A Blockchain-Based Secure Framework For Data Manag
A Blockchain-Based Secure Framework For Data Manag
DOI: 10.1049/cmu2.12781
ORIGINAL RESEARCH
This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs License, which permits use and distribution in any medium, provided the
original work is properly cited, the use is non-commercial and no modifications or adaptations are made.
© 2024 The Authors. IET Communications published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of The Institution of Engineering and Technology.
capacity to foresee technological improvements and the neces- studies, followed by a full comparison and analysis. Next, the
sity for digital adaptability. The classification of segments into system concept of the secure management framework based
inter-cluster and intra-cluster categories, together with a mod- on blockchain is thoroughly explained in the themes depicted
ular organization of contracts and duties, ensures the efficient in Figure 2. Ultimately, our proposed framework is imple-
and secure storage and retrieval of data. Moreover, this feature mented, an experimental analysis is carried out and our obtained
provides the adaptability essential to meet the specific demands results are presented in order to verify its suitability, usability,
of various industries. The suggested framework aims to address and relevance.
present and future data management challenges in different In order to evaluate our proposed framework, an Ethereum
industries by employing a clustered approach, stringent secu- platform is employed to construct a consortium network of
rity measures, and a customizable design, thereby offering a blockchains, where experiments are conducted to initialize data
robust and tailored solution. Integrating this intricate frame- on the chain. The evaluation bed is initialized and tests are
work into modern systems is anticipated to make a significant run using our developed application that utilizes Hyperledger
contribution to the advancement of autonomous, secure, and Caliper to benchmark the framework in terms of throughput
efficient digital infrastructures. Our main contributions to this and latency. As stated in Section 7, the findings demonstrate
study encompass: that the suggested framework is applicable, suitable, accept-
able, scalable, and viable. However, additional examination and
∙ Enabling the secure exchange of information among nodes advancement are scheduled to guarantee the level of readiness
through cryptographic methods involves allowing data shar- as we prepare for upcoming tasks.
ing in either encrypted or anonymous formats, depending
on the sensitivity level of the material. This method involves
protecting the data’s integrity, which means making sure 2 BACKGROUND AND MOTIVATION
it remains unchanged, intact, and free from any illegal
interventions or modifications. Blockchain offers decentralized governance and removes the
∙ Integrating a diverse array of devices including drones, IoT need for trust in centralized authorities by proposing consen-
devices, and airplanes, each designed to carry out certain sus mechanisms [24]. Consensus is to reach an agreement on
tasks, while differing in their processing abilities and access the issue without selecting a leader and to distribute rights.
to blockchain technology. This entails enforcing compliance Bitcoin proposes the first blockchain solution to the problem
with unchangeable regulations by all participants throughout and is marketed as a viable financial alternative to traditional
the whole process. currencies by mitigating the need for a central bank [25].
∙ Efficiently updating databases is accomplished by utilizing Blockchain is defined as a series of blocks that are linked
the structure of the distributed framework and minimizing together in a sequential chain by combining new blocks that
storage requirements through the use of inter-cluster and contain a header, timestamp, the cryptographic summary of the
intra-cluster designs. This involves facilitating smooth com- previous block, and a body that stores the information. The
munication and exchange of information within and between fundamental component of blockchain technology is a series
clusters, possibly integrating different blockchain technology. of unchangeable data record blocks that may be confirmed by
∙ Creating a customized blockchain system with restricted cryptographic procedures and techniques, including Merkle tree
access, specifically designed for managing identities. This sys- and hash algorithms. Currently, some studies have proposed
tem offers limited visibility to ensure the confidentiality of replacing the traditional Merkle tree approach with an efficient
personal or confidential corporate information. This entails verification mechanism called the incremental aggregator sub-
implementing authentication and authorization systems to vector commitment (IASVC) [26]. This change aims to reduce
meet access management requirements. Authorized individu- communication usage, overhead, and time by eliminating the
als are given special permission to carry out data inquiries on need for a Merkle tree and effectively reducing the size of the
the blockchain. They can utilize monitoring tools to analyze evidence. It is commonly acknowledged that the immutability
operations and ensure compliance with regulations. In addi- of blockchain is based on its strong cryptographic capabilities,
tion, incorporating data monitoring capabilities facilitates the regardless of any alterations in the method used. This is accom-
detection of errors, allowing for analysis in both online and plished by establishing a connection between each block and
offline situations. the one that comes before it. Therefore, the blockchain can be
∙ The proposed framework demonstrated a higher number described as an immutable collection of records with no need
of successful transactions across all rate controllers. The for trust in the environment [27].
impact of the validator number on throughput and delay is Reaching a consensus without central authority between
investigated. any involved party has become available with the help of the
blockchain [28]. The most widely accepted and used solutions
The subsequent sections of this study are outlined as fol- depend on blockchain technology [29].
lows: Section 2 provides the background in the field and our When the benefits came to the fore after releasing Bit-
motivation, focusing on the difficulties and proposed solu- coin, different blockchain technologies emerged with diverse
tions discussed in the existing literature. Next, a thorough capabilities [30]. The leading innovation that diversifies the
examination of the literature is conducted to identify similar usage domain of blockchain is the smart contracts which is
ZORLU and OZSOY 631
FIGURE 2 The system model of the proposed blockchain-based secure management framework.
proposed by Ethereum [31]. While Bitcoin technology is only habits, acquaintances, employment, preferred places to visit,
capable of creating unspent transaction output (UTXO) to store interests, and other potential issues.
monetary transactions, Ethereum blockchain is a Turing com- Hirtan et al. [18] describe a blockchain-based architecture
plete, programmable, solution that enables building distributed for privacy protection in the intelligent transportation industry,
trusted applications. In other words, blockchain technology which is related to the previously stated areas. The proposed
has advanced from being an unchangeable cryptocurrency design consists of a primary data server and a processing
trade ledger into a programmable interactive environment [32]. server to cater to the requirements of smartphones’ efficient
Another initiative, Hyperledger, develops a business consor- communication and processing capabilities. Upon receiving the
tium blockchain to address all types of requirements for an enrollment phase shared key, the server obtains knowledge of
open-source, cryptocurrency-supported, adaptable, and secure the secret key. Consequently, the central authority changes, while
blockchain [33]. it remains in existence. To ensure identity anonymity, it is advis-
Conventional information technology systems, social media able to deploy the architecture in a trusted environment or with
platforms, and other services that depend on users’ data neces- a permissioned blockchain.
