ELEMENTARY KNOWLEDGE ON SYMMETRY ELEMENTS OF CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC SYSTEMS

CHAPTER 2- MINERALOGY
Mineralogy is the systematic study that extensively covers description, crystallography, physical,
chemical and environmental features of all minerals.

Elementary Knowledge on Symmetry Elements of Crystallographic Systems

Crystallography is the branch of science concerned with the formation, structure, and properties of
crystals. Also known as study of crystals and crystal formation.

5 Symmetry Elements of Crystallographic Systems

1. Identity (E)
2. Proper Axis/Rotational axis of Symmetry (Cn)
3. Plane of Symmetry/Mirror Plane (σ)
4. Center of Symmetry/Inversion Center(i)
5. Rotoinversion (𝒏
̅)

The mirror plane of symmetry and the axis of rotational symmetry are the easiest to see. Also, when viewing
a crystallized mineral specimen they are the most important in determining the system to which a crystal
belongs. The axis of rotatory inversion and the center of symmetry are somewhat less important for diagnostic
use and often difficult to see in a real mineral specimen. In the case of most crystals, the lower termination does
not exist because often the crystal is attached to the matrix. As we shall see in a moment, this severely limits our
ability to characterize the full symmetry of the crystal.

1. Identity(E)
• Simplest symmetry element
• Corresponds to the operation of doing nothing to the object
• Every object has identity
• Asymmetric objects are defined as having just identity.

2. Proper Axis/Rotational axis of Symmetry (Cn)

• An imaginary line passing through the center of mass around which a rotation by 360°/n leaves an
object in an orientation indistinguishable from the original.
• C1=E
a. 1-Fold Rotation Axis - An object that requires rotation of a full 360° in order to
restore it to its original appearance has no rotational symmetry.

b. 2-fold Rotation Axis - If an object appears identical after a rotation of 180° that
is twice in a 360° rotation, then it is said to have a 2-fold rotation axis (360/180 =
2). A filled oval shape represents the point where the 2-fold rotation axis intersects
the page.

c. 3-Fold Rotation Axis - Objects that repeat themselves upon rotation of 120° are
said to have a 3-fold axis of rotational symmetry (360/120 =3), and they will repeat
3 times in a 360° rotation. A filled triangle is used to symbolize the location of 3-fold
rotation axis.
 d. 4-Fold Rotation Axis - If an object repeats itself after 90° of rotation, it will repeat
4 times in a 360° rotation, as illustrated previously. A filled square is used to
symbolize the location of 4-fold axis of rotational symmetry.

e. 6-Fold Rotation Axis - If rotation of 60° about an axis causes the object to repeat
itself, then it has 6-fold axis of rotational symmetry (360/60=6). A filled hexagon is
used as the symbol for a 6-fold rotation axis.

3. Plane of Symmetry/Mirror Plane (σ)

• An imaginary plane divides the crystal in two parts in such a way that one part is mirror of the other,
the crystal is said to have a plane of symmetry.
• Reflection Operation: Two parts on object after reflection through the plane produce the
indistinguishable orientation.
• σ²=E

a. Rectangular Plane of Symmetry b. Diagonal Plane of Symmetry

4. Center of Symmetry/Inversion Center(i)

Center of symmetry is such a point that any line drawn through it touches the
surface of crystal at equal distance in both directions.

5. Rotoinversion (𝒏
̅)

A combination of rotation with a center of inversion.

a. A 1-fold rotoinversion axis is the same as a center of symmetry,

b. 2-fold Rotoinversion - The operation of 2-fold rotoinversion involves first rotating the object by
180o then inverting it through an inversion center.
c. 3-fold Rotoinversion - This involves rotating the object by 120o (360/3 = 120), and inverting through
a center.
d. 4-fold Rotoinversion - This involves rotation of the object by 90o then inverting through a center.
e. 6-fold Rotoinversion - A 6-fold rotoinversion axis ( ) involves rotating the object by 60o and
inverting through a center.
SEVEN PRIMITIVE CRYSTAL SYSTEM
A crystal system is a set of axes. In other words, the structure is an ordered array of atoms, ions or
molecules. Crystal Structure is obtained by attaching atoms, groups of atoms or molecules. This structure occurs
from the intrinsic nature of the constituent particles to produce symmetric patterns.
1. Isometric (cubic)
All three axes are equal in length and all are perpendicular to one another.

2. Tetragonal
Two of the three axes are equal in length and all three axes are perpendicular to one
another.

3. Orthorhombic
All three axes are unequal in length and all are perpendicular to one another.

4. Hexagonal
Of four axes three are equal in length, are separated by equal angles and lie in the same
plane. The fourth axis is perpendicular to the plane of the other three axes. Hexagonal
cells have lattice points in each of the two six-sided faces.

5. Triclinic
All three axes are unequal in length and none is perpendicular to another.

6. Monoclinic
All three axes are unequal in length and two axes are perpendicular to each other.

7. Rhombohedral (trigonal)
All three axes are of equal length and none of the axes is perpendicular to another but the
crystal faces all have the same size and shape.

Importance of Crystallography in Engineering

Crystallography is useful in phase identification. When manufacturing or using a material, it is generally desirable
to know what compounds and what phases are present in the material, as their composition, structure and
proportions will influence the material's properties.
 QUARTZ FAMILY
QUARTZ
• Is a mineral
• Composed of SILICON AND OXYGEN , with a chemical solution of SiO2 (Silica Dioxide)
• SECOND most abundant mineral in Earth’s crust
• Resistant to both CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL WEATHERING

WHERE IS QUARTZ FOUND?

