Introduction to Psychology (Module 1) **VImportant

**Definition

• Widely accepted definition- Psychology is the scientific study of behaviour and mental
processes (Feldman, 1996)

• The term "psychology" derives from the Greek terms "psyche," which means "life," and
"logos," which means “study/explanation."

**Purpose/Goals of Psychology
When psychologists study mental processes and behaviour, they generally have four goals in mind

• Description- seek to describe very specifically the things that they observe- scientifically

• Explanation- Telling what, where, when, and how is sometimes not enough. A key goal for
many psychologists is to answer the question of “why?”- why something happens the way
we do/cause and effect

• Prediction- seeks to predict the circumstances under which a variety of behaviours and
mental processes are likely to occur

• Control/Change behaviour - we often encounter situations in which we want to either limit

or increase certain behaviours or mental processes- whether our own or those of others-
manage disorder, self-control..etc

When dealing with children, for example, you might ask questions such as:

"What are they doing?" (describing)

"Why are they doing that?" (explaining)

"What would happen if I responded in this way?" (predicting)

"What can I do to get them to stop doing that?" (changing)

Psychologists ask many of the same types of questions, but they use the scientific method to
rigorously test and systematically understand human and animal behavior

**Methods of Psychology

In order to understand human behaviour various scientific methods are used. The purpose of study
or research is to develop principles and theories, test them and apply for solving different human
problems.

A psychological research carried out scientifically has the characteristics of objectivity which means
that such researches are free from any kind of biases. It is testable time and again and can be open
to all. One can verify its authenticity by following the same method in terms of getting the same
result. It has scope for self-correction. In other words the researcher corrects his or her
understanding if there is some error and goes for revision. The scientific studies have also the
characteristic of replication which means that the results of the study are consistently verified by
similar other studies across different settings

Thus in psychology a number of methods are used to carry out scientific studies.
Observation- Observation as a method of enquiry is often understood as a systematic registering of
events without any deliberate attempt to interfere with variables operating in the event which is
being studied.

This method is used in natural as well as laboratory settings. When it is used to study the events
happening in natural environment it is called naturalistic observation such as observing the
behaviour of children on playground. In this case the observer (psychologist) has no control on the
extraneous variables. He or she simply records the entire activities and then analyze them. On the
contrary in the case of laboratory observation the event under study is controlled by the observer.
For example, studying the effect of induced stress on task performance. Observation is also divided
into participant and non-participant types depending on the role of observer. In the case of
participant observation the researcher mixes up with the event under study and conducts the study.
Where as in the case of nonparticipant observation the researcher maintains an optimum distance
and has little impact on the events under study. One of the most important advantages of
observation is that it studies the range of behaviours in the form in which they are happening.
However, this method requires more time and effort. It often becomes victim of the biases of
researcher

Experimentation/Experimental method - In the case of experiment the experimenter studies the

effect of one variable on the other by deliberately manipulating and controlling one variable. The
variable which is controlled and manipulated by the experimenter is called independent variable (IV)
and the variable on which the impact of independent variable is studied is known as dependent
variable (DV). In a simple experiment two groups are formed. One is experimental group in which
participants receive the independent variable. The other is control group in which behaviour is
observed without giving the independent variable. By manipulating independent variable the
experimenter is in a position to state that change induced in one variable brings change in another
variable. Apart from these variables the experimenter has to also simultaneously take care of other
variables which are beyond his or her control. Such variables are called relevant/ confounding
variables and need to be controlled as they might confound the effect of independent variable.

Eg: Study to understand effect of coffee (IV) on concentration level (DV)

Additional Inf – just for understanding In experimental studies three kinds of relevant variables are
taken into account. These are organismic variables, situational variables and sequential variables.
Organismic variables are related to personal characteristics of the participants such as age, sex, and
personality features. Situational variables are concerned with the quality of physical environment
during the conduct of experiment such as temperature, humidity and noise. Sequential variables are
related to the very procedure of conducting the experiment when the participant is required to be
tested across several conditions. Hence exposure of the participant to varied conditions may result
either in attaining proficiency due to practice effects or in developing fatigue and monotony towards
experiment. Experimenters use following techniques to control the unwanted effect of relevant
variables. (i) Elimination: In this technique extraneous variables are eliminated from the
experimental setting. (ii) Making Conditions Constant: In this technique the extraneous variables
which cannot be eliminated are kept constant in order to make their effect same during the entire
experiment. (iii)Matching: Through this technique the relevant variables are equated or held
constant across all the conditions of experiment. (iv)Counter Balancing: This technique is used to
minimize the effect of order or sequence. This is usually done by dividing the participants in two
groups. On first occasion half of the group (Group A) is given task 1 and the other half (Group B) is
given task 2. On the second occasion Group A is given task 2 and Group B is given task 1. (v) Random
assignment: In the case of random assignment all the participants have equal chance to be exposed
to experimental and control conditions. It removes the systematic differences between groups.