sitate obtaining consent before utilizing the data, and it is In the aviation industry, blockchain technology is primarily
imperative to maintain the confidentiality of this information. utilized to address several challenges related to data manage-
Nevertheless, as demonstrated by the Wikileaks incident, the ment, sharing, storage, and analysis. A crucial component in
act of revealing sensitive and classified information can result in aviation known as a “Flight Data Recorder” (FDR) is designed
detrimental consequences for the economy, politics, and human to remain operational even in the event of an accident [21]. The
rights [34]. Facebook’s influence was evident in both the 2016 responsibilities of this system are monitoring aircraft, enhanc-
US presidential election and the Taiwanese presidential election, ing safety measures, finding issues, and predicting probable
as highlighted by several sources [35, 36]. These occurrences future accidents. The primary characteristic of frequently uti-
highlighted the need to treat every piece of data as valuable lized Flight Data Recorders (FDR) is their capacity to retain data
and refrain from sharing it without the owner’s consent. Infor- in an immutable and easily accessible manner, while also being
mation has become a potent force and a valuable resource able to endure impact shock, penetration, static crushing, high-
on a global scale. Blockchain is a potential remedy for these temperature fire, and liquid immersion following an accident
problems, as it is known for safeguarding the confidentiality of [37]. Research has been conducted in the literature to decrease
personal information by employing cryptographic identification the dimensions and mass of these large and cumbersome con-
and access control methods that ensure anonymity. tainers for Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs). Digital flight data
Blockchain is extensively employed across various domains, recorders have evolved to preserve increasingly accurate data
including smart cities, IoT, aviation, and UaV, to address the and enable the playback of flights to identify any anomalies
issues arising from privacy breaches. These domains are inter- related to flight safety. The Red Cat company has developed a
related and share common objectives within their respective flight recorder for unmanned aircraft systems (UAS) that utilizes
fields. The smart cities community is primarily focused on blockchain technology [38]. This recorder allows for the analy-
safeguarding the personal data that is processed, exchanged, sis and playback of flight data, which is encrypted for security
or stored [11]. Additionally, the use of Internet of Things purposes. Additionally, the recorder is equipped with artificial
(IoT) devices has opened up new research opportunities in the intelligence (AI) capabilities to assist with diagnostics. More-
field of smart cities, which are considered to be complex and over, this paper introduces a distributed storage architecture
demanding. Ensuring data confidentiality is of utmost impor- based on blockchain technology, which ensures the secure trans-
tance since individuals with access to personal navigation or port and storage of data by leveraging encryption techniques.
location monitoring data can disclose information about their The solution they provide has an open-source and adaptable
632 ZORLU and OZSOY
structure, aiming to support regulators, insurance companies, vehicles near airports, military areas, and critical infrastructure
and drone fleet operators. [45–47]. In addition, the increasing number of affordable and
In addition to safeguarding and guaranteeing the accuracy of cost-effective drones has made the sky unpredictable, requir-
the data contained in the Flight Data Recorder (FDR) to iden- ing stricter regulations. Clarke et.al. conducted a comprehensive
tify the reasons for a crash or detect any anomalies during the review of the hazards posed by drones to public safety and
flight through deterministic playback, it is necessary to analyze behavioral privacy to elucidate these concerns [48]. Wild et.al
the flight data. It plays a crucial function in both the prompt- conducted a comprehensive analysis of 152 incidents involv-
ness of the data that is retrieved and the accuracy of the data ing remotely piloted aircraft systems (RPASs) that occurred
that is recorded. The research undertaken to document flight between 2006 and 2015. The purpose of this analysis was
records and capture access status inside the utilized data care- to identify and assess the potential dangers associated with
fully considers deterministic replay, operating system input and unmanned vehicles, often known as drones, to develop effective
output (OS-I/O) management, and hardware support [20]. The measures for risk prevention [49]. Their research demonstrates
primary objective is to furnish all the necessary aeronautical that unregulated technical progress in aviation poses a greater
information for subsequent playback of the flight. Techno- risk than pilot mistakes. Regulating these small aerial vehicles
logical improvements have facilitated the conversion of flight is a contemporary issue in aviation safety. There have been a
data recorders (FDRs) into digital format and the utilization of multitude of drone-related incidents in the aviation business. In
recorded data for anomaly identification, hence enhancing flight 2015, a collision between a drone and a plane occurred during
safety in the future. The utilization of recorded onboard data a drug smuggling operation in Mexico [50]. In 2017, a drone
analysis, studies, and diverse anomaly detection procedures is collided with an aircraft in Canada [51]. Fortunately, the aircraft
employed to bolster the standards of Flight Operations Quality made a safe landing with minimal damage, although the flight
Assurance (FOQA) [39, 40]. was subsequently canceled. In 2018, Gatwick Airport saw the
Every day, more and more commercial applications in the cancellation or diversion of over 58 flights due to the presence
aviation industry that focus on utilizing blockchain technology of two drones flying over the airport [52]. In 2019, there was
to use correct data are being developed [41, 42]. The poten- another incident of flight cancellations at Heathrow Airport in
tial of blockchain technology to revolutionize data management England, which was caused by drones [53]. To tackle this prob-
and enhance security across several industries is increasingly lem, Kapitonov et. al. have put up a framework called AIRA,
recognized as we progress into the digital age. This recogni- which specifically aims to provide the availability of dependable
tion is evidenced by a substantial surge in scholarly research data for the management of semi-autonomous robots [54]. The
aimed at addressing industry-specific challenges through the susceptibility of the environment in which robots operate and
implementation of blockchain applications, fostering a funda- strategize their next action in the cyber-physical realm highlights
mental shift towards systems that are characterized by enhanced the importance of reliable data. The Drone Employee project
security, transparency, and efficiency. Researchers and corpora- utilizes the AIRA protocol to verify that the UAV adheres to the
tions are studying the industrial applications of UAVs, drones, designated route by accessing data recorded on the blockchain
and IoTs [43]. Jensen et al. aims to demonstrate the practical by the dispatcher [55]. The suggested protocol is straightfor-
applications and technological advancements of blockchain in ward, yet it enables the establishment of air traffic management
terms of enhancing security, ensuring availability, and maintain- and communication among multiple parties.
ing immutability, going beyond typical use cases and scenarios Drone or IoT device assaults can happen through two means:
[44]. The study discusses the possible application of blockchain the transmission of collected data from the drone to the central
technology in the stated areas, but it does not include the prac- system, and the reception of new commands from the control
tical implementation or a comparison of different blockchain center to the drone. Both types of communication, including
systems. Boeing and SparkCognition collaborated to create Sky- data provenance and permission, are susceptible to alterations
Grid, a company that offers a complete system for unmanned and negative outcomes [56, 57]. Ensuring the security of the
and autonomous aircraft in the aviation industry [23]. This is channel is crucial for safeguarding the storage, confidentiality,
another example of how blockchain technology is being used integrity, and availability of the information. The majority of
in commercial applications. Once the company is established, Internet of Things (IoT) devices and Unmanned Aerial Vehicles
it aims to ensure the secure handling of package transfers via (UAVs) are interconnected and rely on cloud servers to meet
drones, as well as the administration of air taxis and other air- their computational requirements. This cloud infrastructure is
craft. The management of UAS traffic is being facilitated by the considered secure and helps address the limited storage capac-
utilization of blockchain technology, while the requirements of ity of small devices [58]. These devices are typically deployed in
businesses will be addressed through the assistance of artificial insecure areas or locations that are susceptible to attacks [59].
intelligence. Additionally, they intend to collaborate with regula- Another aspect of importance in the field is the positioning and
tory agencies. Their infrastructure is designed to facilitate both extent of their coverage, as well as their connectivity [60]. To
commercial and personal aviation travel. tackle these issues DroneChain functions as a mediator between
In addition to the development of commercial applications, the cloud server and the drones to resolve the problem of
academic research is performed to ensure compliance with insecure communication channels [61]. The objective is to guar-
aviation rules for the use of UAVs, drones, and airplanes. Avi- antee the integrity of the data and commands gathered, making
ation regulatory authorities prohibit the use of unmanned aerial them immune to tampering and available for examination by
ZORLU and OZSOY 633
external entities. The proposed paper thoroughly analyzes and in the aviation industry [64]. The BFOD system utilizes
tests DroneChain to examine its performance to guarantee the cryptographic techniques, including zero-knowledge proofs, to
integrity of drone data during the transfer and storage of cloud enhance the confidentiality of flight operating data. Empirical
data. Conversely, drones reliably receive commands by storing evidence has demonstrated a significant decrease in the dura-
hash values of directives from the central system or data from tion required to achieve a consensus. BlockTrust is a notable
other drones. However, because of its reliance on unchangeable advancement in the development of reliable aviation informa-
data on the blockchain and in the cloud, the design does not tion systems. It accomplishes this by creating a secure protocol
offer a complete communication solution. for delivering data on Air Traffic Management (ATM) networks,
A research project called FlightChain, presented by SITA, notwithstanding potential communication delays caused by the
aims to utilize the immutability quality of blockchain to store implementation of blockchain technology.
