the material of the photocathode, then it can be
shown that  = ho. And, if Vs is the stopping potential for the frequency  of the incident
radiation, then the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted photoelectrons is

½mv2 = e.Vs .... .... (3)

where, “e” is electronic charge.

So, hv = h0 + eVs

or, Vs = (h/e)  -(h/e)0 .... .... (4)

Fig. 1 Experimental arrangement for the photoelectric effect

Apparatus
Photocell:

The photocell consists of a photo-metal as the cathode (Photocathode) and another electrode
as anode enclosed in a evacuated glass bulb. When light is allowed to fall on the
photocathode, electrons are emitted by the photocathode. These are drawn towards the
positively charged anode. This flow of electrons from cathode to anode constitutes what is
known as photoelectric current which can be measured by an ammeter.

Procedure:
1. (a) Before connecting the power switch, turn off both the power switch and the sensitivity
select switch.
(b) Turn the anode voltage adjusting dial and the light adjusting dial to the extreme left
position.

Page 2 of 4 Prepared by - Department of Physics, BUET

Set up no. 1 (UG lab – 1)
Updated on UG semester July-2022
 (c) Insert light shielding plate in the filter inlet.
2. Now connect the power cord with main source and then turn on power switch.
3. Set the Inter./Exter. switch of the micro ammeter to "inter", the sensitivity select switch
to 0.1 or 1, and Meas./Calib, Switch "Meas". If the indicator of micro ammeter does not
point 0, at this time, adjust it to 0 by using the zero-adjusting dial.
4. As the next stage, change the meas./calib, switch to calib', if the indicator of the micro
ammeter pointer does not read 100, adjust it to 100 by turning gain the adjusting dial.
5. Set the 'Meas’. ‘Calib.’ ‘Switch to Meas’ again.
6. Replace the light shielding plate with a filter and keep the intensity of the bulb in its
lowest position.
7. When the micro ammeter is actuated after setting the light adjusting dial to ON to light
the lamp, the photo current can be measured. By turning the anode voltage adjusting
dial to the right, you will get a stopping voltage when the current in the ammeter
becomes zero.
8. Now repeat the above procedure for higher intensities. Thus, you get stopping voltages
for different intensities.
9. Now change the filter and repeat the above procedure described in 7 & 8.
10. Before turning off the apparatus, keep the intensity knob in its lowest intensity position.
11. Draw a curve taking the frequency of the radiation in the X-axis and the stopping
potential in the Y-axis. The resulting curve will be a straight line (Fig.2). When the
straight line is produced backwards, the intercept with the X-axis gives the value of the
threshold frequency o. Now from equation 4, you have,

Vs V m
h=e =e s =e (5)
 − o  n

where m and n are the values to be taken from Fig. 2 as shown. Knowing the value of
electronic charge, e, Plank's constant, h, can be calculated.

Fig. 2
Page 3 of 4 Prepared by - Department of Physics, BUET
Set up no. 1 (UG lab – 1)
Updated on UG semester July-2022
 Table: Data for the determination of threshold frequency and Plank's constant

Average Threshold
Wavelength Photo Stopping
Intensity of Name of Frequency, stopping Frequency,
of the filter current potential
the light the filter ν (Hz) potential νo (Hz)
λ (Å) I (mA) Vs (V)
Vs (V) (From graph)
I1
I2
L-39 4046.56
I3
I4
I1
I2
L-44 4347.5
I3
I4
I1
I2
L-54 5460.74
I3
I4
I1
I2
L-58 5769.59
I3
I4

Calculations:

The intercept with the x-axis =

Slope from graph =

Vs V m
h=e =e s =e =
 − o  n

Results:
The threshold frequency for the material of the photocathode is ……………

Planck’s constant is ………………….

Error analysis:

Discussion:

Precautions

[a] Handle the filters very carefully.

[b] Your have three different intensities of the light, start the experiment from the lowest
intensity of the light.
Page 4 of 4 Prepared by - Department of Physics, BUET
Set up no. 1 (UG lab – 1)
Updated on UG semester July-2022
VL-M3: DETERMINATION OF THE LATTICE CONSTANTS OF NaCl
CRYSTAL BY AN X-RAY DIFFRACTION SIMULATOR

Objectives:
➢ To understand the Bragg’s law.
➢ To determine the crystal structure of NaCl by using X-ray diffraction.

System requirements:

Computer (Desktop/Laptop), Operating systems: Windows, Bragg Diffraction_vle (zipped)

file.

Advise:

Students are advised to follow the procedures written in this manual very strictly while
performing the experiment. Do not try to explore anything else in the experiment.

Theory:

When X-rays encounter a crystalline material, they are diffracted by the plane of atoms or ions
(Bragg plane) within the crystal.
Consider the parallels planes of atoms in the Fig.1 from which X-rays are diffracted. The waves
may be reflected from the surface atom H or H . However, X-rays are reflected not only from
the surface plane, but also from the adjacent subsurface plane e.g., H. If these diffracted rays
are to remain in phase and be coherent, the distance MHP is the path difference between these
two diffracted waves, must be equal to integer multiples of the incident wavelength, , of X-
rays.

Page 1 of 8 Prepared by - Department of Physics, BUET

Updated in UG Semester January-2023
 Fig. 1: MHP is the path difference between the two diffracted rays from the two parallel
planes of the crystal.

From the Fig. 1, the path difference is

Fig. 2: Schematic diagram of the

NaCl crystal structure.

MH P = MH  + PH 
= d sin  + d sin  = 2d sin 
Where,  is the glancing angle and d is the interplanar distance between the planes.

For constructive interference,

2d sin = n……………….(1)

Fig. 2 shows a typical unit cell of NaCl crystal. Sodium Chloride is an fcc crystal structure.
The basis is two ions, a sodium cation and a chlorine anion. The lattice planes run parallel to
the surface of the crystal’s unit cells. The interplanar spacing corresponds to one half of the
lattice constant, a, i.e.
a
d= ………………….….(2)
2
Substituting value of d in Eq. 1, the Bragg’s condition becomes,

a
2( ) sin  = n
2
 a sin  = n
n
a= ………………….….(3)
sin 

From, Eq. 3 the lattice constant can be determined.

Page 2 of 8 Prepared by - Department of Physics, BUET

Updated in UG Semester January-2023
Fig. 3: Schematic diagram of diffraction of X-rays from a crystal coupling between counter-
tube (detector) and incident X-rays. 1 Collimator, 2 Crystal, 3 counter tube.

Fig. 3 shows the schematic diagram of diffraction of X-rays from a crystal, 2 coupling
between counter tube angle and glancing angle. This method is more precise when the glancing
angles are measured in higher diffraction order.

