Gears General

© McGraw Hill 1
 Types of Gears

Spur Helical

Figs. 13–1 to 13–4

Bevel Worm
© McGraw Hill 2
 Nomenclature of Spur-Gear Teeth 1

Fig. 13–5

© McGraw Hill 3
 Nomenclature of Spur-Gear Teeth 2

Pitch circle is a theoretical circle upon which all calculations are usually based.
The pitch circles of a pair of mating gears are tangent to each other.
Pitch diameter is the diameter of the pitch circle.
Pinion is the smaller of two mating gears. The larger is often called the gear.

© McGraw Hill 4
 Nomenclature of Spur-Gear Teeth 3

Circular pitch p is the distance, measured on the pitch circle, from a point on one tooth to
a corresponding point on an adjacent tooth. Thus the circular pitch is equal to the sum of
the tooth thickness and the width of space.
Module m is the ratio of the pitch diameter to the number of teeth. The customary unit of
length used is the millimeter. The module is the index of tooth size in SI.
Diametral pitch P is the ratio of the number of teeth on the gear to the pitch diameter.
Thus, it is the reciprocal of the module. Since diametral pitch is used only with U.S. units,
it is expressed as teeth per inch.

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 Nomenclature of Spur-Gear Teeth 4

Addendum a is the radial distance between the top land and the pitch circle.
Dedendum b is the radial distance from the bottom land to the pitch circle.
Whole depth ht is the sum of the addendum and the dedendum.
Clearance circle is a circle that is tangent to the addendum circle of the mating gear.
Clearance c is the amount by which the dedendum in a given gear exceeds the addendum
of its mating gear.
Backlash is the amount by which the width of a tooth space exceeds the thickness of the
engaging tooth measured on the pitch circles.

© McGraw Hill 6
 Tooth Size

N
P= (13 - 1)
d
d
m= (13 - 2)
N
d
p= =m (13 - 3)
N
pP =  (13 - 4)
where P = diametral pitch, teeth per inch
N = number of teeth
d = pitch diameter, in or mm
m = module, mm
p = circular pitch, in or mm

© McGraw Hill 7
 Tooth Sizes in General Use 1

Diametral Pitch P (teeth/in)

Coarse 2, 2 14 , 2 12 , 3, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 16

Fine 20, 24, 32, 40, 48, 64, 80, 96, 120, 150, 200

Module m (mm/tooth)
Preferred 1, 1.25, 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 16, 20, 25, 32, 40, 50
Next Choice 1.125, 1.375, 1.75, 2.25, 2.75, 3.5, 4.5, 5.5, 7, 9, 11, 14, 18, 22, 28, 36, 45

Table 13–2

© McGraw Hill 8
 Standardized Tooth Systems (Spur Gears)

Tooth System Pressure Angle ϕ, deg Addendum a Dedendum b

Full depth 20 1/P or m 1.25/P or 1.25m
1.35/P or 1.35m
22 12 1/P or m 1.25/P or 1.25m
1.35/P or 1.35m
25 1/P or m 1.25/P or 1.25m
1.35/P or 1.35m
Stub 20 0.8/P or 0.8m 1/P or m

Table 13–1

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 Conjugate Action 1

When surfaces roll/slide

against each other and
produce constant angular
velocity ratio, they are said
to have conjugate action.
Can be accomplished if
instant center of velocity
between the two bodies
remains stationary between
the grounded instant centers.

Fig. 13–6
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 Conjugate Action 2

Forces are transmitted on line

of action which is normal to
the contacting surfaces.
Angular velocity ratio is
inversely proportional to the
radii to point P, the pitch
point.
1 r2
= (13 - 5)
2 r1

Circles drawn through P from

each fixed pivot are pitch
circles, each with a pitch radius.
Fig. 13–6
© McGraw Hill 11
 Involute Profile

The most common

conjugate profile is the
involute profile.
Can be generated by
unwrapping a string from a
cylinder, keeping the string
taut and tangent to the
cylinder.
Circle is called base circle.

Fig. 13–7a
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 Involute Profile Producing Conjugate Action

Fig. 13–7
© McGraw Hill 13
 Circles of a Gear Layout

Fig. 13–8
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 Sequence of Gear Layout

Pitch circles in contact.