In addition to experiments carried out in controlled setting (laboratory experiment) experiments are
also conducted in natural life conditions. They are called field experiments and quasi experiments.
Like laboratory experiment independent variable is manipulated and participants are assigned to
different groups. In quasi experiments independent variable is manipulated in natural setting using
naturally occurring groups to form experimental and control groups.

Psychological surveys are a valuable research tool that allow scientists to collect large quantities of
data relatively quickly. A survey can be used to investigate the characteristics, behaviors, or opinions
of a group of people.

These research tools can be used to ask questions about demographic information about
characteristics such as sex, religion, ethnicity, and income.

They can also collect information on experiences, opinions, and even hypothetical scenarios. For
example, researchers might present people with a possible scenario and then ask them how they
might respond in that situation.

A survey can be administered in a couple of different ways:

Structured interview: The researcher asks each participant the questions

Questionnaire: the participant fills out the survey independently

A case study is an in-depth study of one person, group, or event. In a case study, nearly every aspect
of the subject's life and history is analyzed to seek patterns and causes of behavior.

One of the greatest advantages of a case study is that it allows researchers to investigate things that
are often difficult or impossible to replicate in a lab. Some other benefits of a case study

Allows researchers to capture information on the 'how,' 'what,' and 'why,' of something that's
implemented

On the other hand, a case study can have some drawbacks:

It cannot necessarily be generalized to the larger population

Cannot demonstrate cause and effect; It may not be scientifically rigorous ; It can lead to bias

Researchers may choose to perform a case study if they want to explore a unique or recently
discovered phenomenon. Through their insights, researchers develop additional ideas and study
questions that might be explored in future studies.

One final way in which psychological research is done is by conducting literature reviews.

A literature review is a scholarly summary of the existing body of research on a given topic.

Literature reviews come in two forms : One form is a narrative review, in which authors use words to
describe, studies previously conducted and discuss the strength of the available psychological
evidence

Another type of review, which has become increasingly popular, is a meta-analysis, in which authors
use statistical techniques to combine and draw conclusions about studies previously conducted

**Historical Antecedents

I. Ancient Civilizations:

The study of human behavior and mental processes can be traced back to ancient civilizations such
as the Greeks, Romans, and Egyptians.

These civilizations recognized the importance of mental health and sought to understand and treat
psychological problems.

Examples of influential figures from this time period include:

Aristotle: Greek philosopher who proposed one of the earliest known theories of psychology.
Believed that the mind is the seat of all mental activity, responsible for organizing and interpreting
sensory information, capable of abstract thought and reasoning, and the source of all knowledge.

Galen: Roman physician who believed that the body and mind were interconnected and that
physical and mental health were closely related. Developed a theory of temperament that identified
four distinct types of personality: sanguine (optimistic and confident), choleric (easily angered and
prone to outbursts of temper), melancholic (sad and introspective), and phlegmatic (calm and
unemotional).

II. The Birth of Modern Psychology:

The study of psychology as a separate discipline began to emerge in the 19th century, with the work
of figures such as Wilhelm Wundt and Sigmund Freud.

Examples of influential figures from this time period include:

Wilhelm Wundt: Often considered the founder of modern psychology, he established the first
psychology laboratory at the University of Leipzig in Germany in 1879. His approach, known as
structuralism, focused on breaking down mental processes into their smallest components in order
to understand how they functioned.

• Wundt was interested in the study of conscious experience and wanted to analyze the
constituents/elements or the building blocks of the mind.
 • Psychologists (Edward .B.Titchener) during Wundt’s time analyzed the structure of the mind
through introspection and therefore were called structuralists

• Introspection was a procedure in which individuals or subjects in psychological experiments

were asked to describe in detail, their own mental processes or experiences.

• However, introspection as a method did not satisfy many other psychologists.

• It was considered less scientific because the introspective reports could not be verified by
outside observers.

An American psychologist, William James, who had set up a psychological laboratory in Cambridge,
Massachusetts soon after the setting up of the Leipzig laboratory, developed what was called a
functionalist approach to the study of the human mind.

● James believed that instead of focusing on the structure of the mind, psychology should
instead study what the mind does and how behaviour functions in making people deal with
their environment.
● For example, functionalists focused on how behaviour enabled people to satisfy their needs.
● According to James, consciousness as an ongoing stream of mental process interacting with
the environment formed the core of psychology.