Procedures:
1. At first unzip “Bragg Diffraction_vle (zipped)” File. Click on the executable file “Bragg
Diffraction_vle then a window will open as shown in Fig. 4.
2. You can vary the wavelength of the X-rays using the Knob 1 on the left, the lattice spacing
using Knob 2 in the middle, amplitude of X-ray using Knob 3, and the glancing angle of
X-rays using Knob 4 on the right.

Page 3 of 8 Prepared by - Department of Physics, BUET

Updated in UG Semester January-2023
 Fig. 4: Photograph of the simulated experimental set up.
3. Set the wavelength of the X-ray as 1.54 Å, lattice spacing as 2.81 Å. Set desirable amplitude
of X-ray using Knob 3.
4. Press ‘Show Machine’ button, you will see the typical X-ray diffractomer as shown in Fig.
5.

Fig. 5: X-Ray diffractometer.

Page 4 of 8 Prepared by - Department of Physics, BUET

Updated in UG Semester January-2023
5. Press ‘Automatic scan’ button to scan through the range automatically, you will see an X-
ray diffraction pattern (Intensity versus 2 plot) as shown in Fig. 6.

Fig. 6: The intensity of diffracted X-rays versus 2.

6. Construct a data Table (as shown in Table 1) of Intensity of diffracted X-rays versus 2,
and take data at least 3 interval, however around the peak interval should be 0.2. To get
the experimental data from the graph, right click on the graph and select ‘show’ and then
the ‘cursor display’ option. It will display two cursors (as shown in Fig.6). If they are
locked, unlock any cursor by clicking on the locked button and you will see two cursor
pointers (two yellow lines) along X- and Y-axes. Drag the cursor pointers to select data
points from the graph.

7. Draw the Intensity versus 2 graph, you will see three diffraction peaks, which satisfy
Bragg’s conditions (n = 1, 2, 3).

8. Construct another Table (Table 2) to obtain 2 values for corresponding Bragg’s

conditions. and calculate the corresponding n values.

9. Plot n vs sin, which will be a straight line passing through origin as shown in Fig. 8. The
slope of the line will give the lattice constant of the NaCl crystal (Eq. 3).

Page 5 of 8 Prepared by - Department of Physics, BUET

Updated in UG Semester January-2023
Data Collections:
Wavelength of the characteristics X-ray radiation,  = 1.54 Å = 1.54 10−10 m

Table 1: The intensity of diffracted X-rays versus 2 data.

Intensity of Intensity of
2 2
Sl. diffracted X-rays Sl. diffracted X-rays
(deg) (deg)
(arb. unit) (arb. unit)
1 16
2 17
3 18
4 19
5 20
6 21
7 22
8 23
9 24
10 25
11 .
12 .
13 .
14 .
15 .

Calculations:

Draw a graph of intensity of diffracted X-rays versus 2 data as shown below.

Page 6 of 8 Prepared by - Department of Physics, BUET

Updated in UG Semester January-2023
 Fig. 7: Intensity of diffracted X-rays versus 2 data.

Table 2: Data for sin and n

2 sin Diffraction order (n) n (m)

Fig. 8: Plot n vs sin

Result: The value of the lattice constant of NaCl crystal using an X-ray diffractometer
is…….m

Error analysis:

Page 7 of 8 Prepared by - Department of Physics, BUET

Updated in UG Semester January-2023
Discussion:

Based on your understanding from this experiment, answer the following questions:

1. What is a unit cell? Discuss the lattice parameters of a unit cell.

2. Briefly discuss about crystal planes and Miller indices.
3. If you decrease wavelength (< 1.5 Å) of the X-rays, what will happen to the Bragg angle
for a particular crystal plane?
4. If you increase the interplanar distance (> 2.81 Å) of the crystal keeping the wavelength
of X-rays fixed, what will happen to the Bragg angle?
5. Can you perform this experiment using visible light, justify your answer?

Page 8 of 8 Prepared by - Department of Physics, BUET

Updated in UG Semester January-2023
 ''l

450 451
Practical Physics for Degree Students

EXPT. 73. TO DETERMINE THE TEMPERATURE CO. mica frame and immerse it in a glass tube G containing oil'
EFFICIENT OT TIIE RESISTANCE OF. THE UAtENrEr, Or. A close the glass tutle with a cork and throush a hole in it,
WIRE. inserL a thermometer. Insert the tube with its contents
inside a hypsometer through an opening in the cork at its
Theory : The temperature co-efficient of the resistance top. ,,,,,
of the material of a wire may be defined as the change in (ii) Make connection as shown in Fig. 7'55' Join the coil
resistance per unit resistance per degree rise in R of which the temperature co:efficient is to be determined
temperature. to the gaP Gr of the metre bridge through two connecting
If R2 and R, are the resistances of a coil at temperatures wires. Join a resistance box S in the gaP Gz' Connect the
t2'C and t1'C respectively, then battery E (usually a Leclanche's cell) to binding screw A and
Rz = Rt(l+at) B of the metre briCge through the commutator- K-and a
where o is the mean temperature co-efficient between variable resistance Rh. Join the two terriiinals Qf a
the temperature t2 and t1 and t = t2-tr galvanometer to the binding screw at O and the jockey J'
-ffi
.'. cf, =
Rc-Rr
...
per'C ... (t) connect a resistance box and a plug key in parallel to the
galvanometer.
Measuring Rr,Rz, t1 and t2, d. ma! be determined. (iii) After ;naking connection as described in operation
Apparatus : Resistance wire, metre bridge, cell, rheostat, (ii) take out suitable resistance from the box S and find the
commutator, galvanometer, hypsometer, etc. balance point, both for direct and for reverse currents' The
Procedure: (i) Take a coil of wire wound non inductively on a resistance in S should be so chosen that the null point lies at
the central region of the metre bridge wire. Record the
room-temperature t1"C from the thermometer' Repeat the
operations three times with three different values of the box
resistance. Interchange the position of the resistance coil
and resistance box in the gaps G2 and G1 and for the same
set of values of the resistance box repeat the operations as
A O -B before.
(iv) Boil some waterin the hypsometer and go on noting
the temperature of the resistance coil. When the
thermometer reading shows a steady maximum value -tz"Q'
find out the null point. Interchange the positions of the
resistance coil and resistance box and determine the null
point again. In each case take three readings for three
different values of the resistance in the box s. As before, the
balance point should lie in the central region of the bridge
wire.
(v) Calculate the resistance at the two temperatures and
find the mean values. Then calculate ofrom relation (l)'
Fig.7. 55