Pressure line at desired pressure
angle.
Base circles tangent to pressure
line.
Involute profile from base
circle.
Cap teeth at addendum circle at
1/P from pitch circle.
Root of teeth at dedendum
circle at 1.25/P from pitch
circle.
Tooth spacing from circular
pitch, p = π / P Fig. 13–8

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 Relation of Base Circle to Pressure Angle

rbi = ri cos  i = 1, 2 (13 - 6)

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 Tooth Action

First point of contact at a

where flank of pinion
touches tip of gear.
Last point of contact at b
where tip of pinion
touches flank of gear
Line ab is line of action.
Angle of action is sum of
angle of approach and
angle of recess.

Fig. 13–8

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 Rack

A rack is a spur gear with an pitch diameter of infinity.

The sides of the teeth are straight lines making an angle to the line of centers
equal to the pressure angle.
The base pitch and circular pitch, shown in Fig. 13–9, are related by
pb = pc cos (13 – 7)

Fig. 13–9

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 Internal Gear

Fig. 13–10
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 Example 13–1 (1)

A gearset consists of a 16-tooth pinion driving a 40-tooth gear. The diametral pitch is 2, and the
addendum and dedendum are 1∕P and 1.25∕P, respectively. The gears are cut using a pressure angle of
20°.
(a) Compute the circular pitch, the center distance, and the radii of the base circles.
1
(b) In mounting these gears, the center distance was incorrectly made 4
in larger. Compute the new
values of the pressure angle and the pitch-circle diameters.
Solution  
p= = = 1.571in
Answer (a) P 2
The pitch diameters of the pinion and gear are, respectively,
Np 16 N G 40
dp = = = 8 in dG = = = 20 in
P 2 P 2
Therefore the center distance is
d P + dG 8 + 20
Answer = = 14in
2 2
From Equation (13–6), with a 20° pressure angle, the base radii are
8
Answer (rb ) pinion = cos 20 = 3.759in
2
20
Answer (rb )gear = cos 20 = 9.397 in
2

© McGraw Hill 20
 Example 13–1 (2)

1
(b) Designating d′P and d′G as the new pitch-circle diameters, the 4 -in increase in the
center distance requires that
d P + dG
= 14.250 (1)
2
Also, the velocity ratio does not change, and hence
d p 16
= (2)

dG 40
Solving Equations (1) and (2) simultaneously yields

Answer d p = 8.143in dG = 20.357 in

Since rb = r cos ϕ, using either the pinion or gear, the new pressure angle is
(rb ) pinion 3.759
Answer   = cos−1
= cos −1 = 22.59

dP 2 8.143 2

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 Contact Ratio 1

Arc of action qt is the sum of the arc of approach qa and the arc of recess qr., that is
qt = qa + qr

The contact ratio mc is the ratio of the arc of action and the circular pitch.
qt
mc = (13 - 8)
p
The contact ratio is the average number of pairs of teeth in contact.

Fig. 13–11
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 Contact Ratio 2

Contact ratio can also be found from the length of the line of action.
Lab
mc = (13 - 9)
p cos 

The contact ratio should be at least 1.2

Fig. 13–11
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 Interference

Contact of portions of tooth

profiles that are not
conjugate is called
interference.
Occurs when contact occurs
below the base circle.
If teeth were produced by
generating process (rather
than stamping), then the
generating process removes
the interfering portion;
known as undercutting.
Fig. 13–12
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 Interference of Spur Gears 1

On spur and gear with one-to-one gear ratio, smallest number of

teeth which will not have interference is

NP =
2k
3sin 
2 (
1 + 1 + 3sin 2
 ) (13 - 10)

k =1 for full depth teeth. k = 0.8 for stub teeth.

On spur meshed with larger gear with gear ratio mG = NG/NP = m,
the smallest number of teeth which will not have interference is

NP =
2k
(1 + 2m ) sin 
2 (m + m 2
+ (1 + 2 m ) sin 2
 ) (13 - 11)

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 Interference of Spur Gears 2

Largest gear with a specified pinion that is interference-free is

N P2 sin 2  − 4k 2
NG = (13 - 12)
4k − 2 N P sin 2 

Smallest spur pinion that is interference-free with a rack is

2(k )
NP = (13 - 13)
sin 2 

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 Interference 1

For 20º pressure angle, the most useful values from Eqs. (13–11)
and (13–12) are calculated and shown in the table below.

Minimum NP Max NG Integer Max NG Max Gear Ratio

mG= NG/NP
13 16.45 16 1.23
14 26.12 26 1.86
15 45.49 45 3
16 101.07 101 6.31
17 1309.86 1309 77

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 Interference 2

Increasing the pressure angle to 25º allows smaller numbers of

teeth.