In the early 20th century, a new perspective called Gestalt psychology emerged in Germany as a
reaction to the structuralism of Wundt.

● 1912- Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Koffka and Kurt Kohler (founders)

● It focused on the organization of perceptual experiences.
● Instead of looking at the components of the mind, the Gestalt psychologists argued that
when we look at the world our perceptual experience is more than the sum of the
components of the perception.
● In other words, what we experience is more than the inputs received from our
environment.
● Thus, our perceptual experience is more than the elements.
● Experience is holistic; it is a Gestalt

Sigmund Freud: Another influential figure in the history of psychology, he developed the theory of
psychoanalysis. This approach focused on the role of unconscious thoughts and feelings in shaping
behavior and personality, and argued that mental disorders were the result of conflicts between the
conscious and unconscious mind. These conflicts could be resolved through the use of techniques
such as free association and dream analysis.

III. The Development of Psychology as a Scientific Discipline:

As psychology began to establish itself as a scientific discipline, various schools of thought emerged,
each with its own distinct approach to understanding the mind and behavior.

Examples of influential figures and approaches from this time period include:

Behaviorism: Developed by John B. Watson, this approach focused on observable behavior rather
than mental processes. Behaviorists argued that psychological phenomena could be explained by the
principles of learning and conditioning.

• Around 1910, John Watson rejected the ideas of mind and consciousness as subject matters
of psychology
 • For Watson, mind is not observable and introspection is subjective because it cannot be
verified by another observer.

• According to him, scientific psychology must focus on what is observable and verifiable.

• He defined psychology as a study of behaviour or responses (to stimuli) which can be

measured and studied objectively.

Cognitive psychology: This approach focused on mental processes such as perception, attention,
memory, and decision-making. Figures such as Jean Piaget and Noam Chomsky made significant
contributions to our understanding of cognitive development and language acquisition.

IV. The Emergence of Modern Psychological Approaches:

In the 20th century, psychology continued to evolve and diversify, with the emergence of new
approaches such as humanistic psychology and positive psychology.

Examples of influential figures and approaches from this time period include

Humanistic psychology (AKA Third force in Psychology) : Developed by Abraham Maslow and Carl
Rogers, this approach emphasized the unique qualities of the individual and the importance of self-
actualization and personal growth.

Positive psychology: Developed by Martin Seligman and others, this approach focuses on the study
of positive emotions, character strengths, and the conditions that facilitate well-being.

Divisions of Psychology (Study the basic or most important points only)

American Psychological Association and British Psychological Society

APA (American Psychological Association) and BPS (British Psychological Society) are two prominent
organizations that play crucial roles in the field of psychology. Both organizations provide guidelines,
standards, and ethical principles that psychologists follow, and they contribute significantly to the
advancement and credibility of the discipline. APA is the leading scientific and professional
organization representing psychology in the United States, with more than 157,000 researchers,
educators, clinicians, consultants, and students as its members.

APA’s mission is to :

• promote the advancement, communication, and application of psychological science and

knowledge to benefit society and improve lives.

• Utilizing psychology to make a positive impact on critical societal issues.

• Elevating the public’s understanding of, regard for, and use of psychology.

• Preparing the discipline and profession of psychology for the future.

• Strengthening APA’s standing as an authoritative voice for psychology.

• The APA was established in July 1892 at Clark University.

• The APA had 31 members in its first year, and G. Stanley Hall was the organization's first
president.

• Today, the APA has 54 distinct divisions that each focus on a sub-discipline or topic within
psychology, such as educational psychology (division 15) and behavior analysis (division 25)
The British Psychological Society (BPS) is a representative body for psychologists and psychology in
the United Kingdom.

It was founded on 24 October 1901 at University College London (UCL) as The Psychological Society,
the organisation initially admitted only recognised teachers in the field of psychology.

Overview of the importance of APA and BPS in psychology

• Standardization of Research and Writing

• APA: APA style is widely used for formatting research papers, essays, and manuscripts in
psychology.

• It provides a standardized format for citing sources, organizing content, and presenting
research findings.

• This consistency aids in clear communication and comprehension of research within the
scientific community.

• BPS: BPS guidelines serve a similar purpose in the United Kingdom.

• They provide a framework for researchers to structure their work, ensuring consistency and
clarity in reporting methods and results.

Ethical Guidelines:

The APA has a comprehensive Code of Ethics that outlines the ethical principles and standards
for psychologists. These guidelines cover areas such as confidentiality, informed consent, and
the responsible conduct of research. Adhering to these ethical standards is crucial for
maintaining the integrity of psychological research and practice. BPS: The BPS also has a Code of
Ethics and Conduct, which provides similar ethical guidance for psychologists practicing in the
UK. These guidelines help ensure that psychological research and interventions are conducted
with the highest ethical standards.