I
 r"
452 Practical Physics for Degree Students 453

Results: (iv) For most pure metals , resistance increases with

(A) Readings..for R1 and. R2 at temperature t;....C temperature but for certain alloys such as manganin and l

tz =..."C
constantan, there is no change in resistance with the
Resistance in Null points with Mean
changes of temperature within a cerLain range. Fo,r carbon,
No null Unknown Mean resistance decreases with temperature and hence-T-is
T"rnp. d Left gap Right Direu Reverse pornt resistance re.sistance negative. o is also negative for most insulators and
obs. ohnr gap current current cm ohnr ohm electrolytes.
ohm cfll cln
trt I Rl Sq (known) Oral Questlons and their Answers
2

3 l. Vt/hat is temperature co-efflctent oJ reststance and urhat ls tts

4 SI R1 untt?
5 It ts the increase in reslstance per unit resistance per degree
6 rise in temperature. Its untt is ohm per 'C.
t'zc I S 2(known R2
=R , Whg does the reststarlce oJ metals change wlth temperafire?
2
Conduction ln metals ls due to the dlrecttve movement of the
3 R2
free electrons under a potenttal difference. When the
temperature rises, the random motlon of the electrons
4 S,
lncreases and thelr dlrectlve motlon decreases which
5
-R2 decreases the current strength Le., lncreases the resistance.
6
3. Do goukrww oJ ong substance whose reststanrce decreoses wtth
temperature?
Rc- R, See dlscussion (tv).
c[ = ... ... per"C=
4. Is the temperature co-efflclent Jor metal ts the same Jor all
=lt-t= tz-tt
where temperatures?
Discussions : (i) Care should be taken that the No. Its value is different at dtfferent temperatures and hence a
hypsometer and the burner do not heat any other electrical mean temperature co-efflcient ls taken wlthln a range.
accessories of the experiment. 5. V[hat is the most tmportant appltcatton oJ the uartatton oJ
(ii) While making preliminary adjustment the shunt for reststance wtth temperature?
the galvanometer should be used. Final adjustments for the Variatlon of resistance of platlnum wtth temperature ls uilllsed
null points should be made without the shunt. in measuring the temperature within a long range.
(iii) Thermometer reading should remain steady for at b. V7hat ts the best arr@ngefllent Jor measurlng the reslstance oJ a
wtre at dttferent temperatures?
least five minutes before readings for balanc. poi.rt ur"
Callender and Grlfflths brldge ls the best arrangement to
taken. The correct expression is R1=Ro(t+ot+Bt2) where R1
measure the resistance of a glven wlre at various temperatures.
and Ro are resistances at t"c and o'c respectively. For small 7. Whg should tte utre be wound non-tnductluelg?
ranges of temperature (say not exceeding IOO"C), is To avoid the effect of lnduced current.
negligibly small so that the resistance is practicallyFthe 8. Whg da aou use alloys srrch as mangantn and anstantanJor the
linear function of the temperature and eqn. ( l) is consfrucf[on oJ standard reslstances'?
approximately correct. For these alloys, there ls no change ln resistance wlth the
change of temperature wlthin a certaln range.
Name of the Experiment: Determination of dielectric constant of materials using
parallel plate capacitor.
Theory
The electric flux through a closed surface area in vacuum is given by Gauss’s law of
electrostatics:
̅ 𝑑𝐴̅ = 𝑄
∯ 𝐸. (1)
𝑠 𝜀0
Where 𝐸̅ is the electric field intensity, Q is the charge enclosed by the closed surface A, 0 is
the permittivity constant in free space and s is a closed surface area.
If a voltage Vc is applied between two capacitor plates as shown in fig. 1, an electric field 𝐸̅
2
will prevail between the plates defined by: 𝑉𝑐 = ∫1 𝐸̅ . 𝑑𝑟̅ = E.d

If E is constant Eq. (1) gives

𝑄 1
= 𝐸. 𝐴 = 𝑉𝐶 . 𝐴. 𝑑 (2)
𝜀0
The charge Q of the capacitor in terms of the capacitance of the capacitor is given by
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 (3)
Where the capacitance C of the capacitor is given as
𝐴
𝐶 = 𝜀0 𝑑 (4)
Thus, the dielectric constant is 0:
𝑑 𝑄
𝜀0 = 𝐴 . 𝑉 (5)
𝑐
Equations (3), (4) and (5) are valid only approximately for parallel field lines for a small and
constant distance between the plates.

Fig. 1: Electric field of a plate capacitor with Fig. 2: Generation of free charges in a dielectric
small distance between the plates, as through polarization of the molecules in the
compared to the diameter of the plates. electric field of a plate capacitor.
A dielectric material placed between the plates as shown in fig. 2 increases the capacitance of
the capacitor. With the dielectric material of dielectric constant  the voltage Vc will reduced
as
𝑉
𝑉𝑐 = 𝑣𝑎𝑐 (6)
𝜀
Hence the capacitance and charge of the capacitor becomes,
𝐶 = 𝜀. 𝐶𝑣𝑎𝑐 (7)
𝐴
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑉𝐶 = 𝜀. 𝜀0 . 𝑑 . 𝑉𝐶
𝑑 𝑄
𝜀=𝜀 . (8)
0 𝐴 𝑉 𝑜𝑢𝑡

Page 1 of 4 Prepared by - Department of Physics, BUET

Set up no. 1 (UG lab – 1) Updated on UG semester July-2022
For the same voltage, the amount of charge of the capacitor is significantly increased by the
dielectric. If the charges obtained with and without plastic (equations [3] and [8]) are divided
by each other.

Material and Apparatus

Plate capacitor (d 260 mm), Plastic plate (283×283 mm), Glass plates f. current conductors,
High-value resistor (10 M), Universal measuring amplifier, High voltage supply unit (0-10
kV), PEK capacitor/case (1/0.22 F), Voltmeter (0.3-300 VDC and 10-300 VAC), Green-
yellow connecting cord (100 mm), Red connecting cord (500 mm), Blue connecting cord (500
mm), Connecting cord (50 KV, 500 mm), Screened BNC cable (750 mm), BNC adapter socket
(4 mm plug), T type BNC connector, BNC-plug/socket adapter (4 mm)

Fig. 3: Measurement set-up: Dielectric constant of different materials.

Fig. 4: Wiring diagram

Experimental Setup (Connection)
1. Calculate the surface area of the capacitor plates by means of their radius (r =13cm).

2. According to figure 4, connect the positive terminal of the high voltage (upper connector)
with the high resistance (10 M ) key. Then connect the black connector with 10 M key.

3. Connect the middle connector (yellow wire) of the high voltage to the ground. Connect
ground of high voltage with the negative plate of capacitor.