flight data in the aviation industry [62]. FlightChain focuses on Furthermore, there exists a data-sharing platform that is
blockchain applications for data management and surpasses the specifically tailored for aviation vendors [65]. This platform
scope of IoT devices and UAVs. Blockchain is often recognized showcases the utilization of blockchain technology to enhance
as a decentralized and unchangeable database. The proposed transparency and tackle the persistent issue of restricted
model utilizes a permissioned blockchain architecture, enabling information availability in supply chains. These advancements
authorized entities to access data. British Airways, Geneva Air- combined demonstrate a favorable trajectory in aviation man-
port, Heathrow, and Miami International Airport are included agement towards a cohesive ecosystem enabled by blockchain
in the tests. FlightChain has utilized smart contracts built on technology. This indicates a transition from isolated solutions
Ethereum and Hyperledger Fabric to modify and store over to a comprehensive framework inside the industry.
two million flight records. FlightChain’s issues persist without Similarly, the healthcare sector employs blockchain technol-
resolution or satisfactory answers. The implementation of per- ogy to protect sensitive patient data and empower individuals
missioned blockchain has led to management issues due to the with greater control over their medical records. HierChain’s
system’s lack of self-management capabilities. In reality, it is hierarchical storage solution improves the management of
not a challenge, but a chance to oversee a network that can be health data across many blockchain platforms, maintaining a
expanded and is partially transparent. This network also enables balance between the security and performance of IoT net-
agreement on important management decisions through the works [66]. Simultaneously, the Health Information Exchange
use of smart contracts. Hyperledger Fabric is a more advanced (HIE) is a patient-centered approach for sharing health infor-
platform than Ethereum. However, it has a transaction output mation. It employs smart contracts to enhance privacy and
of nearly 100,000 transactions per second, which is more than empower patients to have autonomous control over their health
enough. Testing exclusively utilizes limited flying data. The pri- records. The incorporation of blockchain technology, together
mary objective is to prevent the replication of flight data within with decentralized principles, in the healthcare sector empha-
a blockchain. The test case focuses on the fundamental capabil- sizes a forthcoming era where data management is not only
ity of the blockchain, which is the simple sharing of data across exceptionally secure but also prioritizes individuals’ privacy. An
a network. Therefore, this study is crucial for future research in illustrative instance of this is the study conducted by Nguyen
related fields. et. al., which introduced a robust intrusion detection system uti-
lizing blockchain technology for secure data transmission [67].
The researchers employed a classification model specifically
3 LITERATURE REVIEW designed for Cyber-Physical Systems (CPS) in the healthcare
sector. Through extensive simulations, they demonstrated that
In response to the previous research and difficulties, this study their proposed methodology is remarkably precise, efficient,
has constructed a framework by taking into account perti- and practical.
nent studies in the literature and resolving any shortcomings The domain of the Internet of Things (IoT) showcases how
or areas that need enhancement. To address this, we under- blockchain technology optimizes data management and boosts
took a thorough examination of existing literature to evaluate operational efficiency. A decentralized approach to data man-
data management systems based on blockchain technology that agement is achieved by the combination of clustering, edge
particularly address difficulties within various domains. The computing, and blockchain within a three-tiered architecture.
objective was to identify research projects that concentrate on This architecture seeks to tackle the increasing worries over pri-
data management, namely those that suggest frameworks or vacy and trust in IoT networks [68]. The MSLShard architecture
methods to tackle difficulties specific to a particular field. The utilizes a sophisticated adaptive network sharing technique to
selection of relevant studies was driven by particular criteria, improve the scalability and security of shared IoT resources.
which included their relevance to the study question and the It is crucial for the complex interconnections of smart city
proposed answer. infrastructures [69].
In the realm of aviation management, the utilization of The remaining portion offers a comprehensive examination
blockchain technology is exemplified by the Blockchain-Based and evaluation of the studies mentioned in the previous section.
Flight Operation Data (BFOD) sharing scheme and the Block- The assessment of these studies was performed by taking into
Trust model [63]. These models demonstrate how blockchain account attributes such as the “solution domain, layered struc-
can ensure data security and enhance operational efficiency ture, cluster methodology, storage capacity, access management
634 ZORLU and OZSOY
Access
Solution Cluster management Test bed Secrecy-
Paper domain Layer methodology Storage ability ability applicability preserving
Proposed Aviation Blockchain, data Inter-cluster, On-chain, RBAC YES PKI, Offloading
Framework management, Intra cluster, off-chain data, ACL
access hybrid (proof
management, link, on-chain),
presentation requested data
[63] Aviation N/A N/A Off-chain (local, RBAC N/A Zero-knowledge
cloud, proof proofs
on-chain)
[64] Aviation N/A N/A On-chain PKI N/A N/A
[70] Aviation N/A N/A On-chain PKI N/A N/A
[71] Aviation N/A N/A On-chain N/A N/A N/A
[72] Healthcare Application, control, N/A On-chain PBAC YES PKI
infrastructure
[73] Healthcare N/A N/A Off-chain (proof ACL N/A PKI
on-chain)
[74] Healthcare N/A N/A Off-chain (cloud, ACL N/A Zero-knowledge
proof proofs
on-chain)
[75] Supply chain Perception, N/A On-chain ACL N/A PKI
blockchain,
application, user
[76] Supply chain N/A Global and local N/A ABAC N/A N/A
[77] IoT N/A N/A Off-chain (proof RBAC N/A N/A
on-chain)
[78] Industry Perception, N/A Off-chain (proof N/A YES PKI
off-chain, on-chain)
blockchain,
application,
service
[79] Smart cities Detection, security, N/A Off-chain(IPFS) PBAC N/A N/A
communication,
link
capabilities, testbed applicability, and preservation of secrecy.” multifaceted technique that encompasses many tiers of system
The results of this systematic literature analysis, which provide design, including blockchain, data management, access man-
a systematic comparison of pertinent studies, are organized in agement, networking, and presentation layers. This integrative
Table 1. This table provides a comparative analysis of the pro- method distinguishes itself from other research in the review
posed framework and other studies, highlighting their level of by frequently having a broader reach, encompassing multiple
suitability or lack thereof. When a situation does not apply, the architectural levels, and exhibiting greater specificity.
abbreviation “N/A” is utilized. After conducting a thorough The “Proposed Framework” showcases its methodologi-
analysis, it is evident that blockchain technology continuously cal sophistication by utilizing inter-cluster, intra-cluster, and
supports the goals of increasing data accuracy, strengthening hybrid clustering techniques, distinguishing it from comparative
system resilience, and promoting scalability in various industries. studies that lack in-depth analysis of data segregation and
These studies offer proof for the notion of decentralized and network management. This sophisticated approach demon-
secure systems that can adjust to the complexities of modern strates enhanced effectiveness and capacity in handling more
networks, such as the intricate operations of aviation and the substantial workloads, thus addressing a notable deficiency in
large networks of the Internet of Things (IoT). research. Moreover, it employs a hybrid storage strategy that
After conducting a thorough examination of the tabulated integrates on-chain, off-chain, and selectively requested data
data, it is clear that the “Proposed Framework” is a robust storage technologies. This advanced method distinguishes itself
and comprehensive strategy for utilizing blockchain technology, from the predominantly on-chain storage choices observed in
specifically in the aviation industry. In comparison to con- previous research, thereby improving both the accessibility and
temporaneous scholarly contributions, this work proposes a security of data. This state-of-the-art storage solution surpasses
ZORLU and OZSOY 635
4 PROPOSED FRAMEWORK
management [80]. This comprehensive approach is reflected essential for IoT applications requiring efficient communication
in the selection of blockchain, data management, access man- across heterogeneous devices. The presentation layer acts as a
agement, link, and presentation layers, each catering to specific bridge between the blockchain system and users, guaranteeing
functional requirements and challenges inherent in distributed that the advantages of the blockchain can be easily accessed by
data management systems. The use of clustering to define end-users through user-friendly interfaces and distributed apps.