• It is abundant in IGNEOUS, METAMORPHIC, AND SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
• BRAZIL host the largest amount of types of rocks found to date

GWINNETT COUNTY QUARTZ VEIN

• In 2008, a Quartz vein was discovered in GWINNETT COUNTY, GA
• JASON BARRETT is credited with its discovery

KINDS OF QUARTZ
✓ Milky Quartz
✓ Rose Quartz
✓ Amethyst
✓ Smoky Quartz
✓ Citrine

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF QUARTZ

✓ Chemical Classification – SILICATE
✓ Color – Quartz occurs in virtually every color. Common colors are clear, white, gray, purple, yellow,
brown, black, pink, green, red
✓ Streak – COLORLESS (harder than the streak plate)
✓ Luster – Vitreous
✓ Diaphaneity – Transparent to Translucent
✓ Cleavage – NONE (typically breaks with a conchoidal fracture)
✓ Mohs Hardness – 7
✓ Specific Gravity – 2.6 to 2.7
✓ Diagnostic Properties – Conchoidal fracture, glassy luster, hardness
✓ Chemical Composition – SiO2
✓ Crystal System – Trigonal

FORMATION OF QUARTZ
✓ It is formed in IGNEOUS ROCK originally
✓ Molten magma slowly makes its way up to the surface of the Earth. As the magma moves, it is getting cooled
because its farther away from the center of the Earth.
✓ The presence of other elements such as Titanium and Iron Oxide, give the minerals their different hues
✓ Quartz forms from which compounds over time without being distributed.
✓ Quartz formation is in igneous rocks, such as granite, where it can form as a result of the slow cooling and
crystallization of magma
✓ In sedimentary rocks, quartz is often found as a major constituent of sandstones, which are formed from
the accumulation and cementation of sand-sized grains
✓ Quartz can also be found in metamorphic rocks, such as marble and schist, which are formed by
recrystallization of pre-existing rocks under high pressure or temperature.
✓ Quartz can also be deposited from hydrothermal solutions, which are hot, mineral rich fluids that circulate
through fractures and pores spaces in rocks
✓ Quartz also form as a result of biomineralization

USES OF QUARTZ
JEWELRY AND GEMSTONES
✓ Since Quartz is hard, durable, and usually accepts a super polish
✓ Popular Quartz that widely used as a gem stones are Amethyst, Citrine, Rose Quartz, and Aventurine.
Agate and Jasper are also kinds of Quartz with a Microcrystalline structure.
GLASSMAKING
✓ Is one of the primary uses of Quartz
✓ Optical based Quartz crystals are used in the manufacture of lasers, microscopes, electronic sensors, and
scientific instruments
WATCHES AND CLOCK
✓ OSCILLATORS – Quartz crystals ability to vibrate at precise frequencies that helps to regulate the
movement of the watch or clock
✓ PIEZOELCTRIC EFFECT – also used to keep tab on time
REFRACTORY INDUSTRIES
✓ used in the production of refractory bricks because of its shear strength and resistance to heat
ABRASIVES
✓ Due to its hardness and resistance to corrosion, Quart Sand is considered as a wonderful abrasives
PETROLEUM INDUSTRY
✓ Sand slurries are compelled down oil and gasoline wells below very excessive pressures in a technique
referred to as HYDRAULIC FRACTURING
CRUCILES
✓ Quartz crucibles are used in the laboratories for performing chemical reactions and tests
ELECTRONICS
✓ Quart crystals have been used for years to give an accurate frequency for all radio transmitters, radio
receivers, GPS transmitters, and computers
✓ Quartz is unaffected by most solvents and remains crystalline to hundreds of degrees Fahrenheit
FILLER
✓ Quartz sand and ground quartz are used as filler in the manufacture of adhesives, putty, paint, and
rubber
CERAMIC INDUSTRY
✓ Quartz sand is used in the ceramic industry for making ceramic tiles
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION
✓ Sandstone is used as a strong building block and can also be used in generating decorative tiles.
ROAD CONSTRUCTION
✓ Crushed quartzite is used in the construction of roads and making of the railway ballast
DECORATIONS
✓ it has been used in making kitchen countertops and decorating the walls.
OTHER USES:
• Tripoli, Foundry Material (metal casting industry), sharpening tools, synthetic crystals

CONCLUSIONS
Quartz is used in many products as a raw material for huge amounts of construction materials such as glass,
concrete, or mortar and quartz is refined to yield silicon which is critical for computers and other high
technology mainstay of modern life.
 FELDSPAR
Feldspars are a group of minerals having a crystalline form. These are one of the most abundant minerals
found in the Earth’s crust. The word feldspar is derived form the word ‘Feldspat’, of German origin. This word is
used to represent a rock which doesn’t bear any ore component. Feldspars are aluminum silicates comprising
barium, sodium, calcium, or potassium. The term silicate stands for a combination of silicon and oxygen. This
mineral is commonly found in igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks. It is extracted from large granite
formations. In geology, these formations are called plutons. Besides plutons, it is also extracted from sands and
pegmatites

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF FELDSPAR:

• Crystal System: monoclinic or a triclinic
• Refractive Index: 1.518 – 1.526.
• Cleavage: 2 and it consists of two planes that intersect each other at an angle of 90º.
• Moh’s Hardness: 6 – 6.5.
• Density: 2.56 g/cm3
• Double refraction is of the first order.
• Conchoidal or A Brittle Fracture that can be noticed along the cleavage planes
• Luster: vitreous, pearly with a white streak.
• Colors: white, pink, brown, or gray.

TYPES OF FELDSPAR
Plagioclase is the name of the group of minerals that form a solid solution series ranging from pyre albite and
pure anorthite. Feldspars are basically classified into two types by the International Union of Geological Sciences
(IUGS). These two types include plagioclase and alkali.