4. Again, connect the 220nF capacitor to the measuring Amplifier (in left bottom knob).

5. Connect the output of the measuring Amplifier to a digital voltmeter using blue and red
connector.

6. Turn on the High voltage and measuring Amplifier and set the Voltmeter into 30 volts
range.

7. Keep the plate separation about 9mm.

Page 2 of 4 Prepared by - Department of Physics, BUET

Set up no. 1 (UG lab – 1) Updated on UG semester July-2022
Data Taking Procedure

8. Set the input voltage 2.5kV and distance between plates 9 mm

9. For charging the plate, connect another knob of the black connector with positive plate of
the capacitor and wait for 10 sec for then remove it. Please be aware that your hand or
fingers does not touch with metal knob of the connectors.

10. Now, connect the cable of 220nF to the positive plate of the capacitor for discharge and
take the reading from voltmeter and write on the table.

11. In each case, after taking the reading push the Toggle Switch (left arrow button) of the
measuring amplifier.

12. For Table 2, set the input voltage of the HV-power supply at 0.5 kV and plate distance
9mm.

13. Repeat the following procedure for 0.5, 1.5, 2.5, 3.5, and 4.5 kV and write data on Table
2.

14. Plot a graph for charge Q of a plate capacitor as a function of the inverse distance between the
capacitor plates d–1(Vc= 1.5 kV) (Take data for Table 1).

15. Again, plot a graph charge Q of a plate capacitor as a function of the applied voltage Vc,
between the plates (d = 0.98 cm) (take data from Table 2).

16. Calculate Q by following equation (3) for each case and plot in a graph and take a slope
for permittivity constant 0 of the air.

800

600
Charge, Q in nAs

400

200

0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Inverse of distance, d-1 in cm-1 Applied voltage, Vc in V

Fig.5: Electrostatic charge Q of a plate Fig. 6: Electrostatic charge Q of a plate capacitor as a function
capacitor as a function of d-1 cm-1 of the applied voltage Vc, with air between the plates (d = 9 mm)

Measurement results
Table 1: Measurement of the electric constant at various separation
Page 3 of 4 Prepared by - Department of Physics, BUET
Set up no. 1 (UG lab – 1) Updated on UG semester July-2022
 A = 0.0531 m2 Vc = 2.5kV C = 220 nF

d-1 Output voltage dropped

Distance Mean
in the opposite plate, Charge, Q
between Plates Voltage, Vout
Vout
[cm] [cm-1] [V] [V] [nAs]
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5

Table 2: Measurement of dielectric constant for Air

A = 0.0531 m2 d = 9 mm C = 220 nF

Applied Output voltage dropped Mean

Charge, Q Dielectric constant, 0
voltage, Vc in the opposite plate, Vout Voltage, V
[V] [V] [V] [nAs] [pAs/Vm]
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
4.5

Calculation:
Thus, the dielectric constant of air is 0:
𝑄
From the slope of graph 2, = …………..
𝑐𝑉
𝑑 𝑄
𝜀𝐴 = 𝐴 . 𝑉 = ………..
𝑐

Result: The dielectric constant of air is………….

Discussions:

Page 4 of 4 Prepared by - Department of Physics, BUET

Set up no. 1 (UG lab – 1) Updated on UG semester July-2022
M3: Verification of Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle using single slit
diffraction pattern.
Principle

The distribution of intensity in the Fraunhofer diffraction pattern of a slit is measured. The
results are evaluated both from the wave pattern view point, by comparison with Kirchhoff's
diffraction formula, and from the quantum mechanics standpoint to confirm Heisenberg's
uncertainty principle.

Benefits

 Quantum mechanical versus wave theory viewpoints are discussed observing light
transversing a slit.
 A measured diffraction pattern can be explained by quite different theories.
 The famous "uncertainty principle" can be confirmed in this setup.

Tasks

1. To measure the intensity distribution of the Fraunhofer diffraction pattern of a single slit
(e. g. 0.1 mm). The heights of the maxima and the positions of the maxima and minima
are calculated according to Kirchhoff’s diffraction formula and compared with the
measured values.
2. To calculate the uncertainty of momentum from the diffraction patterns of single slits of
differing widths and to confirm Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle.

Learning outcomes

 Diffraction
 Diffraction uncertainty
 Kirchhoff’s diffraction formula
 Measurement accuracy
 Uncertainty of location
 Uncertainty of momentum
 Wave-particle duality
 De Broglie relationship
Theory
Observations of light passing through narrow openings show that light spreads out behind the
opening and forms a distinct pattern on a distant screen. By scanning the pattern with a light
sensor and plotting light intensity versus distance, differences and similarities between
interference and diffraction are examined. Observation of diffraction intensity can be used in a
simple quantum mechanical treatment to confirm the Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle.

When diffraction of light occurs as it passes through a slit, the angle to the minima (dark spots)
in the diffraction pattern is given by

d sinα = nλ (n = 1,2,3, …) (1)

wheredis the slit width, α is the angle from the center of the pattern to the nth minimum, λ is the
wavelength of the light, and m′ is the order of diffraction (1 for the first minimum, 2 for the
second minimum, ...counting from the center out).
In Figure 1, the diffraction pattern is shown just below the computer intensity versus position
graph. The angle α is measured from the center of the single slit to the first minimum, so n= 1 for
the situation shown in the diagram.

Fig. 1: Fraunhofer diffraction from a single-Slit.(Sp= aperture or slit, S = screen).

Intensity in the diffraction pattern

Light intensity is proportional to the square intensity of the wave producing it (E2, whereE is the
amplitudeof the electric field intensity). By using the concepts of superposition of waves [1],we
obtain:

( ) = (0). , (2)

Where = (3)

The first intensity minima are at = according to Eq. 1.

Quantum mechanical interpretation
The Heisenberg uncertainty principle states that the simultaneous measurements of the
momentum and position (or theenergy and time) for a moving particle entails a limitation on the
precision (standarddeviation) of each measurement. Namely: the more precise the measurement
of position is the more imprecise the measurement of momentum, and vice versa. In themost
extreme case, absolute precision of one variable would entail absolute imprecisionregarding the
other.If we consider a bunch of photons characterized by position uncertainty Δy andmomentum
uncertainty Δp, we can express Heisenberg’s relation as:

Δy⋅Δp ≥ (4)

Where h = 6.6262 ×10−34 J.s is Planck’s constant.

For a bunch of photons passing through a slit of width d we have

Δy = d (5)

In order to estimate Δp, we assume that photons reaching the slit move only in thedirection
perpendicular to the slit (x-direction), but after passing through the slit, they willhave velocity
components in both directions (x and y). The probability density for the velocity component of
photon in the y direction, vy is given by the intensity distribution in the diffraction pattern.
Defining by α1 the angle of the first minimum of diffraction (Fig. 1), we can express
theuncertainty of velocity and momentum as:

Δvy = c sin α1, (where c is the speed of light) (6)

Fig. 2: Geometry of diffraction at a single slit. a) path covered and b) velocity component of a
photon.