network segments, hybrid evolutionary algorithms for opti- User engagement with the system is crucial in fields such as
mization, and strategic layering for managing data, access, healthcare, as it can greatly influence its effectiveness.
and interactions exemplifies the sophisticated integration of To give a description of the proposed framework’s archi-
blockchain technology to meet complex system requirements. tecture that is illustrated in Figure 5, first cluster, node, and
The selected parameters in the suggested framework are crucial role structure are described. Then the managed data concept
for establishing a strong, adaptable, and safe blockchain-based is described deeply. Afterward, contracts of design and security
data management system. The framework’s adaptability to concerns are elaborated.
different issue domains is facilitated by key features such as con-
tract development, blockchain technology, handling of external
data requests, and storage systems. They enable customization 4.1 Cluster, node and role structure
based on unique requirements, ensuring the framework’s flexi-
bility and scalability. This method enables the incorporation of The blockchain network is designed to support both inter-
many technologies and protocols, allowing for a less intrusive cluster (IeC ) and intra-cluster (IaC ) operations, increasing its
utilization of data with safe and efficient storage and updat- versatility. The IeC serves as the main data storage and performs
ing processes. The modular design allows for easy adaption as a central communication center, providing connectivity
and integration, making the framework useful across various among all participants. This framework differs from the intra-
applications and contexts. cluster model, IaC , which functions based on its unique rules
The blockchain layer is crucial for ensuring the security and structures designed to fulfill its special needs.
and trust model of the system by choosing the type of The IeC plays a crucial role in facilitating communication
blockchain (public, private, permissioned), consensus processes, among distinct IaC s, effectively connecting multiple clusters.
and underlying technologies (such as Ethereum, Hyperledger This division into inter and intra-clusters allows for the uti-
etc.). Choosing between public, private, and permissioned lization of different blockchain technology and consensus
blockchains allows for customized solutions that strike a balance algorithms tailored to the specific requirements of each cluster.
between transparency and control, according to unique domain The variety of blockchain technology, each with distinct capa-
requirements for accessibility and privacy. Ethereum provides bilities, limits, and strengths, requires a flexible strategy. This
a strong foundation for decentralized applications through its enables the selection of blockchain solutions that best match
smart contract feature, while Hyperledger is particularly effec- the individual objectives of each cluster, assisted by the IeC and
tive in controlled enterprise settings that prioritize privacy and IaC framework.
efficiency [81]. Consensus algorithms like Proof of Work (PoW), Furthermore, the IeC is crucial in reducing possible delays in
Proof of Stake (PoS), and Delegated Proof of Stake (DPoS) are data transfer and database growth resulting from significant data
essential for ensuring the security, integrity, and performance exchanges inside the IaC network. The integrity and immutabil-
of the blockchain. Choosing the right algorithm is critical for ity of data throughout the network are ensured by the IeC
the system’s efficiency and trustworthiness. The data manage- through storing general-purpose data and retaining hash values
ment layer is crucial for handling data by organizing, storing, of processed data within IaC s.
and processing it, while also tackling scalability and efficiency The IaC is designed to be flexible, allowing for the utilization
issues. The system can establish a balance between immutability of different consensus algorithms and blockchain technol-
and scalability in large-scale deployments by categorizing data ogy depending on structural requirements. Engaging with or
and utilizing several storage methods, both on-chain and off- becoming a part of the IeC necessitates following the stated
chain, to address substantial data quantities [82]. Evolutionary norms and protocols of the IeC . This architecture guarantees
clustering in IoT environments demonstrates the use of meth- the operational autonomy of IaC s and maintains the network’s
ods to enhance data management and network performance. integrity by keeping data proofs controlled within IaC s in the
Emphasizing roles and smart contracts in the access manage- IeC . This strategy highlights the dedication to preserving data
ment layer guarantees that access control is secure and can accuracy throughout the clusters, demonstrating the frame-
easily adjust to evolving needs. This corresponds to the need for work’s capacity to meet various technological requirements
detailed access controls in settings such as healthcare and IoT, while retaining unified network management.
where user responsibilities and permissions need to be care-
fully handled to protect sensitive data. The link layer tackles the
practical difficulties of network interoperability and connection 4.1.1 Inter-cluster (IeC ) architecture
in dispersed systems by facilitating communication across het-
erogeneous nodes. By incorporating technologies like RESTful Common data for all nodes and immutability proof (hash) of the
APIs and WebSockets, the blockchain framework can effec- IaC data are determined by the IeC blockchain. With the help of
tively communicate with other systems and devices, which is the architecture, IeC takes part as a communication bus between
ZORLU and OZSOY 637
IaC s as well as being the main chain for the framework. Com- to customize its consensus process to align with its own
mon and general-purpose data which is requested by all nodes objectives, enhancing effectiveness and adaptability. The IaC
is stored and updated on the IeC chain. Common Operational structure empowers customers to select the most appro-
Picture (COP) and Recognized Air Picture (RAP) creation is priate blockchain technology for their unique requirements,
considered to illustrate the stored data in IeC . Aircraft, UAVs, facilitating a tailored approach to data management and secu-
IoTs, or other nodes including ground stations and base sta- rity. IaC is a specialized cluster capable of establishing its
tions are responsible for providing navigational information to technology and regulations in a framework apart from IeC .
provide a COP or RAP. Moreover, any node that participates in Although IaC governs its cluster independently from IeC , proof
the blockchain and operates in branches may share appropriate of data processed in IaC can be kept in IeC to maintain
navigational information with the aircraft or any other node in data integrity.
the communication range. At this point, a portion of the data IaC chain sets its own rules and is formed by nodes with
that is gathered by responsible IaC is passed to IeC , and aggre- the same level of connectivity such as a swarm environment.
gating the data in the IeC maintains the overall picture of COP IaC nodes and cluster rules can vary from the IeC chain they
or RAP. belong to in terms of the consensus algorithm and blockchain
technology as well as other used technologies. In this way, clus-
ter formation can be designed in a more flexible and modular
4.1.2 Intra-cluster (IaC ) architecture manner. To illustrate; while military UAVs flying in swarms and
ground support units can form an IaC with faster and trusted
Prioritizing flexibility and specificity is crucial to address diverse nodes using a few validators or signers, another IaC chain
operating needs. Each IaC in the system has the freedom that serves in an open and hostile environment can employ
638 ZORLU and OZSOY
4.1.3 Communication between clusters Authority role (RA ): Responsible for managing the
data, communication, and contracts both in inter or
Each IaC , can be constructed utilizing a variety of technologies. intra-cluster domains.
We establish connectivity between clusters using web sock- Data manager role (RDM ): Responsible for storing and
ets and RESTful APIs in a microservice architecture. This updating data as well as managing access to requested
architectural option enables effective, scalable, and adaptable data.
communication among clusters. An IaC node can participate Listener role (RL ): Solely listens to the blockchain for
in IeC by using a connection adaptor that is tailored for IeC . changes. In this role, a node does not have any privilege
Any node in a IaC can communicate with nodes in other clus- to update the state of the blockchain.
ters, but usually, only one node per cluster is chosen to manage Cross-chain role (RX ): Responsible for preserving com-
this inter-cluster communication for reasons like energy effi- munication links among intra and inter-cluster chains.
ciency or reducing complexity, particularly in applications such Oracle role (RO ): Responsible for populating the
as swarm flights. requested untrusted off-chain data to nodes. Subscribes
Each IaC has at least one node that is responsible for to Oracle contract, gets requested data and responses
ensuring connectivity with the IeC . Otherwise, it creates its back. Can either be in an intra-cluster or inter-cluster
inter-cluster structure and can not have global proof of the data. chain.