1.PLAGIOCLASE FELDSPAR
These minerals have a triclinic structure. The list of minerals in this classification includes:
➢ Anorthite – It is mostly found in igneous rocks, and used in making ceramics and cement.
➢ Bytownite – This mineral is one of the rarest types of feldspar.
➢ Labradorite – This mineral is used in tiling, making kitchen counters, and ornaments.

2. ALKALI FELDSPAR
It is a mixture of sodium aluminosilicate and potassium aluminosilicate. These minerals have a monoclinic or a
triclinic structure. They are further classified into four types:
➢ MICROCLINE – With a triclinic arrangement, these minerals have a mild-pink to salmon color. Some of
its varieties―such as amazonite―can be used as gemstones. Microcline is one of the most common
feldspar minerals
➢ ANORTHOCLASE – It has a triclinic formation. It is found in various colors such as yellow, green, or
grayish pink. A variety of microcline, rich in sodium and sometimes having a play of color: sometimes
considered a variety of orthoclase.
➢ ORTHOCLASE – It has a monoclinic structure. These minerals are used in the manufacture of polymers,
to make gemstones, and for fashion jewelry.
➢ SANIDINE – It has a monoclinic arrangement. This mineral is known to be stable at high temperatures.
Its yellow colored variant is used to make gemstones.
USES OF FELDSPAR
➢ Feldspar contains alumina, which results in an increase in the strength of the manufactured product.
Therefore, this mineral is used in glass-making.
➢ It is used as a filler agent for plastic, rubber, and paint.
➢ It is used to make porcelain, sanitary ware, and tableware.
➢ It is used in making mild abrasives, latex foam, and urethane.
➢ This mineral is used in the manufacture of ceramics. It imparts durability and hardness to ceramic
products.

In addition to this, not only are these minerals found on the Earth as constituents of rocks, but also
discovered on the moon and some meteorites.
In relation to Civil Engineering, feldspar helps engineers to determine the strength of materials used in
construction of roads. It can be used as an aggregate that helps bind together gravel into larger pieces that can
be used as fill material or road base material. It also helps to make concrete more durable and resistant to
weathering. It has a high melting point and can withstand high temperatures

AUGITE
It has also been identified in many stone meteorites. Some of these meteorites are thought to be pieces
of Mars or the Moon that were launched into space by large impact events.

HISTORY
Abraham Gottlob Werner, a German geologist and the so called “father of German geology,” discovered and
named augite in 1792. Werner named the mineral after the Greek word “auge,” which means shine or luster,
due to augite’s vitreous luster.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
• Color: Dark Green, Black, Brown
• Streak: Greenish White
• Cleavage: 2 planes of cleavage which intersect at 90°
• Luster: Vitreous on cleavage and crystal faces. Dull on other surfaces
• Mohs Hardness: 5.5 to 6
• Specific Gravity: 3.2 to 3.6
• Habit: No apparent shape

FORMATION
Augite is common in silica-poor rocks and various other dark-colored igneous rocks, as well as igneous rocks of
intermediate silica content. It also occurs in some metamorphic rocks formed at high temperatures
(1,065°F/575°C or above).

USES
Augite does not have any physical, optical, or chemical properties that make it especially useful. It is therefore
one of the few minerals that has no commercial use. The calcium content of augite has been found to be of
limited use in studies of the temperature history of igneous rocks.
 HORNNBLENDE
Hornblende is a complex inosilicate series of minerals. It is not a recognized mineral in its own right, but
the name is used as a general or field term, to refer to a dark amphibole. Hornblende minerals are common in
igneous and metamorphic rocks.

Cleavage: Imperfect at 56° and 124°

Luster: Vitreous to dull
Streak: Pale gray, gray-white, white, colorless
Color: Black to dark green or brown
Specific Gravity: 2.9
Fracture: Uneven
Crystal System: Monoclinic
Hardness: 5–6
It tends to form slender prismatic to bladed crystals, diamond-shaped in cross- section, or is present as irregular
grains or fibrous masses.

HISTORY OF HORNBLENDE
The discovery of Hornblende is not exactly known, however amphiboles (the group of minerals it
belongs to) was discovered in 1801 by French mineralogist René Just Haüy. The name Hornblende was originally
given in 1789 by Abraham Gottlieb Werner. Hornblende got its name from the German word horn and blended
which means to blind or to dazzle. The meaning of the name is any dark prismatic mineral that occurs in ores
but does not contain any recoverable metals.
OCCURRENCES
Hornblende is a common constituent of many igneous and metamorphic rocks such as granite, diorite
and basalt. It crystallizes in preference to pyroxene minerals from cooler magma that is richer in silica and water.
HORNBLENDE AS A ROCK-FORMING MINERAL
Hornblende is a rock-forming mineral that is an important constituent in acidic and intermediate
igneous rocks such as granite. It is also found in metamorphic rocks such as gneiss and schist. A few rocks consist
almost entirely of hornblende.
IDENTIFICATION OF HORNBLENDE
Hornblende minerals as a group are relatively easy to identify. The diagnostic properties are their dark
color and the directions. The angle between the cleavage planes and hornblende's elongate habit can be used
to distinguish it from augite and other minerals that have a short blocky habit and cleavage. The presence of
cleavage can be used to distinguish it from other minerals that often occurs in the same rocks.