The uncertainty of momentum is therefore

Δpy = m. c sin α1

wherem is the mass of the photon andc is the velocity of light. The momentum and wavelength

of a particle are linked through the de Broglie relationship:p= mc= . Thus

Δpy = sin α1 (7)

According to Eq. 1 the angle α1 of the first diffraction minimum is therefore

sinα1= λ/d (8)

If we substitute (8) in (7) and use (5) we obtain the uncertainty relationship

Δy.Δpy = h. (9)
If the slit width Δy = d is smaller, the first minimum of the diffraction pattern occurs at larger
angles α1 and we can obtain from the position of the first minimum (Fig. 2a) using the relation

tan α1 = . (10)

If we substitute (10) in (7) we obtain

Δpy = sin (tan -1 ) (11)

Substituting (5) and (11) in (9) and dividing both side by h we get

sin (tan -1 ) = 1 (12)

And therefore the uncertainty principle is verified.The results of the measurements confirm (12)
within the limits of error.

Figure 3: Experimental Setup

Apparatus:
 He-Ne Laser, 0.2/1.0 mW, 230 V AC, Wavelength, λ = 633 nm
 Optical bench, L = 1500 mm
 Base for optical bench, adjustable
 Slide mount for optical bench, h = 30 mm
 Diaphragm, 3 single slits
 Sliding device (horizontal)
 Photodetector with Amplifier
 Control unit for Photodetector
 Digital multimeter
 Connecting cords,
 Adapter, BNC-plug/socket
 Diaphragm holder
Procedure:
1. Set up the three slide mounts on the optical bench.
2. Set up the laser beam on the left side of the optical bench on a slide mount.
3. Place the slit on diaphragm front of the laser beam.
4. Set up the photodetector by a slide mount on the optical bench on the right side.
5. Supply power to the laser gun and switch it on by rotating key to position 1 (clockwise).
6. Align the three devices (laser beam, diaphragm, and the photo detector by rotating the screw
of the sliding device.
7. Turn off the power supply to the laser gun and connect chord-1 in photo detector of the
photoamplifier connect another chord to the multimeter and amplifiers.
8. Multimeter should be kept in the range of 20 or 200 mA and photoamplifier in the DC mode
60 kHz.
9. Power the photo-amplifier by an adaptor.
10. Now, switch on all the devices and take readings of multimeter in different position of the
maxima and minima by screwing sliding device.You can start taking reading from 3rd or 4th
minimum position of one side to another side of the pattern.
11. Sketch the graph current, I(mA) verses distance, x (mm) and determine the width of the
central Maxima.

Figure 4: Diffraction pattern from a single slit (Current versus distance curve).
Data Collection:
Distance, x Current, I Distance, x Current, I Distance, x Current, I
(mm) (mA) (mm) (mA) (mm) (mA)
0.0 0.6 1.2
0.1 0.7 1.3
0.2 0.8 1.4
0.3 0.9 1.5
0.4 1.0 1.6
0.5 1.1 etc.
Calculation:

Calculate from your data using the formula sin (tan -1 )

Results: Check whether Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle is verified or not.

Discussion:
Measure the half width of the central maximum for single slit width (d). Measure the distance
between the light sensor aperture and the laseraperture (b).Verify Heisenberg’s uncertainty
principle by using this experimental verification(Eq.12). Carefully estimate the errors and
discuss about Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle.

Caution: Never look directly into a non-attenuated laser beam. After the completionof the all
procedure,at first switch off the laser beam rotating the key to‘0’ position (counter clockwise),
power off the laser beam, photo amplifier, turn off the multimeter, disconnect the chord from all
the devices like multimeter, photo amplifier, adaptor and photo detector, etc.

Answer the following Questions:

1. What physical quantity is the same for the single slit and the double slit?
2. How does the distance from the central maximum to the first minimum in the single-slit
pattern compare to the distance from the central maximum to the first diffraction minimum in
the double-slit pattern?
3. What physical quantity determines where the amplitude of the interference peaks goes to
zero?
4. In theory, how many interference maxima should be in the central envelope for a double slit
with d = 0.25 mm and a = 0.04 mm?
5. How many interference maxima are actually in the central envelope?

References:
[1] A.P. French: Vibrations and Waves, Norton Publ. 1971, Chapter 8, p. 280-297
[2] PASCO Interference and Diffraction EX-9918 guide (written by Ann Hanks)
[3] PHYWE Series of Publications, Laboratory Experiments, Physics LEP 2.3.01,
PHYWESYSTEME GMBH
 Lab manual for Online Physics Sessional Classes
Department of Physics, BUET

VL-E1: VERIFICATION OF THE COULOMB'S LAW OF ELECTROSTATICS

Objectives:

➢ To determine how the electrostatic force between two charged conducting spheres depends
on (i) the distance between the spheres, and (ii) the charge of the spheres.

System requirements:

Computer (Desktop/Laptop), Operating systems: Windows, Coulombs Law_vle (zipped) File.

Advise:

Students are advised to follow the procedures written in this manual very strictly while
performing the experiment. Do not try to explore anything else in the experiment.

Theory:

Coulomb's law states that the magnitude of the electrostatic force of attraction or repulsion, F,
between two-point charges, q1 and q2, is directly proportional to the product of the magnitudes of
charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them, r. The direction of
the force is along the straight line joining them. If the two charges have the same sign, the
electrostatic force between them is repulsive; if they have different signs, the force between them
is attractive.
q1q2
F =k rˆ (1)
r2
The proportionality constant k = 1/ 4 0 is called the Coulomb’s constant (sometimes called

the Coulomb’s force constant). The value of k = 9109 Nm2C−2 and the permittivity of free space
ε0 = 8.8510-12 N-1m-2C2.

Fig 1: Attractive (upper figure) and repulsive (lower figure) force.

If both charges have the same sign (like charges) then the product q1q2 is positive and the
direction of the forces on q1 and q2 are shown in above figure and the charges repel each other. If
the charges have opposite signs then the product q1q2 is negative and the direction of the forces
on q1 and q2 are also shown in above figure and the charges attract each other. Force on q2 due to
q1 is F12, and force on q1 due to q2 is F21. Therefore, F21= - F12 and it is consistent with Newtons
3rd law.