Minimum NP Max NG Integer Max NG Max Gear Ratio

mG= NG/NP
9 13.33 13 1.44
10 32.39 32 3.2
11 249.23 249 22.64

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 Interference 3

Interference can be eliminated by using more teeth on the pinion.

However, if tooth size (that is diametral pitch P) is to be
maintained, then an increase in teeth means an increase in diameter,
since P = N/d.
Interference can also be eliminated by using a larger pressure angle.
This results in a smaller base circle, so more of the tooth profile is
involute.
This is the primary reason for larger pressure angle.
Note that the disadvantage of a larger pressure angle is an increase
in radial force for the same amount of transmitted force.

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 Forming of Gear Teeth

Common ways of forming gear teeth.

• Sand casting.
• Shell molding.
• Investment casting.
• Permanent-mold casting.
• Die casting.
• Centrifugal casting.
• Powder-metallurgy.
• Extrusion.
• Injection molding (for thermoplastics).
• Cold forming.

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 Cutting of Gear Teeth

Common ways of cutting gear teeth.

• Milling.
• Shaping.
• Hobbing.

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 Parallel Helical Gears 1

Similar to spur gears, but

with teeth making a helix
angle with respect to the
gear centerline.
Adds axial force
component to shaft and
bearings.
Smoother transition of
force between mating teeth
due to gradual engagement
and disengagement.

Fig. 13–2

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 Parallel Helical Gears 3

Transverse circular pitch pt is in the plane

of rotation.
Normal circular pitch pn is in the plane
perpendicular to the teeth.
pn = pt cos (13 - 16)

Axial pitch px is along the direction of the

shaft axis.
pt
px = (13 - 17)
tan

Normal diametral pitch.

Pt
Pn =
cos  (13 - 18)
pn Pn = 
Fig. 13–18
© McGraw Hill 33
 Parallel Helical Gears 4

Relationship between angles.

tan n
cos = (13 - 19)
tan t

Fig. 13–18
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 Example 13–2 (1)

A stock helical gear has a normal pressure angle of 20°, a helix

angle of 25°, and a transverse diametral pitch of 6 teeth/in, and has
18 teeth. Find:
(a) The pitch diameter.
(b) The transverse, the normal, and the axial pitches.
(c) The normal diametral pitch.
(d) The transverse pressure angle.

© McGraw Hill 35
 Example 13–2 (2)

Solution
N 18
Answer (a) d= = = 3in
Pt 6
 
Answer (b) pt = = = 0.5236in
Pt 6

Answer pn = pt cos  = 0.5236 cos 25 = 0.4745in

pt 0.5236
Answer px = = = 1.123in
tan  tan 45
pt 6
Answer (c) Pn = = = 6.620 teeth in
cos cos 25

 tan n  −1  tan 20 

Answer (d) t = tan −1
 = tan   = 21.88
 cos   cos 25 

© McGraw Hill 36
 Interference with Helical Gears 1

On spur and gear with one-to-one gear ratio, smallest number of

teeth which will not have interference is

NP =
2k cos
3sin t
2
1 + (
1 + 3sin 2
t ) (13 - 21)

k =1 for full depth teeth. k = 0.8 for stub teeth.

On spur meshed with larger gear with gear ratio mG = NG/NP = m,
the smallest number of teeth which will not have interference is

2k cos  m + m 2 + (1 + 2m) sin 2  

NP = (13 - 22)
(1 + 2m) sin 2 t  
t

© McGraw Hill 37
 Interference with Helical Gears 2

Largest gear with a specified pinion that is interference-free is

N P2 sin 2 t − 4k 2 cos 2 
NG = (13 - 23)
4k cos − 2 N P sin 2 t

Smallest spur pinion that is interference-free with a rack is

2k cos
NP = (13 - 24)
sin 2 t

© McGraw Hill 38
 Standard and Commonly Used Tooth Systems for Spur Gears

Tooth System Pressure Angle ϕ, deg Addendum a Dedendum b

Full depth 20 1∕P or m 1.25∕P or 1.25m
1.35∕P or 1.35m
1∕P or m 1.25∕P or 1.25m
22 12
1.35∕P or 1.35m
25 1∕P or m 1.25∕P or 1.25m
1.35∕P or 1.35m
Stub 20 0.8∕P or 0.8m 1∕P or m

Table 13–1

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 Tooth Sizes in General Use 2

Diametral Pitch P (teeth/in)

Coarse 2, 2 14 , 2 12 , 3, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 16