Data request or push can be done in three ways: Inter-cluster node (IeC ): A node is a member of IeC chain
can have one or more of the listed roles: cross-chain
∙ From inter-cluster to intra-cluster (IeC ⟶ IaC ): This (IeC -X), authority (IeC -A), data manager(IeC -DM),
method entails transferring data from the inter-cluster net- Oracle (IeC -O) and listener (IeC -L).
work to a designated intra-cluster, enabling external data to Intra-cluster node (IaC ): Communication between cus-
be inputted into a cluster. tom local chain except IeC nodes takes part in here.
∙ From intra-cluster to inter-cluster (IaC ⟶ IeC ): This entails Permissioned and private also customizable blockchain
transmitting data from an intra-cluster to the inter-cluster for purpose can be deployed. Crosschain (IaC -X), oracle
network, enabling a cluster to share its data with other (IaC -O), authority (IaC -A), data manager (IaC -DM) ve
clusters. listener (IaC -L) roles can be obtained by the IaC nodes.
∙ Between intra-clusters through inter-cluster (IaC ⟶
IeC ⟶ IaC ): This technology enables data transmission
between two intra-clusters via the inter-cluster network, 4.2 Data management
enhancing communication between distinct clusters.
Data under consideration vary in terms of frequency of change,
The data requested from the IeC and the commands trans- size, source and authenticity. Although storing data on a
mitted by the authorities involved in the IeC are executed on blockchain guarantees integrity, availability, and immutability, it
the nodes that have adaptors of IeC . At the same time, the data is expensive as it is replicated across all participants. Therefore,
propagated from the IeC is propagated in the IaC by necessity or it is necessary to classify the data, especially in the domains
blockchain rule. Therefore, communication between different which have generally constrained resources. Also, by classifying
IaC s is done via the IeC chain as illustrated in Figure 6. the data, it is possible to determine the storage space and data
ZORLU and OZSOY 639
4.2.1 Classification
Each event has a name and can have a different set of indexed that it is not worth regularly adding to the chain’s data size. On
or non-indexed data than logs, allowing for greater flexibility in the chain,
capturing useful information. They enable individuals to sub- Requested storage: Other data that is not on the chain and
scribe to specific events and receive notifications when those is held off-chain but does not have a hash or access informa-
occurrences occur. When a smart contract emits an event, a tion on the chain is referred to as requested data. This type of
matching log entry is created and recorded on the blockchain. data is fundamentally distinct from on-chain and off-chain data
Contract storage is the persistent storage space provided by a since it is actively obtained from other sources and not saved
smart contract in a blockchain system. Contract storage is sim- on the blockchain as details explained in Section 4.2.1. The
ilar to a key-value store within a smart contract. It enables the Oracle architecture ensures the integrity and trustworthiness of
definition and management of variables or data structures that requested data by utilizing a consensus method among trust-
store persistent state information. Contract storage is used to worthy nodes to validate and aggregate the most correct data.
keep and update the smart contract’s state. It allows for the This solution guarantees the integrity of requested data by elim-
storage of data that must be retained over several invocations inating the necessity for direct hash storage on the blockchain,
or transactions. therefore resolving issues related to data tampering and alter-
Data is available in three forms in line with the data classifica- ation. An Oracle contract allows access to and dissemination of
tion: on-chain storage, off-chain storage, and requested storage this data, which may be queried and accessed in any predefined
(temporary). format by authorized nodes.
On-chain storage: On-chain data refers to always avail-
able and accessible data. This data is stored and updated by
IeCN -DMR who owns RDM . Data can be kept on-chain in 4.2.3 Manipulation
logs, events, and contract storage. Logs are a necessary com-
ponent of blockchain systems that are built as a linear sequence The decentralized and transparent nature of blockchain tech-
of entries, each of which represents a specific event or activ- nology makes it difficult for attackers to change data without
ity. Even querying logs for specific information is expensive being caught. Because of the immutability of past data and the
in the context of processing power, the log entries can be consensus procedures used by blockchains, blockchain systems
retrieved and analyzed by anybody, allowing for transparency are more resistant to unauthorized data manipulation attempts
and accountability. Events are a higher-level abstraction built than traditional centralized databases. Authorization is the key
on top of logs that enables smart contracts in blockchain sys- feature of the proposed framework to ensure the accuracy and
tems to communicate with one another and notify interested integrity of the data.
parties about specific occurrences. Querying is more effective Roles are defined for several purposes as RDM is responsible
than logs because each event has a name and can have a dif- for the management of data manipulation by authorized nodes.
ferent set of indexed or non-indexed data, allowing for greater The node authorized to manipulate (insert, update, and delete)
flexibility in capturing useful information. On the other hand, the data that is stored on-chain or off-chain, submits the nec-
contract storage is the persistent storage space provided by a essary information via the developed contract and ensures that
smart contract which is used to store and update the smart the data is stored as it is intended.
contract’s state. It enables the definition and management of Nodes in the cluster can access on-chain data that has been
variables or data structures that store persistent state informa- updated by RD M as needed. When data is altered, the network
tion. Data storage in contracts is more expensive than storing propagates the change information through events to reduce
in logs or events. When confidentiality is not a concern, stor- the network workload caused by nodes that are querying the
ing data in logs is a more effective approach with the ability to needed data for tracking change. As a result, listener nodes mon-
index log event topics even when it is limited. However, because itor propagated data change events in order to update locally
it is accessible to all nodes that can access the blockchain, this used data or maintain local databases up-to-date. Nodes may
method is not always desirable. According to the circumstances, be asked to confirm that they received the data change event
either strategy may be applied in the approach that is being in particular instances. If RD M requests a data change event
provided. confirmation, nodes return the response via contracts.
Off-chain storage: Blockchain technologies recognize that Off-chain proof of data modification follows the same proce-
not all data needs to be stored directly on the chain. Decen- dure as on-chain data. Off-chain data copies can be kept in many
tralized file systems or distributed databases can be integrated storage devices to balance the access burden. When off-chain
with blockchain to handle larger or less frequently accessed data is kept on different mediums and the proof is modified,
data. These solutions store the data separately while utilizing the blockchain broadcasts a data proof change event to ensure
the blockchain for validation and verification purposes. Similar that all copies of the data are changed.
to on-chain storage, this storage differs in that it just stores the
proof (hash value) of the data and access link information rather
than the entire data set. The proof of the data is stored either 4.3 Contracts
within the logs, events, or contract. In other words, the proof is
kept on the chain but the data itself is kept off the chain. This Smart contracts are computer programs that allow two par-
data is either highly sensitive, large, or utilized so infrequently ties to reach an agreement without the involvement of a
ZORLU and OZSOY 641
third party. In this method, agreements may be struck without Oracle contract: It is the contract that enables Oracle nodes
the requirement of a trustworthy common point, particularly with roles defined by the management contract to meet incom-
a single authority, and the agreed events may be automati- ing data requests. Each Oracle contract request is broadcast
cally activated when specific predetermined circumstances take to the Oracle nodes. When an Oracle node receives a request,
place. it gathers data from various sources and sends it to the Ora-
As described in more depth in the following sections, cle contract for voting to determine the most correct and
the contracts created have made it feasible to offer access accurate answer.