Page 1 of 6 Updated in UG Semester July-2021

 Lab manual for Online Physics Sessional Classes
Department of Physics, BUET

The first part of this experiment looked at the relationship between the Coulomb’s force and the
distance between two charged spheres by keeping the magnitude of the charge on the spheres
constant. As for simplicity, the sphere is considered as a point charge. Taking the logarithm on
both sides of Eq. 1 and obtain,

 qq 
lnF = ln  k 1 2 2 
 r 
 lnF = −2ln r + ln(kq1q2 ) (2)
In this experiment, the force cannot be measured directly. Here, Coulomb’s force is proportional
to the angle, , at which the movable charged sphere swings away from the other. Therefore, Eq.
2 can be rewritten as

ln  −2ln r + ln(kq1q2 ), (3)

This produces a linear relationship between the force and the distance, with a slope of -2 on a
logarithmic plot.

The second part of this experiment looked at the relationship between the Coulomb’s force and
the product of the charge of the spheres by keeping the distance between the charges constant.
Therefore, Eq. 1 can be rewritten by keeping the values of k and r are constant.

k 
lnF = ln ( q1q2 ) + ln  2  (4)
r 
In this experiment, the charge of the spheres cannot be measured directly. Here, both q1 and q2
are proportional to the voltage V by which the sphere is charged. Incorporating  and V in Eq. 4
and obtain

k 
ln  ln (V 2 ) + ln  2  (5)
r 
Theoretically, the force and the product of the charge are linearly related, with a slope of 1 on a
logarithmic plot.

Procedures:

1. At first unzip “Coulombs Law_vle (zipped)” File. Click on the executable file “Coulombs
Law_vle” then a window will open as shown in Fig. 3.

2. To open your experiment, go to VPLab15_1 Protected > Electrostatics > Coulomb’s Law.
3. Press the ‘Add Damper’ button on the bottom left for reducing the damping of torsion wire
(see the real instrument in Fig. 2 & compare with Fig. 3). Keep the No. of 2 mg masses at 0.
4. Use the large semi-transparent knob with the yellow pointer to adjust the position of the arm
until the red marker on the arm lines up with the red reference mark (see Fig. 3).

Page 2 of 6 Updated in UG Semester July-2021

 Lab manual for Online Physics Sessional Classes
Department of Physics, BUET

Fig. 2: PASCO Coulomb balance.

Fig. 3: Virtual Apparatus for Coulomb’s Experiment.

5. Rotate the ‘Rotate Scale’ using the small green knob until the zero is in line with the yellow
pointer of the large semi-transparent knob.
6. To investigate the effect of distance: press the ‘Charge Spheres’ knob and set to any
particular potential (say 6 kV), then press the ‘Remove Charger’ knob. You will notice the
deflection of the arm caused by the electrostatic repulsion between the two spheres at a
particular distance of separation between the charges measured from the ruler on the right
side (say16 cm apart).
7. Adjust the large semi-transparent knob until the red markers are aligned again. Record the
angle (measured by yellow pointer) by which the torsion wire needed to be rotated to balance
the electrostatic repulsion.
8. Discharge the sphere by pressing ‘Discharge Spheres’ knob. Adjust the large semi-
transparent knob until the red markers are aligned again. Press the ‘Charge Spheres’ knob
and set again the same potential and then press the ‘Remove Charger’ knob. Fixed the
sphere at 15 cm position. Adjust the large semi-transparent knob until the red markers are
aligned again. Record the applied voltage and the balancing angle of the torsion wire.
9. Repeat the step 8 for positions 14, 13, 12, 11, 10, 9, 8 and 7 cm.

Page 3 of 6 Updated in UG Semester July-2021

 Lab manual for Online Physics Sessional Classes
Department of Physics, BUET

10. Plot a graph with the ln ( ) on the Y-axis, and the ln r on the X-axis. If this is a straight line

with slope approximately 2, it indicates that the electrostatic repulsion follows an inverse-
square law.
11. To investigate the effect of charging: The amount of different charges placed on the spheres
are obtained by setting different voltages on the charger. After charging using 6 kV, press the
‘Remove Charger’ knob. Keep the fixed sphere always at 16 cm position. Adjust the large
semi-transparent knob until the red markers are aligned again. Record the applied voltage and
the balancing angle of the torsion wire.
12. Discharge the sphere by pressing ‘Discharge Spheres’ knob. Adjust the large semi-
transparent knob until the red markers are aligned again. Press the ‘Charge Spheres’ knob
and set to 5 kV potential, then press the ‘Remove Charger’ knob. Adjust the large semi-
transparent knob until the red markers are aligned again. Record the applied voltage and the
balancing angle.
13. Repeat step 12 for voltages 5, 4, 3, 2 and 1 kV (always keep the fixed sphere at 16 cm
position).

( )
14. Plot a graph of ln ( ) on the Y- axis and the ln V on the X- axis. If the relationship is
2

linear with slope approximately 1, it shows that the electrostatic force is proportional to the
product of the charges on the spheres.

Data Collections:
Table 1: The distance dependent deflection angle.

No. Distance r (m)10-2 Deflection angle  ln(r) ln ()

1 16
2 15
3 14
4 13
5 12
6 11
7 10
8 9
9 8
10 7
11 6

Page 4 of 6 Updated in UG Semester July-2021

 Lab manual for Online Physics Sessional Classes
Department of Physics, BUET

Table 2: The voltage dependent deflection angle.

No. Voltage V (V)103 Deflection angle  ln(V2) ln()

1 6
2 5
3 4
4 3
5 2
6 1

Draw Graphs:

The graphs of ln() vs ln(r) and the ln() vs ln(V2) are shown in below.

Fig. 4: The graph of ln() with respect to ln(r) [Left graph]. The graph of ln() with respect to
ln(V2) [Right graph]. The open circle is the experimental data and the straight line (red colour) is
the best fitting theoretical curve.

Calculations:

Calculate the slope of both the graphs.

Error analysis:

Calculate the percentage of error in both the cases.

Results:

The figure of ln() vs ln(r) produced a straight-line of slope  − 2. This value confirm that the
Coulomb force is proportional to 1/r2, as indicated by Coulomb's Law.
The figure of ln() vs ln(V2) produced a straight line of slope  1. This indicates that the
Coulomb force is proportional to the product of the charge of the spheres, as stated in Coulomb's
Law.

Page 5 of 6 Updated in UG Semester July-2021

 Lab manual for Online Physics Sessional Classes
Department of Physics, BUET

Discussion:

Based on your understanding from this experiment, answer the following questions:

1) Do the results of the graph and slope indicate a “power law” (y = xn)? If so, what is your best
estimate of the exponent? How does your result compare with Coulomb’s Law?
2) Is it necessary to make a correction in theory if you do not consider the sphere as a point
sphere in this experiment?
3) Why it is important to recharge the spheres before each measurement?
4) In real experiment using Coulomb balance, when charging the spheres, turn the power supply
on, charge the spheres, then why immediately turn the supply off?
5) What types of cautions should be taken when perform the real experiment using Coulomb
balance?