USES OF HORNBLENDE
The mineral hornblende has very few uses. Its primary use might be as a mineral specimen. However,
hornblende is the most abundant mineral in a rock known as amphibolite which has a large number of uses like;
✓ It is crushed and used for highway construction and as railroad ballast.
✓ It is cut for use as dimension stone.
✓ The highest quality pieces are cut, polished, and sold under the name "black granite"
✓ building facing
✓ floor tiles
✓ Countertops
✓ Hornblende has been used to estimate the depth of crystallization of plutonic rocks. Those with low
aluminum content are associated with shallow depths of crystallization, while those with higher
aluminum content are associated with greater depths of crystallization. This information is useful in
understanding the crystallization of magma and also useful for mineral exploration
 BIOTITE
✓ A generally black or dark green form of mica that is a constituent of crystalline rocks and consists of a
silicate of iron, magnesium, potassium, and aluminum.
✓ Abundant in metamorphic rocks (both regional and contact), in pegmatites, and also in granites and
other intrusive igneous rocks.
✓ Also known as "black mica".

Color: Brown to black (sometimes greenish). Its streak is white or gray, and it has a vitreous luster.
Density: 2.9-3.4
Hardness: 2.5-3
Chemical Formula: K(Mg,Fe) 3AISI 30 10(F,OH) 2.
Streak: White
Class: Silicates
Transparency: Transparent or translucent
Cleavage: Perfect Cleavage
Luster: Pearly luster

BACKGROUND OF BIOTITE
• Originated by reaction of chlorite, muscovite and ilmenite, producing rutile, K-feldspar and quartz as
subordinate reaction products. Chlorite composition did not change as the reaction progressed but
muscovite became depleted in K and (Mg+Fe+Mn) while gaining a little Ti.
• Named in honor Jean Baptiste Biot (1774-1862), a French physicist, mathematician, and astronomer
who researched the mica minerals for their optical properties.

AGE
• Paleoarchean to Quaternary: 3366 Ma to 0.49 ± 0.01 Ma- based on 318 recorded ages.

WHERE IS IT FOUND?
• Occurs in platonic igneous rocks ranging from granites to gabbronorite to syenites. Large crystals may
form in pegmatites.
• Can form phenocrysts in lava flows of dacitic or andesitic composition.
• Also common in metamorphic rocks where it is a frequent component of schists, gneisses and phyllites.

WHAT MINERALS ARE IN BIOTITE?

Potassium, Iron, Magnesium, Aluminum, Silicate, Hydroxide, Fluoride

WHAT IS BIOTITE COMMONLY USED FOR?

• Commonly used to limit the age of rocks through potassium-argon escort or argon -argon escort.
• Also useful for evaluating the temperature histories of metamorphic rocks, because the division of iron
and magnesium between biotite and garnet is temperature sensitive.

KEY TAKEAWAYS
• Biotite is dark colored mica. It is an aluminosilicate mineral that forms sheets or flakes.
• Although biotite is sometimes called black mica, it occurs in other colors, including brown, greenish
brown, yellow, and even white.
• Biotite occurs with other types of mica, within a single rock.
• The primary use of biotite is to date the minimum age of rocks and geological features.
 MUSCOVITE
✓ Muscovite is a common mineral that belongs to the mica group.
✓ The name Muscovite derives from its use in window as Muscovy glass
✓ In the 1700s it was mined for this use from pegmatites in the area around Moscow, Russia.

Chemical Composition: KAl2(AlSi3O10)(OH)2

Hardness: 2-2.5
Color: usually colorless or pale gray, but it can also be found in shades of brown, green, pink, and purple.
Cleavage: known for its excellent cleavage, which allows it to be easily split into thin, transparent sheets.

FORMATION:
✓ formed in metamorphic, igneous, and sedimentary environments. It is a common mineral in
metamorphic rocks, especially in schist and gneiss. Muscovite can also be found in igneous rocks such
as granite, pegmatite, and syenite. In these rocks, it typically forms as a result of hydrothermal
alteration, which occurs when hot fluids circulate through the rock and alter the mineral composition.

PROPERTIES:
✓ Muscovite is a silicate mineral with a sheet-like structure. It has a monoclinic crystal system and is
typically found in the form of thin, platy crystals. Muscovite has a perfect basal cleavage, which allows
it to be easily split into thin, transparent sheets. These sheets are flexible and elastic, and they can be
bent and folded without breaking. Muscovite has a low refractive index and a high birefringence,
which means that it can produce interference colors when viewed under polarized light. Muscovite is
also known for its ability to withstand high temperatures and pressures, which makes it useful in a
variety of industrial applications.

USES:
✓ Muscovite has a number of industrial uses, including as a filler in the production of rubber and plastics,
as an insulating material in the electrical industry, and as a component in building materials such as
drywall and cement. Muscovite is also used in the production of lubricants, cosmetics, and paints. In
addition to its industrial uses, muscovite is also used as a decorative stone and as a gemstone.
Muscovite is sometimes cut and polished into cabochons and used in jewelry.

In conclusion, muscovite is a common mineral that is formed in a variety of environments, including

metamorphic, igneous, and sedimentary rocks. It is known for its excellent cleavage, sheet-like structure, and
ability to withstand high temperatures and pressures. Muscovite has a number of industrial uses, as well as
decorative and gemstone uses.
 CALCITE
Named as a mineral by Gaius Plinius Secundus (Pliny the elder) in 79 CE from Calx, Latin for Lime, and the
related German word calcit.

WHAT IS CALCITE?
✓ Calcite is a carbonate mineral, meaning that it contains the chemical carbonate
✓ Carbonate is made of 1 atom of carbon and 3 atoms of oxygen and has an electric charge of −2.
✓ Calcite is a rock-forming mineral with a chemical formula of CaCO3.
✓ Calcite is the most common form of calcium carbonate.
✓ It is extremely common and found throughout the world in sedimentary, metamorphic, and igneous
rocks and is known for the variety and beautiful development of its crystals.
✓ Some geologists consider it to be a “ubiquitous mineral” – one that is found everywhere.