management, data management, and communication connec- Cross-chain contract: Cross-chain contract provides com-
tivity. Interaction between contracts and roles are illustrated in munication between different IaC s as well as communication
Figure 8 and detailed as follows. between IaC and IeC . The address and identity of the users
Management contract: This contract is responsible for defined in this contract are saved for each cluster in which they
governing and controlling various aspects of the system’s participate. As a result, nodes with the RX are also nodes in the
operation, typically handling administrative functionalities and clusters to which they belong. They can perform operations and
defining the rules and policies for the overall blockchain transfer data based on their roles in each cluster.
network. The responsibilities, access restrictions, and autho-
rizations that any participating node in the blockchain can
have, independent of their position, are defined by the man- 4.4 Security
agement contract. This contract makes it possible to specify
and approve the nodes that are permitted to access storage in The security section of the proposed architecture explains
accordance with the data classification. Management contracts the use of the STRIDE threat model, which was created by
act as the central authority for decision-making, system config- Microsoft as an analysis tool [84]. This paradigm categorizes
uration, and protocol upgrade as well as defining the roles that security vulnerabilities into six classifications: Spoofing, Tam-
are responsible for several duties. pering, Repudiation, Information Disclosure, Denial of Service
Storage contract: Storage contracts serve as a repository (DoS), and Elevation of Privilege, aiding in their identification
for crucial data and information that must be retained on- within a system. Using STRIDE allows for a detailed and var-
chain at all times. It ensures the data’s integrity, accessibility, and ied evaluation of possible weaknesses, ensuring a full analysis of
immutability, allowing all participants to validate it. Although, both the system’s structure and its operational performance.
depending on the usage needs, the type and structure of The STRIDE technique is particularly skilled at examin-
the data to be stored here may differ. A contract that has ing the security status of blockchain-based infrastructures. It
been deployed cannot be changed, albeit in some cases, bug allows for a thorough and methodical identification and reduc-
patches or upgrades are required to resolve a found vulnera- tion of possible vulnerabilities in different threat categories.
bility. Because the storage contract is built with a proxy contract By thoroughly analyzing each STRIDE component within the
pattern, it allows for the necessary adjustments or upgrades. The framework’s design and procedural dynamics, one can rigor-
proxy contract pattern allows contract upgrades to take place ously evaluate the framework’s resilience to typical security
without the need for a new address. All storage access is subject threats. This analysis not only emphasizes the security strengths
to predefined rules. of the framework but also pinpoints potential gaps that may
642 ZORLU and OZSOY
require additional safeguards to strengthen the system’s overall 4.4.4 Information disclosure
defense measures.
The framework leverages the inherent features of blockchain The framework emphasizes data protection through the use
technology, such as its unchangeable nature, encryption, and of encryption and secure communication protocols to pre-
distributed agreement processes, to tackle and reduce the vent unauthorized access to information. Utilizing methods
security issues outlined by the STRIDE model. like transport layer security (TLS), network segmentation, and
firewalls is essential for ensuring secure communication and
safeguarding sensitive data in a permissioned blockchain setting.
4.4.1 Spoofing
The framework uses strict authentication mechanisms and role- 4.4.5 Denial of service (DoS)
based access control systems to reduce the hazards of identity
spoofing. Verifying the legitimacy and completeness of partic- The blockchain’s distributed architecture reduces the likeli-
ipants in the blockchain network prevents unauthorized entry hood of DoS attacks. Decentralization removes individual weak
and possibly harmful actions. The framework sets out require- spots, improving the system’s ability to withstand challenges and
ments for nodes that want to connect to permissioned private function consistently.
networks and open public networks. It uses mechanisms like vir-
tual private networks (VPNs) for network isolation and specific
parameters such as network ID, enode address, and port infor- 4.4.6 Elevation of privilege
mation to improve network security. Authentication in public
and private blockchains relies on public-key infrastructure (PKI) The framework uses role-based access controls and smart con-
to provide safe transactions and identity verification, allowing tract functionality to prevent unwanted privilege escalation.
only authorized entities to conduct transactions on the network. Users are only able to perform actions they have been explicitly
During a transaction, the sender signs it using their private key authorized to do, which helps maintain rigorous control over
K p r, and the receiver verifies it using the sender’s public key K p u. system operations and access.
Verifying the signed transaction is part of the sender’s address. The suggested security methodology greatly improves the
Administrators typically have knowledge of the addresses of security of data management systems, especially in industries
nodes in private networks. where data sensitivity and integrity are crucial. Implement-
ing specific security measures within the blockchain structure
can effectively combat various threats, offering a strong
4.4.2 Tampering defense mechanism. However, additional research and practical
implementation are required for future endeavors.
The immutable nature of blockchain provides intrinsic protec-
tion against unwanted data modifications. Consensus across the
network is crucial for preserving data integrity, as each block 4.5 Integration and challenges
is cryptographically connected to the one before it, forming
an immutable chain. The framework improves data security Considering the obstacles mentioned and the proposed frame-
by utilizing off-chain storage options and Oracle contracts to work based on blockchain in the article, the integration process
guarantee the authenticity and reliability of data. Role-based may encounter certain unique issues along with their respective
access controls, encryption methods, and strict participation potential solutions:
guidelines are used to protect the private blockchain envi-
ronment, guaranteeing that confidential data stays secure and ∙ Data compatibility: The structure of the blockchain frame-
private. work may not immediately correspond to established data
standards. Solution: The incorporation of the presentation
layer in the suggested framework facilitates the conversion or
4.4.3 Repudiation mapping of current data formats into formats that are com-
patible with blockchain technology. The link layer facilitates
The framework uses immutable transaction records to pre- the establishment of connections and enables data access in a
vent repudiation and ensure transparency and accountability for predetermined format for existing systems. The data is capa-
all parties involved. Digital signatures and PKI play a crucial ble of being modified into various formats and utilized within
role in authenticating participant identities, while authoriza- the system.
tion processes rigorously manage access rights and permissions ∙ Interoperability: Various systems may employ diverse pro-
in the network. The framework prioritizes data confidentiality tocols that are not inherently compatible with the blockchain
by utilizing off-chain storage and encryption to protect sensi- framework. Solution: The proposed solution involves cre-
tive information, while also considering the balance between ating or using blockchain middleware that can connect with
security and resource efficiency. different protocols and systems. This will allow for a smooth
ZORLU and OZSOY 643
flow of data across the proposed link layer. APIs and web Assessment of existing data management systems: This
sockets facilitate the interchange of data between existing stage entails assessing the existing data management systems
systems, even if they use different protocols. already utilized in the unmanned vehicles and aviation sector.