Page 6 of 6 Updated in UG Semester July-2021

 Lab Manual for Online Physics Sessional Classes
Department of Physics, BUET

VL-E3: TO PLOT THE I-V CHARACTERISTIC CURVES FOR AN OHMIC

CONDUCTOR, A THERMISTOR AND A DIODE

Objectives:
➢ To plot the graphs of I-V characteristics for an ohmic conductor, a thermistor and a diode.
➢ Find out the resistances for ohmic conductor, thermistor and diode (at forward bias
condition).

System requirements:
Computer (Desktop/Laptop), Operating system: Windows, I-V characteristics_vle (zipped)
File.

Advise:
Students are advised to strictly follow the procedures written in this manual while performing
the experiment. Do not try to explore anything else in the experiment.

Theory:

The current-voltage (I-V) characteristic curves of an electrical component are a set of graphical
curves, which are used to define its operation within an electrical circuit. The I-V curves show
the relationship between the current flowing through an electronic device and the applied voltage
across its terminals. They are generally used as a tool to determine and understand the basic
parameters of a material and can also be used to mathematically model its behavior within an
electronic circuit. If an electrical supply voltage, V, is applied to the terminals of a resistive
element R, the resulting current, I, can be measured using the formula: I = V/R, which is called
Ohm’s Law. If the voltage across the resistor increases, the current flowing through it also
increases and it would be possible to construct a graph to show the relationship between the
voltage and current. In case of an Ohmic conductor, the relationship between voltage and current
is linear at a constant temperature.

A thermistor is a type of resistor whose resistance is strongly dependent on temperature, and it is

normally made of semiconductor material. The change of resistance with temperature of a
thermistor is high compared to the metallic conductor, and is usually negative implying that the
resistance decreases with temperature increase. The I-V characteristics curves are highly
nonlinear for a thermistor. Increased potential difference across the thermistor results in
increased current which in turn causes the temperature to rise. As the temperature rises, the
lattice ion’s vibration increases and reduces the drift velocity of the charged particles. However,
the number of free electrons and holes due to the temperature increase is more significant than
the reduction in drift velocity. Hence, resistance of negative temperature coefficient (NTC)
thermistor decreases with increase in temperature. Another type of thermistor, called positive
temperature coefficient (PTC) resistor, exists as well. The resistance of PTC type thermistors
increases as the temperature increases.

Page 1 of 4 Updated on UG Semester July-2021

 Lab Manual for Online Physics Sessional Classes
Department of Physics, BUET

A diode is a two-terminal electronic component that conducts current primarily in one direction;
it has low (ideally zero) resistance in one direction, and high (ideally infinite) resistance in the
opposite direction. It is a semiconductor device, constructed using p and n-type semiconductors
joined together to form a PN junction. The I-V characteristics curves of diodes reflect the
operation of these PN junctions. These devices have non-linear I-V characteristics, as different
from that of Ohmic conductor. The primary function of a semiconductor diode is rectification of
alternating current to direct current. When the forward voltage exceeds the internal barrier
voltage of diode’s PN junction, which for silicon is about 0.7 volts, avalanche occurs and the
forward current increases rapidly for a very small increase in voltage. When the diode is reversed
biased, the diode blocks current except for an extremely small leakage current, and operates in
the lower left quadrant of its I-V characteristic curves.

Procedures:

1. At first unzip “I-V characteristics (zipped)” File. Click on the executable file “I-V
characteristics_vle”, then a window will be opened as shown in Fig. 1.

Fig: 1. VP Lab Experimental setup.

2. Set the “Component to Test” in ‘Ohmic’ and do not change the “Approximate Resistance
(Ohms)” knob, as shown in Fig. 1, during the whole experiment.
3. Keep the red pointer (red arrow) at the bottom position of the potential divider and move it
to the upper position gradually. You will have a graph from which you will obtain data of
the experiment.
4. For getting the experimental data from the graph, right click on the graph and it will display
different options. Go to ‘show’ and select the ‘cursor display’ option (as shown in Fig. 2).
It will display two cursors but they are locked. Unlock any one cursor by clicking on the
locked button. You will see two cursor pointers (two yellow lines) along X- and Y-axes.
Drag the cursor pointers to select one data point (Fig. 2). Then, you will observe data value
in the cursor display. Move the cursor to the next data point and take the value. In this way,
take at least 10 data points and make the data table of V and I.

Page 2 of 4 Updated on UG Semester July-2021

 Lab Manual for Online Physics Sessional Classes
Department of Physics, BUET

Fig: 2. An I-V characteristic graph for ohmic resistor.

5. Clear the I-V characteristic graph for ohmic conductor by clicking the knob ‘Clear
Ohmic’. Set the “Component to Test” in ‘Thermistor’ and perform the experiment similar
to step 3. Take the data similarly to step 4.
6. Clear the I-V characteristic graph for Thermistor by clicking the knob ‘Clear Thermistor’.
Set the “Component to Test” in ‘Diode’ and perform the experiment similar to step 3. Take
the data similarly to step 4.
7. Draw all the I-V characteristic graphs for ohmic resistor, thermistor and diode in a single
graph paper.

Data collection:

Table 1: Voltage-dependent current for ohmic conductor, thermistor and diode.

Ohmic resistor Thermistor Diode
No. Voltage, V Current, I Voltage, V Current, I Voltage, V Current, I
(Volt) (Amp) (Volt) (Amp) (Volt) (Amp)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

Page 3 of 4 Updated on UG Semester July-2021

 Lab Manual for Online Physics Sessional Classes
Department of Physics, BUET

Graph for analysis:

I-V characteristic graphs for different electrical components are shown below:

Fig. 3: The I-V characteristic graphs for an Ohmic conductor, a thermistor and a diode.

Calculation:

• Calculate the resistances for the Ohmic conductor and Thermistor at a particular value of
voltage say at 8 V.
• Calculate the resistance of diode at forward bias condition by measuring the slope of the
respective graph. Find out the value of internal barrier voltage (diode cut-in voltage) of PN
junction of diode.

Results:

The results of I-V characteristic for an Ohmic conductor, a thermistor and a diode are shown in
graph. The values of the resistances for the Ohmic conductor and Thermistor at 8 V (say) are ----
-- and -------- Ohm, respectively. The resistance of diode at forward bias condition is -------
Ohm. The value of internal barrier voltage of PN junction of diode is ---------V.