COMPOSITION
Calcium carbonate, CaC03.
CaO = 56.0 %
CO2 = 44.0 %

Molecular Weight = 100.09 gm (gram mole)

• Calcium = 40.04 %
• Carbon = 12.00 %
• Oxygen = 47.96 %

ALL ABOUT CALCITE

✓ Crystals with shallow rhombohedral terminations are called nailhead spar. (calcite that crystallizes in
nail-headed forms)
✓ Highly transparent calcite is called optical spar.
✓ Occur most often as scalenohedra and are commonly twinned, sometimes forming heart-shaped,
butterfly twins.
A hemihedral crystal form of 8 or 12 faces, each face being a scalene triangle.
✓ Although calcite can form spectacular crystals, it is usually massive, occurring either as marble or as
limestone.

VARIETIES
• Cobaltocalcite - This is a cobalt-rich type of calcite with the color of pink.
• Salmon Calcite - Orange/red (salmon) color of calcite and cannot be seen through.
• Iceland Spar - Colorless to slightly colored, transparent, rhombohedral type of calcite. Easy to see
double refraction.
• Sand Calcite - Sand that gets trapped in calcite during the formation.

ASSOCIATED ROCK TYPES:

• Calcite is mainly found in limestone and marble.
• it is the principal constituent of limestone and marble. there these rocks are extremely common and
make up a significant portion of Earth’s crust.
• Calcite can also sometimes be found in igneous rocks like carbonatites and kimberlites.
ENVIRONMENT
• Calcite is most often found in a sedimentary settings, especially in marine areas that are not very deep.
• It can also find calcite in hot spring deposits and hydrothermal veins.

CALCITE PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

COLOR
Usually white but also colorless, gray, red, green, blue, yellow, brown, orange.

STREAK - A better determinant of the true color of a mineral is its streak. Streak is a test used by a geologist to
see the color of the mineral under the top layer or coating on the mineral
White

LUSTER - property of a mineral that tells how the mineral reflects light. Luster gives you an indication of how
"Shiny" a mineral is.
Vitreous (like glass in appearance or physical properties.)

DIAPHANEITY - Diaphaneity refers to a mineral's ability to transmit light.

Transparent to translucent.

CLEAVAGE/FRACTURE
Perfect, rhombohedral, three directions.
Rhomboid - six-sided solid object in which the opposite sides are parallel.
It has perfect cleavage in three directions. If you hit calcite with a hammer it will break into smaller but
perfectly shaped rhomboids.

MOHS HARDNESS: 3

CRYSTAL SYSTEM: rhombohedral structure

HEXAGONAL CRYSTALS
Calcite forms in a huge (more than 12,000) number of shapes. It has a rhombohedral structure and
frequently shows hexagonal crystals.

TENACITY - the quality or fact of being able to grip something firmly

Brittle

DENSITY
2.7102(2) g/cm3 (Measured)
2.711 g/cm3 (Calculated)

PARTING - Parting breaks are very similar in appearance to cleavage, but the cause is different.
Readily along twin lamellae
In calcite, such lamellae can occur both parallel to the rhomb edges (A and B) and parallel to the long diagonal
of the rhomb, but not the short diagonal.

CALCITE OPTICAL PROPERTIES

REFRACTIVE INDICES VALUES:
• epsilon = 1.486
• omega = 1.658
MAX BIREFRINGENCE - double refraction of light in a transparent, molecularly ordered material
omega - epsilon = 0.172 = δ

OPTIC SIGN - Indicates the type of double refraction in a mineral. In uniaxial minerals, the material is said to be
positive when the extraordinary ray has a higher refractive index than the ordinary ray and negative when the
ordinary ray has the greater index.
Uniaxial (-)
They are called uniaxial because they have a single optic axis.

OPTIC ORIENTATION:
Difficult to determine due to high birefringence
EXTINCTION
Symmetrical to cleavage traces
when crystal is in an extinct position, birefringent calcite dust formed by grinding is visible.

WHAT TEST CAN BE USED TO IDENTIFY CALCITE FROM OTHER MINERALS?

MINERAL ACID TEST
The mineral calcite is tested against a cold, dilute (10%) solution of hydrochloric acid (HCl). Observation
reveals a reaction that is characteristic of this mineral and helps in identifying calcite.

HOW TO IDENTIFY CALCITE?

Calcite is typically white with a transparent look. What sets it apart from other minerals is the perfect
cleavage it has allowing it to form a perfect rhombus. Also, to be certain or to see if a rock contains calcite, we
can put acid on it and it will make little CO2 bubbles. It also has a hardness of 3, which makes it scratchable by
a penny.

IMPORTANCE OF CALCITE IN ENGINEERING INDUSTRY

• The construction industry is the primary consumer of calcite in the form of limestone and marble.
• These rocks have been used as dimension stones.
• Modern construction uses calcite in the form of limestone and marble to produce cement and concrete.
• These materials are easily mixed, transported, and placed in the form of a slurry that will harden into a
durable construction material.
• Concrete is used to make buildings, highways, bridges, walls, and many other structures.
 GARNET
• Garnets are group of silicate minerals that have been used since the Bronze Age as gemstones and
abrasives.
• The name was coined by a German theologian, Albrecht Von Bollstadt (1193-1280)
• The name “garnet” comes from the Latin granatus, from granum ('grain, seed'), referring to the red seeds
in pomegranate, which resemble the mineral.