Fine 20, 24, 32, 40, 48, 64, 80, 96, 120, 150, 200

Module m (mm/tooth)
Preferred 1, 1.25, 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 16, 20, 25, 32, 40, 50
Next Choice 1.125, 1.375, 1.75, 2.25, 2.75, 3.5, 4.5, 5.5, 7, 9, 11, 14, 18, 22, 28, 36, 45

Table 13–2

© McGraw Hill 40
 Gear Trains

For a pinion 2 driving a gear 3, the speed of the driven gear is

N2 d2
n3 = n2 = n2 (13 - 29)
N3 d3

where n = revolutions or rev/min

N = number of teeth
d = pitch diameter

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 Train Value

N 2 N3 N5 Fig. 13–23
n6 = − n2
N3 N 4 N 6

product of driving tooth numbers

e= (13 - 30)
product of driven tooth numbers

nL = enF (13 - 31)

© McGraw Hill 42
 Compound Gear Train

A practical limit on train value for one pair of gears is 10 to 1.

To obtain more, compound two gears onto the same shaft.

Fig. 13–24

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 Compound Reverted Gear Train

A compound gear train with input and output shafts in-line.

Geometry condition must be satisfied.
d 2 2 + d3 2 = d 4 2 + d5 2
P=N d
N 2 (2 P ) + N 3 (2 P) = N 4 (2 P) + N 5 (2 P)
N 2 + N3 = N 4 + N5

Fig. 13–25
© McGraw Hill 44
 Planetary Gear Train 1

Planetary, or epicyclic gear

trains allow the axis of some
of the gears to move relative
to the other axes.
Sun gear has fixed center axis
Planet gear has moving
center axis.
Planet carrier or arm carries
planet axis relative to sun
axis.
Allow for two degrees of
freedom (that is two inputs).
Fig. 13–26
© McGraw Hill 45
 Planetary Gear Train 2

Train value is relative to arm.

n − nA
e= L (13 - 32)
nF − nA
where nF = rev/min of first gear in planetary train.
nL = rev/min of last gear in planetary train.
nA = rev/min of arm.

Fig. 13–26 Fig. 13–27

© McGraw Hill 46
 Example 13–6 (1)

In Figure 13–26 the sun gear is the input, and it is driven clockwise at 100
rev/min. The ring gear is held stationary by being fastened to the frame. Find the
rev/min and direction of rotation of the arm and gear 4.

Fig. 13–26

© McGraw Hill 47
 Example 13–6 (2)

Solution
Let nF = n2 = −100 rev/min, and nL = n5 = 0. For e, unlock gear 5 and fix the arm.
Then, planet gear 4 and ring gear 5 rotate in the same direction, opposite of sun
gear 2. Thus, e is negative. Alternatively, the number of meshes, not counting the
one internal mesh is one, again making e negative and

 N  N   20   30 
e = −  2   4  = −     = −0.25
 N 4   N5   30   80 

Substituting this value in Equation (13–32) gives

0 − nA
−0.25 =
(−100) − nA
or
nA = −20 rev/min = 20 rev/min clockwise Answer

© McGraw Hill 48
 Example 13–6 (3)

To obtain the speed of gear 4, we follow the procedure outlined by Equations (b),
(c), and (d). Thus
n43 = n4 − n3 n23 = n2 − n3
and so
n43 n4 − n3
= (1)
n23 n2 − n3
But n43 20 2
=− =− (2)
n23 30 3

Substituting the known values in Equation (1) gives

2 n4 − (−20)
− =
3 (−100) − (−20)
Solving gives
1 1
n4 = +33 rev min = 33 rev min counter-clockwise Answer
3 3

© McGraw Hill 49
 Force Analysis – Spur Gearing 1

Fig. 13–28

© McGraw Hill 50
 Force Analysis – Spur Gearing 2

Transmitted load Wt is the

tangential load.
Wt = F32t

It is the useful component

of force, transmitting the
torque.
d
T= Wt
2

Fig. 13–29
© McGraw Hill 51
 Power in Spur Gearing 1

Transmitted power H.

H = T  = (Wt d 2) (13 - 33)

Pitch-line velocity is the linear velocity of a point on the gear at the

radius of the pitch circle. It is a common term in tabulating gear
data.
V =  dn 12 (13 - 34)
where V = pitch-line velocity, ft/min.
d = gear diameter, in.
n = gear speed, rev/min.

© McGraw Hill 52
 Power in Spur Gearing 2

Useful power relation in customary units,

H
Wt = 33000 (13 - 35)
V
where Wt = transmitted load, lbf.
H = power, hp.
V = pitch-line velocity, ft/min.

