_____________________________________________________________________________________________

GRADUATE SCHOOL

Course:
VE 105 Human and Values Development Theories

Topic: `
4. Psychosocial Development Theories
• Erik Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development
• Identity formation and values development
• Daniel Levinson’s theory of adult development

______________________________________________________________________________

Lecture Notes:

Psychosocial Development Theories

Psychosocial development describes how a person's personality develops, and how social skills
are learned from infancy through adulthood. In the 1950s, psychologist Erik Erikson published
his theory about the eight stages of psychosocial development. Erikson believed that during each
stage, a person experiences a "psychosocial crisis" that either has a positive or negative effect on
that person's personality.

The Principles of Psychosocial Development

According to Erikson, an individual's personality and social skills develop in eight stages,
which cover the entire life span. At each stage, a person is faced with a psychosocial crisis—
critical issues—that need to be resolved. The person's personality is shaped by the way they
respond to each of these crises. If they react positively, a new virtue (moral behavior) is gained.

The 8 Stages of Psychosocial Development

1. Trust vs. Mistrust

The first stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development, trust vs. mistrust, begins at
birth and lasts until around 18 months of age. During this stage, the infant is completely
dependent on their caregiver to meet their needs. With consistent care, the infant learns to trust
and feel secure. The virtue gained in this stage is "hope."
Success in stage 1 helps a person be able to trust others in future relationships, as well as
trust in their own ability to deal with challenging situations later in life. When an infant's needs
aren't met in this stage, they can become anxious and untrusting.

2. Autonomy vs. Shame

Stage 2, autonomy vs. shame, occurs from 18 months to around 3 years of age. During
this stage, children's physical skills grow while they explore their environment and learn to be
more independent.
Children react positively during stage 2 when caregivers allow them to work on developing
independence within a safe environment. The virtue gained in this stage is "will."
If the child is overly criticized or lives in a controlling environment, they can feel shame
and doubt their abilities to take care of themselves.
Examples of skills learned in stage 2 of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development
include potty training, getting dressed, and brushing teeth. This stage also includes physical
skills such as running and jumping.

3. Initiative vs. Guilt

_____________________________________________________________________________________________
GRADUATE SCHOOL
Stage 3, initiative vs. guilt, occurs during the early school-age years of a child's life. During
this stage, a child learns to initiate social interactions and play activities with other children.
Children also ask lots of questions in this stage.
If the child is overly-controlled or made to feel that their questions are annoying, the child
can develop feelings of guilt. However, when a child is successful in this stage, the virtue gained
is a sense of "purpose."

4. Industry vs. Inferiority

Stage 4 of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development typically occurs between the ages of
5 and 12 years. The psychosocial crisis in this stage is industry vs. inferiority. During this stage,
a child is learning how to read and write. Children in this stage also put a higher amount of
importance on what their peers think about them, and start to take pride in their
accomplishments.
The virtue gained when a child is successful in stage 4 is "competence." If a child responds
negatively to this psychosocial crisis, it can lead to feelings of inferiority and low self-esteem.
While Erikson believed that personality is developed throughout the life span, neurologist
Sigmund Freud based his theories of personality development on the belief that an adult's
personality is primarily determined by early childhood experiences

5. Identity vs. Role Confusion

Stage 5 occurs during the teenage years, between the ages of 12 to 18. At this stage, the
psychosocial crisis is identity vs. confusion. During stage 5, teens are trying to "find themselves"
and are searching for a sense of identity.
The virtue that can be gained in stage 5 is "fidelity," or faithfulness. In stage 5, teens also
learn how to accept other people who are different than themselves.
According to Erikson, if a person responds negatively to the crisis in stage 5, it can lead to
role confusion—uncertainty about themselves and how they fit into society.

6. Intimacy vs. Isolation

The psychosocial crisis in stage 6, intimacy vs. isolation, occurs in young adulthood (ages 18
to 40 years). The main focus in this stage is developing intimate relationships, and the virtue to
be gained is "love."
People who are not successful in stage 6 can feel alone and isolated. In some cases, this can
lead to depression.

7. Generativity vs. Stagnation

Erikson's seventh level of psychosocial development occurs during middle age—between 40
to 65 years of age. The crisis at this stage is generativity vs. stagnation.
Generativity is a person's way of "leaving a mark" on the world by giving back to society. This
can include mentoring the younger generation, being successful at work, and positively
impacting the community. The virtue that can be gained in stage 7 is "care."
When a person is not successful in stage 7, it leads to stagnation. This can cause the person
to feel useless and disconnected from their community.