∙ Data quality: The unchangeable characteristic of blockchain The suggested framework recommends the identification of the
could hinder the rectification of data mistakes after they have functionality, data formats, protocols, and security measures of
been recorded. Solution:Implemented smart contracts that these systems.
incorporate pre-validation of data prior to its inclusion in the Identification of integration points: After evaluating the
blockchain, while also establishing and managing off-chain current systems, the subsequent task is to identify the spe-
data repositories for data that can be modified. Additionally, cific areas where blockchain technology might be incorporated
the proxy pattern can be utilized to apply changes or patches to supplement or improve these systems. The paper includes
to deployed contracts in order to ensure data integrity during examples in several domains, such as flight data record-
the lifespan of the contracts. The assurance of data quality ing, maintenance tracking, supply chain management, and
can be achieved by the utilization of on-chain, off-chain, and regulatory compliance.
requested data architecture. Data mapping and conversion: This refers to the process
∙ Efficiency and ability to handle increasing workloads: of synchronizing the data structures and formats of current sys-
Public blockchains, in particular, can encounter challenges tems with those that are compatible with blockchain technology.
related to scalability and performance. Solution: Choose The essay proposes the creation of techniques or middleware
scalable blockchain solutions or hybrid models that integrate layers to enable smooth data exchange and conversion between
the security of blockchains with the efficiency of conven- the two systems.
tional databases. The suggested inter and intra-cluster system Development of blockchain interfaces: During this phase,
allows for the utilization of diverse blockchains and consen- interfaces or APIs are created and implemented to facili-
sus algorithms to ensure scalability based on performance tate communication and compatibility between the blockchain
requirements. Certain blockchains exhibit superior perfor- framework and pre-existing data management systems. The
mance under huge transaction volumes, whereas others do emphasis is on compatibility with current communication
not. Therefore, the choice of the intra-cluster consensus tech- protocols and data exchange standards.
nique and technology can be made independently of the main Integration testing and validation: Thorough testing is
inter-cluster, based on the specific requirements. carried out to verify that the integrated system operates as
∙ Ensuring security and compliance: Incorporating confi- planned. The essay emphasizes the significance of testing
dential information into a blockchain system may give rise to many aspects such as data exchange, transaction processing,
compliance concerns. Solution: Utilizing private or permis- smart contract execution, and data synchronization in order
sioned blockchains that restrict access and employ encryption to verify the functionality, performance, and security of the
to guarantee compliance and safeguard data privacy.The sug- integrated system. Integration with the existing systems is facil-
gested frameworks’ access management layer addresses this itated through the integration of the presentation layer and
issue, as illustrated in the relevant sections. connection layer.
∙ Organizational change: Resistance to the adoption of Deployment and rollout strategy: This entails strategiz-
blockchain technology arises from its inherent complex- ing the implementation of the consolidated system in a way
ity. Solution: Implement extensive training initiatives and that reduces interruptions to current activities. It is advis-
showcase tangible advantages to relevant parties in order to able to use phased deployment tactics, beginning with pilot
promote more seamless integration. projects or proof-of-concept initiatives, prior to carrying out
full-scale implementation.
To tackle these problems, a combination of technological, Training and change management: Stakeholders are given
operational, and strategic methods must be employed. This comprehensive training programs and change management
will ensure that the integration of the blockchain framework initiatives to acquaint them with the integrated system. The
enhances existing data management systems and minimizes any paper highlights the importance of teaching consumers about
potential interruptions. The evaluation section demonstrates the advantages, features, and optimal methods related to the
the applicability of the proposed framework to the domains blockchain-based data management system.
indicated before. However, we acknowledge that there is still Monitoring and maintenance: Procedures are imple-
room for improvement, and further investigations are required. mented to oversee and uphold the continuous performance,
Therefore, this proposed paradigm is an excellent foundation dependability, and safety of the integrated system. Continuous
for data management. monitoring tools, security audits, and proactive maintenance
Implementing the newest proposed systems or frameworks techniques are utilized to immediately identify and resolve con-
in real-world scenarios can encounter initial challenges when cerns.
discussing the necessity of using and incorporating the new sys- Compliance and regulatory alignment: This stage guar-
tem into an old one that is already familiar to everyone. This antees that the integrated system adheres to pertinent aviation
paper provides an explanation for the necessity of the suggested regulations, data privacy legislation, and industry standards.
framework and outlines the specific challenges that need to be Comprehensive evaluations of regulatory mandates are car-
addressed in a systematic manner. ried out, and essential measures are put in place to ensure
644 ZORLU and OZSOY
adherence. Integration with the existing systems is facilitated TABLE 3 Blockchain tools for development, testing, and monitoring.
through the integration of the presentation layer and connection Environment Tools
layer.
Integrated dev. env. (IDE) VsCode, bash terminal, solidity IDE
Iterative improvement and optimization: The integrated
system is continuously improved and optimized through the Development environment Truffle Suit, Remix, Metamask,
HDwallet Node.js, JavaScript (js)
analysis of user feedback, performance indicators, and the incor-
poration of emerging technology. The book proposes the idea Library web3.js, ether.js, custom scripts
of continuously improving the system to better its usefulness, Blockchain client HyperLedger Besu, Ganache
usability, and efficiency as time progresses. Testing tools HyperLedger Caliper, Truffle Suit
Given the stringent regulations in the aviation industry, the Monitoring tools Prometheus, Grafana, web browser
use of blockchain technology must be approached with cau-
tion to ensure compliance with existing norms. In addition to
the utilization of Internet of Things (IoTs) and Unmanned
Aerial Vehicles (UAVs), the aviation sector is one of the who are not technically inclined. This allows both non-technical
most tightly regulated businesses, with rigorous criteria for users to use the proposed framework independently or in
ensuring safety, maintenance, and operations. When integrating conjunction with other systems.
blockchain solutions, it is crucial to ensure that compliance with
existing regulations is not compromised. This requires working
closely with regulatory agencies. It is necessary to collaborate 5 EXPERIMENTAL EVALUATION
with regulatory bodies in order to integrate the unique features
of blockchain technology, such as its distributed ledger tech- In order to investigate the validation of the presented frame-
nology and smart contracts, within the regulatory framework work, tests were carried out with an experimental approach.
while ensuring safety and adherence to operational standards. Applications and technologies developed for the realization of
The study thoroughly examines the adaptability of the suggested this scenario and a summary of them are given in Table 3.
framework, emphasizing its potential to conform to current and
future legislation. However, the study also acknowledges the
need for further research on the practical application and real- 5.1 Scenario
life effects of the framework in relation to adhering to legal and
regulatory implications. The Flight Management System (FMS) is a dual system com-
Furthermore, the integration of the proposed framework, or posed of the Flight Management Computer (FMC), Common
any innovative system, into existing infrastructures has other Display Unit CDU, and a cross-talk bus. Comparison studies
challenges, including the need for technical and non-technical present that there are variations in pilot training, aircraft perfor-
user training. To address these challenges, the framework mance, and errors in data collection and processing according
emphasizes the importance of providing training to both tech- to developed FMS [85, 86]. Another problem is the capacity
nical and non-technical staff. Although the focus of this study of the FMS which has limited storage to maintain the required
does not include training, it is important to build the train- data to FMS [87]. Using the FMS database populated from
ing program to accommodate persons who lack familiarity many sources, a common use of pilot entry can be consid-
with technical issues. The text highlights the significance of ered to be met. As a result, the NavDB and PerfDB consist of
blockchain technology in connection to their particular roles, the combination of various data that all the other modules are
emphasizing its benefits in enhancing data integrity, secu- fed with. While the performance database is not shared pub-
rity, and transparency. Furthermore, the framework provides licly NavDB is common data for nodes in the aviation domain.
detailed guidance on how to efficiently employ the blockchain- NavDB is updated regularly by the aviation authorities and is
based system for specific tasks and underscores the significance the main source of flight planning. For these reasons, proof of
of adopting optimal security measures. The training pro- concept evaluation is performed on the presented framework
gram should also incorporate guidance on roles pertaining for storing NavDB, which is important in the aviation domain
to compliance and reporting. This instruction elucidates the and is updated every 28 days. We obtained the real navigation
manner in which blockchain architecture facilitates the ful- data which contains files and approximately 1.240.158 bytes of
fillment of regulatory responsibilities and the streamlining of formatted plain text data. Example data format is shown in
audit procedures. Table 4.