Professional Development and Networking

APA: The APA serves as a hub for psychologists, providing opportunities for professional
development, networking, and collaboration. It organizes conferences, publishes journals, and
offers resources that contribute to the growth of the discipline.

BPS: Similarly, the BPS plays a key role in fostering professional development and networking
within the UK. It provides psychologists with a platform to connect, share knowledge, and stay
updated on the latest developments in the field.

Advocacy and Public Awareness:

APA: The APA is involved in advocacy efforts to promote the interests of psychologists and the field
of psychology. It works to raise public awareness about psychological issues and the importance of
mental health.

BPS: The BPS engages in similar advocacy initiatives within the UK, advocating for the role of
psychology in various domains, including education, healthcare, and policymaking.

Branches of Psychology
Biopsychology

Biopsychology is a psychological area focused on how the brain, neurons, and nervous system
influence thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. This field draws upon many different disciplines,
including basic psychology, cognitive psychology, experimental psychology, biology, physiology, and
neuroscience.

Clinical Psychology

Clinical psychology is the branch of psychology concerned with the assessment and treatment of
mental illness, abnormal behavior, and psychiatric disorders. Clinicians often work in private
practices, but many also work in community centers or at universities and colleges.

Abnormal Psychology

Abnormal psychology looks at psychopathology and abnormal behavior. It involves the study of
people's emotional, thought, and behavior patterns to identify, understand, and potentially resolve
any issues that may be negatively affecting a person's life.

Mental health professionals in this branch of psychology assess, diagnose, and treat a wide variety of
psychological disorders, including anxiety and depression. Counselors, clinical psychologists, and
psychotherapists often work directly in this field.

Cognitive Psychology

Cognitive psychology is a psychological area that focuses on internal mental states. This area has
continued to grow since it emerged in the 1960s and is centered on the science of how people think,
learn, and remember.

Professionals who work in this type of psychology typically study cognitive functions such as
perception, motivation, emotion, language, learning, memory, attention, decision-making, and
problem-solving.

Comparative Psychology

Comparative psychology is the branch of psychology concerned with the study of animal behavior.
This is important because the study of how animals behave can lead to a deeper and broader
understanding of human psychology.
This psychology subtype has its roots in the work of researchers such as Charles Darwin and George
Romanes and has grown into a highly multidisciplinary subject. In addition to psychologists
contributing to this field, so do biologists, anthropologists, ecologists, geneticists, and several others.

Counseling Psychology

Counseling psychology is one of the largest areas of psychology. It is centered on treating clients in
mental distress who may be experiencing a wide variety of psychological symptoms.

The Society of Counseling Psychology explains that professionals working in this type of psychology
can improve their clients' interpersonal functioning throughout life. They do this by improving the
client's social and emotional health, as well as addressing concerns about health, work, family,
marriage, and more.

Cross-Cultural Psychology

Cross-cultural psychology is a branch of psychology that looks at how cultural factors influence
human behavior. This may involve looking at differences between collective and individualist
cultures, for instance. Cross-cultural psychologists might also look at how cultures vary in terms of
emotion, personality, or child development.

The International Association of Cross-Cultural Psychology (IACCP) was established in 1972. This type
of psychology has continued to grow and develop since that time, with increasing numbers of
psychologists investigating how behavior differs among cultures throughout the world.

Developmental Psychology

Developmental psychology focuses on how people change and grow throughout life. This area of
psychology seeks to understand and explain how and why people change. Developmental
psychologists study physical growth, intellectual development, emotional changes, social growth,
and perceptual changes that occur over the course of the lifespan.

Emerging Fields: In addition to the fields mentioned above a number of new areas have emerged.
Some of these fields are sports psychology, military psychology, aviation psychology, forensic
psychology, peace psychology, neuropsychology, political psychology, feminist psychology and
positive psychology.

Scope of Psychology (If this question is asked for essay write the points below as well as elaborate
based on the understanding of different branches of psychology)

The scope of psychology is vast and diverse, encompassing the study of behavior and mental
processes. It delves into various aspects of human cognition, emotion, development, social
interaction, and abnormal behavior. From exploring individual differences to understanding group
dynamics, psychology sheds light on how people think, feel, and behave in different contexts. Its
applications extend across fields like clinical psychology, counseling, organizational behavior,
education, sports, and more. Ultimately, psychology aims to deepen our understanding of the
human mind and behavior, offering insights that can improve individual well-being and enhance
societal functioning.