8. Ego Integrity vs. Despair

The final stage in Erikson's psychosocial theory of development is integrity vs. despair.
This stage begins around age 65 years and continues for the remainder of a person's life. During
this stage, a person reflects on their life and their accomplishments and comes to terms with the
fact that death is unavoidable.
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
GRADUATE SCHOOL
According to Erikson, if a person does not feel their life was productive, or if a person
has guilt over things that occurred in the past, it can lead to feelings of despair. If a person is
successful in stage 8, the virtue to be gained is "wisdom."
It is common for people in stage 8 to experience alternating periods of integrity and
despair. The ultimate goal is to achieve balance.

Criticisms of Erikson's Theory

There are several criticisms of Erikson's psychosocial theory of development. Some critics
believe that Erikson was too focused on the idea that these stages need to be completed
sequentially, and only occur in the age ranges he suggests.
Other critics point out that Erikson used the European or American "male experience" as
a template for all humans when he designed his stages of development.
In addition, Erikson does not provide information about what types of experiences have
to occur for a person to be successful in resolving the psychosocial crises at each stage of
development.

Summary
Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development is organized into eight stages based
on different phases of life. At each stage, a person faces a psychosocial "crisis." The way a person
responds to each crisis can have a positive or negative effect on their personality.
There are some criticisms of his theory, including the fact that it is based on the male
experience and is very focused on childhood events. The theory can, however, provide insight
into challenges you may face throughout your life span.

Identity formation and values development

Identity formation and values development are crucial aspects of personal growth,
especially during adolescence and early adulthood. Here's a brief overview:
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
GRADUATE SCHOOL
Identity Formation

Identity formation is the process through which individuals develop a clear and unique
sense of self. This involves integrating various aspects of oneself, such as personal beliefs, values,
and goals. Erik Erikson, a prominent psychologist, described this process as a key stage in
psychosocial development, particularly during adolescence. He proposed that individuals go
through an "identity crisis," where they explore different roles and ideas to form a cohesive
identity.

James Marcia expanded on Erikson's theory by identifying four identity statuses:

1. **Identity Achievement**: Commitment to values and goals after exploring options.

2. **Moratorium**: Active exploration without having made a commitment.

3. **Foreclosure**: Commitment without exploration, often based on others' expectations.

4. **Identity Diffusion**: Lack of both exploration and commitment¹.

Values Development

Values development is closely linked to identity formation. It involves the process of

understanding and committing to personal values, which guide behavior and decision-making.
Adolescents and young adults often explore different values through experiences and social
interactions, gradually forming a set of core beliefs that define their identity³.

Key Influences

Several factors influence identity and values development:

- **Family and Culture**: Family beliefs and cultural background provide a foundation for values.

- **Peers and Social Groups**: Interactions with peers can challenge and shape one's values and
identity.

- **Life Experiences**: Personal experiences, including successes and failures, contribute to the
development of a unique identity⁴.

Importance

A well-developed identity and set of values provide a sense of purpose, direction, and
stability. They help individuals navigate life's challenges and make informed decisions that align
with their true selves².
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
GRADUATE SCHOOL
Daniel Levinson’s Theory of Adult Development (also known as the “Seasons of a Man’s
Life”)

Levinson’s Theory: Stages of Adult Life | Human Development | Psychology

Before concluding this discussion of social development during our adult years, we’ll
briefly describe one theory that considers the changes and transitions we experience during our
adult lives, the controversial theory pro-posed by Levinson (1986). Because it is a stage theory.
However, Levinson’s theory deals in part with aspects of social development, so it makes sense
to consider it here.

Let’s begin with a crucial aspect of Levinson’s theory—a concept he terms the life
structure. This term refers to the underlying patterns of a person’s life at a particular time, an
evolving cognitive framework reflecting an individual’s views about the nature and meaning of
his or her life.

Work and family are usually central to the life structure, but it may include other
components as well—for example, a person’s racial or ethnic background, or important external
events that provide a backdrop for life, such as an economic boom or depression. According to
Levinson, individuals have different life structures at different times during their adult years and
move from one to another through transition periods lasting about five years.

Levinson divides our adult years into four major eras, each separated from the next by a
transition period. As you can see, the first transition occurs between the pre-adult eras, the time
before we are adults, and early adulthood. Taking place between the ages of seventeen and
twenty-two, this transition involves establishing one’s independence, both financial and
emotional. It is marked by such events as establishing a separate residence and learning to live
on one’s own.

Once this first transition is complete, individuals enter early adulthood. Two key
components of their life structure at this time are what Levinson terms the dream and the
mentor. The dream is a vision of future accomplishments, what the person hopes to achieve in
the years ahead. Mentors are older and more experienced individu-als who help guide young
adults. Both the dream and the mentor play an important part in our early adult years.