GARNET GROUP
✓ Almandine
✓ Pyrope
✓ Spessartine
✓ Andradite
✓ Uvarovite
✓ Grossular
✓ Tsavorite
✓ Hessonite

PROPERTIES
TYPE Mineral
MINERAL CLASSIFICATION Silicate
CHEMICAL FORMULA X3Y2(SiO4)3
LUSTER Vitreous, resinous
CRYSTAL SYSTEM Isometric
STREAK White
CHEMICAL CONTENT Fe,Mg,Ca,Mn,Al,Si,O
HARDNESS 6.5-7.5
COLORS Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Purple, Brown, Black,
Pink, Colorless

USES
✓ Alternative for hazardous minerals.
✓ Used in rechargeable battery technologies.
✓ Abrasive blasting granules.
✓ Abrasive grits and powders.
✓ Filtration granules.
✓ Waterjet cutting granules.
✓ Gemstones (such as garnet birthstone, garnet earrings).
 IGNEOUS ROCKS
• From the Latin word ignis which means “fire”.
• Approximately 90% of the earth's crust is composed of igneous rocks but their great abundance is hidden
on the earth's surface by a relatively thin layer of sedimentary and metamorphic rocks.
• are formed by cooling and solidification of Magma. 'Magma' is a hot viscous, siliceous melt containing
water vapor and gases. Magma comes from great depth below the earth's surface, such magma is called
LAVA.

OCCURRENCE OF IGNEOUS ROCKS

TWO MAJOR TYPES OF IGNEOUS ROCKS
1. Extrusive Or Volcanic Rocks(On The Surface)
- The rocks formed due to cooling and solidification of magma at the crust surface are called
"extrusive rocks". The extrusive rocks are also called the "volcanic rocks".
- Volcanic rocks often contain gas cavities, called the "vesicles". These rocks sometimes show "flow
structure" which is the result of movement in a viscous lava.
2. Intrusive Or Plutonic Rocks (Below The Surface)
- Intrusive rocks are formed when magma crystallizes beneath the earth's surface. Depending on
the depth of formation, intrusive rocks are divided into two groups:
1. Plutonic Rocks - Rocks crystallized at great depths are called "plutonic rocks".
2. Hypabyssal Rocks - Hypabyssal rocks are formed when magma solidifies close to the earth's
surface. It exhibits mixed characteristics of volcanic and plutonic.

GENERAL PROPERTIES OF IGNEOUS ROCKS

1. They all contain minerals.
2. The majority are made up of silicate materials.
3. The process of igneous rock formation cannot be directly observed.
4. They can be fine-grained or coarse-grained.
5. Lava that cools quickly often has a glassy texture.

Igneous Rock Textures

a. Aphanitic - Describes the texture of fine-grained igneous rock in which different components are not
distinguishable by the unaided eye.
b. Glassy - Describes the texture of certain extrusive (volcanic) igneous rocks that is similar to broken glass
and developed as a result of rapid cooling of the lava without distinctive crystallization. Synonymous with
"vitreous.“
c. Phaneritic-Describes an igneous rock texture in which mineral grains are large enough to be seen with
the unaided eye and are of approximately equal size.
d. Porphyritic- Describes an igneous rock of any composition that contains conspicuous phenocrysts (larger
crystals) in a fine-grained groundmass.

Other Classifications of Igneous Rocks

• Felsic Igneous Rock- Formed by magma that is dominated by silicon and aluminum.
• Intermediate Igneous Rock - Intermediate igneous rock is formed by magma that has a composition
between felsic and mafic.
• Mafic Igneous Rock - Mafic igneous rock is formed by magma that is dominated by ferromagnesian
minerals (iron and magnesium).
• Ultramafic Igneous Rock- Ultramafic igneous rock is almost entirely ferromagnesian in nature, with
the addition of olivine.
DISTRIBUTION OF IGNEOUS ROCKS
IGNEOUS ROCKS FORM AT FOUR MAIN PLACES ON EARTH:
✓ At divergent boundaries, like mid-ocean ridges, plates drift apart and form gaps that are filled by
magma.
✓ Subduction zones occur whenever a dense oceanic plate is subducted underneath another oceanic or
continental plate
✓ At continental-continental convergent boundaries, large land masses collide, thickening and heating
the crust to melting.
✓ Hot spots, like Hawaii, form as the crust moves over a thermal plume rising from deep in the Earth. Hot
spots form extrusive igneous rocks.

EXAMPLES OF IGNEOUS ROCKS AND THEIR USES IN CONSTRUCTION

✓ Granite -Granite is a light-colored igneous rock with grains large.
✓ Syenite - Syenite is an igneous rock which is strong and durable like granite.
✓ Diorite - Diorite is the name used for a group of coarse-grained igneous rocks with a Composition
between that of granite and basalt.
✓ Gabbro - Gabbro is a coarse-grained, dark-colored, intrusive igneous rock.
✓ Pegmatite - Pegmatites are extreme igneous rocks that form during the final stage of a magma’s
crystallization.
✓ Dolerite - Dolerite is the medium-grained equivalent of gabbro.
✓ Basalt - Basalt is a dark-colored, fine-grained, igneous rock composed mainly of plagioclase and
pyroxene minerals
 SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
INTRODUCTION:
- Sedimentary rocks are types of rock that are formed by the accumulation or deposition of mineral or
organic particles at Earth's surface, followed by cementation. Sedimentation is the collective name for
processes that cause these particles to settle in place.
- Found near the Earth's surface, in contrast to metamorphic and igneous rocks, which are formed deep
within the Earth.
- The most important geological processes that lead to the creation of sedimentary rocks are erosion,
weathering, dissolution, precipitation, and lithification.
- These rocks also form in pre-existing rocks or pieces of once-living organisms and from deposits that
accumulate on the Earth's surface.