In SI units,
60000 H
Wt = (13 - 36)
 dn
where Wt = transmitted load, kN.
H = power, kW.
d = gear diameter, mm.
n = speed, rev/min.
© McGraw Hill 53
 Example 13–7 (1)

Pinion 2 in Figure 13–30a runs at 1750 rev/min and transmits 2.5 kW to idler
gear 3. The teeth are cut on the 20° full-depth system and have a module of m =
2.5 mm. Draw a free-body diagram of gear 3 and show all the forces that act
upon it.

Fig. 13–30
© McGraw Hill 54
 Example 13–7 (2)

Solution
The pitch diameters of gears 2 and 3 are
d 2 = N 2 m = 20(2.5) = 50 mm
d3 = N 3m = 50(2.5) = 125mm
From Equation (13–36) we find the transmitted load to be
60000 H 60000(2.5)
Wt = = = 0.546 kN
 d2n  (50)(1750)
Thus, the tangential force of gear 2 on gear 3 is Ft23 = 0.546 kN, as shown in Figure 13–
30b. Therefore
F23 = F23 tan 20 = (0.546) tan 20 = 0.199 kN
r t

and so F23t 0.546

F23 = = = 0.581 kN
cos 20 cos 20
Since gear 3 is an idler, it transmits no power (torque) to its shaft, and so the tangential
reaction of gear 4 on gear 3 is also equal to Wt. Therefore
F43t = 0.546 kN F43r = 0.199 kN F43 = 0.581kN
and the directions are shown in Figure 13–30b.

© McGraw Hill 55
 Example 13–7 (3)

The shaft reactions in the x and y directions are

Fbx3 = −( F23t + F43r ) = −(−0.546 + 0.199) = 0.347 kN

Fby3 = −( F23r + F43t ) = −(0.199 + 0.546) = 0.347 kN

The resultant shaft reaction is

Fb 3 = (0.347) 2 + (0.347) 2 = 0.491kN

These are shown on the figure.

© McGraw Hill 56
 Force Analysis – Helical Gearing

Wr = W sin n
Wt = W cos n cos  (13 - 39)
Wa = W cos n sin 

Wr = Wt tan t
Wa = Wt tan (13 - 40)
Wt
W=
cos n cos

Fig. 13–33
© McGraw Hill 57
 Example 13–9 (1)

In Figure 13–34 an electric motor transmits 1-hp at 1800 rev/min in the clockwise
direction, as viewed from the positive x axis. Keyed to the motor shaft is an 18-tooth
helical pinion having a normal pressure angle of 20°, a helix angle of 30°, and a normal
diametral pitch of 12 teeth/in. The hand of the helix is shown in the figure. Make a three-
dimensional sketch of the motor shaft and pinion, and show the forces acting on the
pinion and the bearing reactions at A and B. The thrust should be taken out at A.

Fig. 13–34

© McGraw Hill 58
 Example 13–9 (2)

From Equation (13–19) we find

tan n tan 20
t = tan −1 = tan −1 = 22.8
cos cos 30
Also, Pt = Pn cos ψ = 12 cos 30° = 10.39 teeth/in. Therefore the pitch diameter of the
pinion is dp = 18∕10.39 =1.732 in. The pitch-line velocity is
 dn  (1.732)(1800)
V= = = 816 ft min
12 12
The transmitted load is
33000 H (33000)(1)
Wt = = = 40.4 lbf
V 816
From Equation (13–40) we find
Wr = Wt tan t = (40.4) tan 22.8 = 17.0 lbf

Wa = Wt tan = (40.4) tan 30 = 23.3lbf

Wt 40.4
W= = = 49.6 lbf
cos n cos cos 20 cos 30

© McGraw Hill 59
 Example 13–9 (3)

These three forces, Wr = 17.0 lbf in the −y direction, Wa = 23.3 lbf in the −x direction, and Wt = 40.4 lbf
in the +z direction, are shown acting at point C in Figure 13–35. We assume bearing reactions at A and
B as shown. Then FxA = Wa = 23.3 lbf. Taking moments about the z axis,
−(17.0)(13) + (23.3)(0.866) + 10 FBy = 0
or FyB = 20.1 lbf. Summing forces in the y direction then gives FyA = 3.1 lbf. Taking moments about
the y axis, next
10 FBz − (40.4)(13) = 0
or FzB = 52.5 lbf. Summing forces in the z direction and solving gives FzA = 12.1 lbf. Also, the torque is
T = Wt d p 2 = (40.4)(1.732 2) = 35lbf  in.

Fig. 13–35

© McGraw Hill 60