At about age thirty, Levinson suggests, many people experience what he terms the age
thirty transition. At this time individuals realize that they are nearing the point of no return. If
they remain in their present life course, they will soon have too much invested to change. Faced
with this fact, they reexamine their initial choices and either make specific changes or conclude
that they have indeed chosen the best course.

Now, after the relative calm of the closing years of early adult-hood, individuals move into
another potentially turbulent transitional period—the midlife transition. For most people this
occurs somewhere between the ages of forty and forty-five. It is a time when many people must
come to terms for the first time with their own mortality. Up until this period, most people view
themselves as “still young.” After age forty, however, many come to view themselves as the older
generation.

Levinson’s findings suggest that for many persons this realization leads to a period of
emotional turmoil. They take stock of where they have been the success of their past choices,
and the possibility of reaching their youthful dreams. This leads to the formation of a new life
structure, one that takes account of the individual’s new position in life and may involve new
elements such as a change in career direction, divorce, or a redefinition of one’s relationship with
one’s spouse.
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
GRADUATE SCHOOL
Many persons experience another period of transition between ages fifty and fifty-five, a
transition in which they consider modifying their life structure once again, for example, by
adopting a new role in their career or by coming to view themselves as a grandparent as well as
a parent. However, this transition is often less dramatic than one that occurs somewhere between
the ages of sixty and sixty-five. This late-adult transition marks the close of the middle years and
the start of late adulthood.

During this transition, individuals must come to terms with their impending retirement
and the major life changes it will bring. As they move through this period of readjustment, their
life structure shifts to include these changes. For example, they may come to see themselves as
persons whose working career is over or almost over, and who will now have much more leisure
time to pursue hobbies and other interests.

Levinson’s Theory: Is It Accurate?

In several respects Levinson’s picture of social development during our adult years seems
to match our com-nonsense ideas about this process. Relatively long periods of stability are
punctuated by shorter, turbulent periods in which we come to terms with changes in our goals,
status, and outlook.

However, it’s important to note that Levinson based his theory primarily on extensive
interviews with only forty participants; all men, all living in the United States, and all ages thirty-
five to forty-five. Critics argue that this is too small and too restricted a sample on which to base
such a sweeping framework.

In addition, and perhaps even more important, it is uncertain whether Levinson’s

suggestions apply to women as well as men. Women in many societies face a different set of
issues and problems as they age. For instance, they, more than men, have the responsibility of
caring for their elderly parents, also, if they have remained at home to concentrate on child
rearing during at least a portion of their lives, women may experience greater changes than men
do when their youngest child sets out to establish an independent life.

To deal with the issue of gender, Levinson conducted further research on a sample of
forty-five women ages thirty-five to forty-five. Some were homemakers, others had academic
careers, and a third group had careers in the business world. Levinson reported that the women
in his sample went through the same sequence of eras and periods, and at roughly the same
ages, as men. However, he did find differences between men and women in several respects.

For example, during the midlife transition, many women who had chosen the traditional
role of homemaker expressed strong regrets about their choice and had what he described as a
“rock-bottom” experience in which they questioned whether the sacrifices they had made for
their marriages and families were justified.

This finding has been further explored by Stewart and Van dewater (1999) in a
longitudinal study of women at two ages- thirty-six and forty-seven. When they were thirty-six,
the women were asked whether they had any regrets about having chosen to marry and become
homemakers rather than pursue a career and whether they wished to make a change.

When they were forty-seven, the same women were asked these ques-tions again, and
were also asked to indicate whether they had made a career-relevant change entered a new
career, taken courses, and so on. In addition, the women provided information on their physical
and psycho-logical well-being.
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
GRADUATE SCHOOL
The researchers found that many of the women in the study expressed regret over their earlier
choice to become a homemaker, and many stated the desire to change their lives and careers.

Further, those who expressed regret and a desire to change and then actually made
changes in their lives reported higher physical and psychological adjustment than those who
also expressed regrets but had not made such changes. These findings suggest that as Levinson
proposed, many women review their lives in midlife and both seek and make important changes,
especially if they regret their earlier lifestyle choices.

Conclusion:

What, then, can we conclude about Levinson’s theory? That some findings offer support
for his conclusion that “There is … a single human life cycle through which all our lives evolve”,
but that we must take careful note of gender, race, and socioeconomic factors that may strongly
affect various aspects of this cycle

References:

Aubrey Bailey, PT, DPT, CHT Updated on September 22, 2023

Medically reviewed by Kathleen Daly, MD
Psychosocial Development: Stages, Principles, and More (verywellhealth.com)

Saul McLeod, updated 2018

Erik Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development (nami.org)

Identity formation and values development - Search (bing.com)

Levinson's Theory: Stages of Adult Life | Human Development | Psychology

(psychologydiscussion.net)