4 MAJOR TYPES OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS (SR):

1. Clastic SR - form from the accumulation and lithification of mechanical weathering debris.
2. Chemical SR - form when dissolved materials precipitate from solution.
3. Organic SR - form from the accumulation of plant or animal debris.
4. Biochemical SR - formed from shells and bodies of underwater organisms. The living organisms extract
chemical components from the water and use them to build shells and other body parts. Components
include aragonite, a mineral similar to and commonly replaced by calcite, and silica.

OCCURRENCE:
• The sedimentary rock covers 73% of the Earth's current land surface.
• The total contribution of sedimentary rocks is estimated to be only 8% of the total volume of the crust.
• This thickness is quite variable, however, with some areas, like the Canadian Shield having no cover of
sedimentary rocks, and other areas, like the Louisiana and Texas Gulf coasts, having more than 20,000
m of sedimentary rock cover.
• Still, about 66% of all continental areas have a cover of sedimentary rocks.

OCCURRENCE, PROPERTIES, AND DISTRIBUTIONS OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

• Diagenesis- refers to the physical and chemical processes that affect sedimentary materials after
deposition and before metamorphism and between deposition and weathering.
• Lithification - It refers to the process that loose and underconsolidated Sediment particles
transform into hard and solid rocks.
• Compaction - when sediments lose the pores space in between as the result of loading on top.
• Cementation-Cementation happens as dissolved minerals become deposited in the spaces
between the sediments
SHALE
Occurrence: Most common rock form on Earth it is about 70 percent of the rock found in the Earth's crust. Forms
in very deep ocean water, lagoons, lakes and swamps where the water is still enough to allow the extremely fine
clay and silt particles to settle to the floor.
Properties of Shale:
• Texture: Clastic (only noticeable with a microscope).
• Composition: Composed mostly of quartz sand, but it can also contain significant amounts of feldspar,
and sometimes silt and clay. Sandstone that contains more than 90% quartz is called quartzose
sandstone.
• Color: Red, brown, green, gray, and black
SANDSTONE
Occurrence: when grains of sand are compacted and cemented together over thousands or millions of years.
• It is the second most common sedimentary rock after shale, constituting about 10 to 20 percent of
the sedimentary rocks in the Earth's crust.
• Large deposits found in the United States, South Africa, Czech republic, England, India, Australia,
Israel, Mongolia, Russia, Scotland and Germany.
Properties of Sandstone:
• Texture: Clastic
• Composition: Composed mostly of quartz sand, but it can also contain significant amounts
of feldspar, and sometimes silt and clay.
• Color: Light tan. Other elements, however, create colors in sandstone. The most common
sandstones have various shades of red, caused by iron oxide (rust).

LIMESTONE
Occurrence: Most limestones form in shallow, calm, warm marine waters between 30 degrees north latitude and
30 degrees south latitude.
Properties of Limestone:
• Texture: It is a soft rock and is easily scratched.
• Composition: Clay minerals, Quartz
• Color: Dark Gray to Black

CONGLAMORATE
Occurrence: Conglomerate rock occurs where gravel can become rounded by traveling distances or being
subjected to tumbling. Beaches, riverbeds, and glaciers can produce conglomerate. The properties of
conglomerate rock depend on its composition. It can be found in any color and may be either hard or soft.
Properties of Conglamorate:
• Texture: Clastic; Coarse-grained (2 – 64 mm)
• Composition: Quartz, Feldspar
• Color: Tan to brown

BRECCIA
The word breccia originated from the Italian language which means “loose gravel”.
-Occurrence: Sedimentary breccia may be formed by the debris flow of a submarine. Fault breccia is produced
by fracture and grinding during faulting and found within the fault plane.
Properties of Breccia:
• Texture: Clastic; Coarse-grained (2-64mm)
• Composition: Quartz, Feldspar, Lithics
• Color: Reddish Brown

Uses of Sedimentary Rocks in Construction Industry

- Building Construction
- Structural Wall Construction
- Cement Production
- Concrete Production
- Pavement and Road Construction
- Architectural and Monumental Stone
- Facade Construction
- used in the construction of earthen dam, railroad ballast, canals, and as a rock fill.
 METAMORPHIC ROCKS
- The word “metamorphic” comes from the Greek word means “to change form”.
- form from heat and pressure changing the original or parent rock into a new completely new rock
- parent rock can be either sedimentary, igneous, or even another metamorphic rock.
- Examples: Marble, Slate, Anthracite, Quartzite, Gneiss, and Schist.

THE DESCENDING OF ROCK LAYERS AT SUBDUCTION ZONES CAUSES METAMORPHISM IN TWO WAYS:
• The shearing effect of the plates sliding past each other causes the rocks coming in contact with the
descending rocks to change. Some of the descending rocks will melt because of this friction.
• When rocks melt it is then considered igneous not metamorphic, but the rock next to the melted rock
can be changed by heat and become a metamorphic rock.

METAMORPHISM
• A change in the constitution of rock specifically: a pronounced change effected by the pressure, heat,
and water that results in a more compact and more highly crystalline condition.

TWO MAIN WAYS THAT METAMORPHIC ROCKS CAN FORM

1. CONTACT METAMORPHISM
occurs when magma comes in contact with an already existing body of rock.
2. REGIONAL METAMORPHISM
- occurs in a wide area.

METAMORPHIC ROCKS ARE DIVIDED INTO TWO CATEGORIES:

1. FOLIATE
• Foliate comes from the latin word that means “sheets”, as in the sheets of paper in a book.
• Composed of large amounts of micas and chlorites. These minerals have very distinct cleavage.
• Foliated rocks generally develop from a parent rock containing multiple minerals or mixtures of
multiple rock types.
2. NON FOLIATES
• Non foliates are metamorphic rocks that have no cleavage at all, example quartzite and marble.