Discussion:
Based on your understanding from this experiment, answer the following questions:

1) Why are the I-V characteristic graphs for an Ohmic conductor, a thermistor and a diode
different?
2) What do you understand by the negative temperature coefficient and positive temperature
coefficient type thermistor?
3) What is a Diode? What is the main function of a diode?
4) Which materials are generally used for the fabrication of thermistor and diode?
5) Explain the internal barrier voltage (diode cut-in voltage) of a diode’. What is leakage current
of a diode?
6) What is diode break-down voltage? What are Zener diode and Avalanche diode?

Page 4 of 4 Updated on UG Semester July-2021

 Lab manual for Online Physics Sessional Classes
Department of Physics, BUET

VL-H2: CALIBRATION OF A GIVEN THERMOCOUPLE

Objectives:
➢ To understand the calibration curve of a given thermocouple.
➢ To determine unknown temperature using the calibration curve.

System requirements:

Computer (Desktop/Laptop), Operating system: Windows, Thermocouple_vle (zipped) File.

Advise:

Students are advised to follow the procedures written in this manual very strictly while
performing the experiment. Do not try to explore anything else during the experiment.

Theory:

In 1821, T. J. Seebeck observed that if wires of two different metals, such as copper and iron, are
joined together to form a closed loop and if two junctions are kept at different temperatures, an
electric current begins to flow in the loop. This phenomenon is called thermoelectric effect, and
generation of current in the loop due to difference in temperatures is called Seebeck effect. The
loop comprising the two metals is referred to as a thermocouple. The existence of current implies
that there is an electromotive force (emf) acting in the circuit. This is known as thermo-
electromotive force and the electric current produced in this way is called thermo-electric
current.
When one junction of a thermo-couple is maintained at and the other junction is heated to a
higher temperature as in Fig. 1, then thermo-electromotive force is developed in the circuit.
The direction of the emf depends on the pair of metals used and the temperatures of the
junctions. The magnitude of emf that developed in the circuit can be calculated by balancing it
against a potential drop in certain length of a potentiometer.
Let be the potential drop per unit length of the potentiometer wire having a total length of L
cm. Now, if be the emf developed in a thermo-couple, which is balanced against a length cm
of the potentiometer wire then,

The potential drop per unit length of the potentiometer wire is given by the relation,

Where, emf of the driver battery in the potentiometer circuit

total resistance of the potentiometer wire of length
From equation (1) and (2) we get,

Hence, by determining the balancing length , thermo-electromotive force developed at a given

temperature can be calculated from equation (3).

Page 1 of 5 Updated in UG Semester July-2021

 Lab manual for Online Physics Sessional Classes
Department of Physics, BUET

By measuring the thermo-electromotive force developed for different temperatures of the hot
junction, a graph can be plotted with the temperature of the hot junction as the abscissa and the
emf as the ordinate. This is known as the calibration curve for the thermocouple.
After a thermocouple has been calibrated in this manner, it can be used to measure any unknown
temperature by measuring the emf produced at any unknown temperature and then reading off
the temperature from the calibration curve corresponding to the measured emf.
If the cold and hot junctions of a thermocouple are kept at and , respectively, then the
e.m.f. developed in the thermocouple is given by,

For small ,
Hence, the calibration curve for the given thermocouple will approximately be a straight line.

Fig. 1. Experimental setup for measuring the emf of a thermocouple.

Procedures:

1. At first unzip “Thermocouple_vle (zipped)” File. Click on the executable file

“Thermocouple_vle”, then a window will open as shown in Fig. 2.

Fig: 2. VP Lab Experimental setup.

2. Fill the right-hand beaker completely with water using the blue knob by keeping the
pointer at ‘Fill’ position and hold the water into the beaker by keeping the pointer at
‘Hold’ position as shown in Fig. 2.

Page 2 of 5 Updated in UG Semester July-2021

 Lab manual for Online Physics Sessional Classes
Department of Physics, BUET

3. Drag the jokey of the potentiometer in such a way that the pointer of the galvanometer
remains left of zero.
4. Then turn the heater ‘on’ by clicking it. As the water warms up, an electromotive force
(emf) will be produced and the balancing point of the Galvanometer will move.
5. During heating, try to keep always the galvanometer pointer left to zero by moving the
jokey. When the pointer will come to zero position (null point), take the reading by
pressing the knob ‘store data’.
6. As the temperature rises, the value of e.m.f. produced will be changed and galvanometer
pointer will be shifted. Follow the step 5 repeatedly (15 times) and take the reading until
you reach a temperature about 100 .
7. Press the ‘show graph’ knob and see the relationship between the thermo-emf (as
ordinate) and the temperature (as abscissa). It is to be noted that the experimental value of
temperature and e.m.f. can only be obtained from the analysis of the graph.
8. For getting the experimental data from the graph, right click on the graph and it will
display different options. Go to ‘show’ and select the ‘cursor display’ option [as shown in
Fig.3 (a)]. It will display two cursors but they are locked. Unlock any cursor by clicking
on the locked button and then it will look like Fig.3 (b) and you will see two cursor
pointers (two yellow lines) along X- and Y-axes. Drag the cursor pointers to select one
data point [as shown in Fig.3 (c)]. Then, you will observe data value in the cursor display.
For example, in Fig.3 (c), the value of the selected data point is displayed as (17.52,
19.78). Move the cursor to the next data point and take the value. In this way, make the
data table of emf and corresponding temperature of the hot junction.

Fig: 3. Thermo-electromotive force versus temperature graph.

9. Draw the emf versus temperature graph in your graph paper. Draw a straight line that
passes through the origin as shown in Fig. 4.

Page 3 of 5 Updated in UG Semester July-2021

 Lab manual for Online Physics Sessional Classes
Department of Physics, BUET

Data collection and graphs for analysis:

Table: The temperature dependent emf:

No. Temperature ( ) emf E/ (mV)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

The graph of emf versus temperature is shown below:

Fig. 4: The open circle is the experimental data and the straight line (red color) is
the best fitting theoretical curve.

Page 4 of 5 Updated in UG Semester July-2021

 Lab manual for Online Physics Sessional Classes
Department of Physics, BUET

Calculation:
The best fitting curve follows the equation [mV] from where you can obtain the
unknown temperature for any known value emf (say 50 mV).

Result:

The graph of emf vs temperature produced a straight line that passes through the origin. This is
the required calibration curve.

Discussion:
Based on your understanding from this experiment, answer the following questions:

1) On what factors does the direction of thermo electric current depend?

2) What is the importance of calibrating a curve?
3) Instead of water bath, use the sand bath (say, temperature of the hot junction can be raised up
to 350 C) and plot the temperature along x-axis and the thermo-emf along y-axis and draw a
curve. What would be the nature of your graph?
4) How does the emf change when the temperature of the hot junction is continuously
increased?
5) What is neutral temperature? Does it depend on the temperature of the hot junction?

Page 5 of 5 Updated in UG Semester July-2021