EXAMPLES
QUARTZITE
- Quartzite is a non-foliated metamorphic rock composed almost entirely of quartz.
- It is dominated by quartz, and in many cases, the original quartz grains of the sandstone are welded
together with additional silica.
Formation
- Quartzite is metamorphosed sandstone.
- It forms when a quartz-rich sandstone is altered by the heat, pressure, and chemical activity of
metamorphism.
Characteristic and Physical Properties of Rocks
• Texture: Granular
• Parent Rock: Sandstone
• Hardness: 7 on Moh’s scale hardness
• Color: Pure quartzite is white but quartzite exists in a wide variety of color.
• Other features: Generally gritty to touch.
• Porosity: Quartzite has a range of porosities.
Uses
• Quartzite is use for making bricks and other strong building materials.
• Crushed quartzite can be use as railroad track ballast because is so hard and durable.
• It can be used in many different shapes and forms including landscaping, building stone, as a feature
wall, tiles or even stone cladding. Some of the most common uses indoors are floors, countertops,
vanities, fireplace surrounds, etc
Additional Facts About Quartzite
• At least 90% of quartzite rock is quartz.
• The purest form of silica found on Earth can be found in quartzite.
• The shade of quartzite is dependent upon the amount of iron oxide.
• Can be found in many countries including Canada, the United Kingdom, and the United States is present.

MARBLE
• The word “marble” derives from the Ancient Greek mármaros , “crystalline rock, shining stone”
• Marble is a granular metamorphic rock, it is derived from limestone or dolomite and it consists of a
mass of interlocking grains of calcite or the mineral dolomite.
Formation
• Form of it when limestone buried deep in the older layers of Earth’s crust is subjected to heat and
pressure from thick layers of overlying sediments.
• It may also form as a result of contact metamorphism near igneous intrusions.
Characteristic And Physical Properties
• Color White, pink
• Parent Rock: Limestone
• Grain size – medium grained; can see interlocking calcite crystals with the naked eye.
• Hardness – 3 on Moh’s scale of hardness
• Rocks Texture: Granoblastic, granular:.
Uses
Marble is a versatile and beautiful natural stone that has been used for centuries in a wide variety of applications.:
• Building and architecture
• Sculpture
• Countertops and tabletops
• Flooring
• Landscaping
• Art and crafts

SLATE
• comes from the Old French word “scalar” meaning fragment, from the verb slater, to shatter.
• Is a fine-grained, foliated metamorphic rock this is created via the alteration of shale or mudstone by
means of low-grade local metamorphism. It is famous for a extensive form of makes use of such as
roofing, floors, and flagging due to its sturdiness and appealing look.
Formation
• usually formed from mudstone that has been put under pressure and heated up during plate collisions
and mountain building.
Characteristics and physical properties
• Parent Rock: Shale, Mudstone, or Siltstone.
• Color: Gray slate is common, but occurs in a variety of colors, including brown, purple, green, and blue.
• Texture – Foliated Metamorphic Rock
• Grain size – Very fine-grained; crystals not visible to the naked eye.
• Hardness –it ranges between 2.5-4 on the Moh’s scale
• Other features – smooth to touch.
Uses: Slate is mainly used for:
• Roofing
• Facade cladding Flooring
• Decorative aggregate
• Other uses: tables, countertops, plates for restaurant.

GNEISS
• Gneiss first has been used English since at least 1757. German word Gneiss that mean “spark”.
• foliated metamorphic rock that is a common distribute type of rock high-grade regional metamorphic
approaches from pre-current formations that have been initially both igneous or sedimentary rocks.
Formation
• All gneiss forms as a result of high-grade, regional metamorphic conditions.
• Gneiss rocks exhibit a unique form of foliation known as gneissic banding, which are thicker bands of
foliation than most metamorphic rocks display. It is one of the features that helps differentiate gneiss
from other foliated rocks.
Physical Properties
• Parent Rock: Shale, granitic and volcanic rocks
• Texture: Foliated, foliation on a scale of cm or more.
• Grain size: Medium to coarse grained; seeing with the naked eye.
• Hardness: it ranges 6-7 on the Moh’s scale
• Color: generally alternating lighter and darker sub-parallel discontinuous bands.
• Other features: Generally rough to touch.
Uses
• It is long lasting sufficient to carry out properly as a size stone. These rocks are sawn or sheared into
blocks and slabs utilized in a ramification of constructing, paving, and curbing initiatives.
• Some of it accepts a vibrant polish and is appealing sufficient to be used as an architectural stone.
Beautiful floor tiles, facing stone, stair treads, window sills, counter tops, and cemetery monuments are
regularly crafted from polished gneiss.

SCHIST
• Name origin: The name is derived from the Greek word that means “to split.”
• Schist is foliated medium grade metamorphic rock.
• It usually has better crystallization of mica minerals. They are biotite, chlorite and muscovite so this
called schistosity texture.
Physical Properties
• Texture – Foliated, Foliation, Schistosity Texture
• Parent Rock: Shale, Siltstone, and some Sandstone
• Grain size – Fine to medium grained; can often see crystals with the naked eye.
• Hardness – 4-5 on the Moh’s scale
• Color – Usually alternating lighter and darker bands, often shiny.
• Other features –Smooth to touch.
Formation
• Schist is medium grade metamorphic rock, formed by the metamorphosis of mudstone /shale, or some
types of igneous rock, to a higher degree than slate, it has been subjected to higher temperatures and
pressures.
Uses
• It is used in building houses or walls.
• It has been previously used to make decorative rock walls.
• Presently, It is used as a decorative stone as well as for jewelry.