The architecture of the proposed framework is inherently It is ensured that NavDB is stored on the inter-cluster
hierarchical, facilitating its utilization by technical individuals blockchain (IeC ) so that data can be stored, updated, and deleted
and enabling seamless integration with existing systems through on the blockchain. The IeC nodes are assumed to have provided
the utilization of technologies such as APIs and WebSock- their addresses and participated in the consisted blockchain net-
ets. This approach not only makes use of current technology work, which is designed to be private, and is structured parallel
in areas like monitoring but also enables the development of to security considerations. Each node has its own private-public
user-friendly interfaces at the presentation layer for individuals key pair and an address derived from it. The blockchain also
ZORLU and OZSOY 645
ELEV
TABLE 5
1730
3150
U
Data Type Program Description
⋅
⋅
⋅
On-chain websocket Program to access data on contract storage
W014459 0222
E005522 0222
E001320 0222
E006056 0222
MAG_VAR
Off-chain IPFS Distributed data storage
CouchDB Document based database management
system
⋅
⋅
⋅
PostgreSql Relational database management system
SLAVED_VAR
E00101220 Requested API event handler for requested API data with
E00420112
parameters
⋅ web listener js-based program for search data on www
⋅
⋅
* Used libraries: ipfs-http-client, body-parser, request, node-fetch, express, axios, dotenv
WGS_DLONG
-71.186.192
28.803.750
33.012.472
2.107.806
W071111029
E028481350
E002062810
E033004490
40.146.611
N40574590
N41182560
N44380072
N40084780
…..
Truffle suit extension, and Remix Ide are used for developing
⋅
⋅
⋅
112100M
340000K
FREQ
323
LT
⋅
⋅
⋅
interact with the blockchain via web socket and API. Applica-
BARCELONA
Web socket, API, and web event handler applications are devel-
oped to realize access to on-chain, off-chain, and requested data.
Navigation data formation.
⋅
⋅
⋅
TU
US
data from its address and checking its hash value for consis-
SP
⋅
⋅
⋅
4
⋅
⋅
⋅
ESB
ST
Table 5.
⋅
⋅
⋅
646 ZORLU and OZSOY
successful transactions decreases. As a result, the best number though increasing from 4 to 10 validators resulted in a decrease
of workers for further testing has been determined to be 10. in throughput and an increase in latency. Increasing the number
The effect of the number of validators is another concern that of validators to 20 resulted in the opposite, however, in a small
has a direct impact on block creation time because it increases difference. Throughput is decreased and latency is increased in
the time required to validate the blocks to be created. At least, tests with 30 and 40 validators, respectively. As a result, the
three out of four validator nodes must validate the block in expected decrease in throughput with increasing the number
order to respect Byzantine Fault Tolerant (BFT). Figure 11 of validators in PoA algorithms is interpreted as an increase
shows the test results for 50 tx, 2 bps, and 10 workers on an in latency. The fact that the throughput is higher at 10 valida-
IBFT 2.0 network with 4, 10, 20, 30, and 40 validators. Even tors than at 20 validators can be attributed to network resources
648 ZORLU and OZSOY
TABLE 6 Developed automated testing program parameters and and 1 bps, according to the results with the QBFT algorithm
definitions. given in Figure 12. Then tests are conducted with 20 validator
Data nodes, 10 workers, and 1 bps. The results of the tests with 4 val-
Parameter Type Description idator nodes, 10 workers, and 2 bps show that the time it takes
folder_name string setting name of the top to create a block has a direct impact on throughput. Compar-
folder ing the results validator increase has less effect than bps under 4
create_folder bool option to creation of folder and 20 validator nodes. Throughput increases as bps decreases
even with more validator nodes. 4n_10w_bps1 (4 nodes 10 work-
node_count int set validator nodes number
ers 1 block period second) gives best throughput, 20n_10w_bps1
i_q_bft string set consensus protocol
and 4n_10w_bps2 follows. At the same time, the latency in all
change_genesis bool set validators and consensus configurations increases as the number of tx increases.
run_node_count int set running nodes count In order to assess the scalability of the proposed system, a
run_prometheus bool run Prometheus data comparative analysis of consensus techniques is performed. For
collection comparison of the QBFT and IBFT 2.0 algorithm on the pro-
tsdb_name string prometheus database name posed framework 4 validator nodes, 10 test workers, and 1, 2 bps
run_report bool run HL Caliper for testing are taken into consideration. Figure 13 shows that QBFT per-
forms better than IBFT 2.0. But, when comparing IBFT results
report_name string set generated report name
bps 1 outperforms bps 2 in difference with QBFT.
promet_data_export bool export tsdb database
The framework’s scalability was thoroughly evaluated by
promet_db_delete bool delete prometheus database changing the number of validator nodes and analyzing the
migrate_change_config bool migrate contract, set config effects on transaction throughput and latency. The tests were
conducted to determine the framework’s capacity to efficiently
manage growing workloads without seeing a notable perfor-
mance decline. The testing showed that the framework achieves
and may be insignificant. The effect of the rate controller on a balance between throughput and latency until a specific
transaction commit time can be seen as average throughput and threshold of validator nodes and workload intensity is reached.
average latency are represented as avg_tps and avg_ltc, respec- The study found that the most effective number of workers for
tively. To conclude, as the number of validator nodes increases, testing was 10, resulting in the highest number of successful
throughput decreases, and latency increases. transactions across various rate controllers tested.
Block period seconds (bps) is the parameter defined in the The framework’s ability to handle significant transaction vol-
genesis file to set the creation time of a block even if there is no umes was shown through performance testing in high-demand
submitted transaction. QBFT algorithm is investigated for bps situations. The experiment assessed the framework using a
1 and 2 with 4 and 20 validator nodes to examine the correla- specific amount of transactions under various configurations
tion between them. Throughput is the highest for all transaction of the IBFT 2.0 and QBFT consensus algorithms, emphasiz-
numbers in the test results with 4 validator nodes, 10 workers, ing block creation time and the number of validator nodes.
ZORLU and OZSOY 649
FIGURE 12 Effect of validator node number and bps over throughput and latency on QBFT.
The framework’s performance is influenced by the consensus the obtained test results and also discussed; with the help of the
mechanism, block generation interval, and the number of val- proposed framework data can be transferred securely, structural
idator nodes. A reduction in block period seconds (bps) and decisions can be made autonomously within the intra-cluster
an ideal number of validator nodes, discovered through testing, blockchain, and the intra-cluster blockchain can interact with
improved transaction throughput while keeping latency levels another blockchain that manages its own structure apart from
within acceptable limits. any other blockchain through inter-cluster. Inter-cluster enables
the communication between intra-clusters and stores common
data needed by all participants. The inter-cluster is also respon-
7 CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK sible for participation in the blockchain, the management of
general rules, and the provision of data access, exchange meth-
The goal of the framework is to provide a structure that can be ods, and structures. On the other hand, data integrity has been
implemented in various domains for data management that are ensured by introducing access and acquisition methods in accor-
utilized in a clustered or in some conditions in a private environ- dance with the data structure. Access control and authentication
ment but communicates with the external parties. As is seen in procedures have also been utilized to assure access security. The
650 ZORLU and OZSOY
technique given has resulted in a framework that is applica- these companies. This crucial milestone in achieving practical-
ble and powerful, particularly in circumstances where there is ity and verification is anticipated to strengthen the framework’s
internal management but also external control or a requirement significance and efficiency in real-life settings, thereby enabling
for communication. a smooth integration with current systems.
With the developments in blockchain technology and the Moreover, the ever-evolving domain of consensus algorithms
increasing need for zero defects in the industry, many applica- presents a hopeful opportunity to improve the flexibility of
tions can be developed for managing regulations and solving the framework. Exploring new domain-specific consensus algo-
problems in the context of data management that are encoun- rithms has the potential to utilize the inherent flexibility of
tered in aviation, UAVs, IoTs, smart city applications, product the proposed framework, incorporating these technological
tracing, passport validation etc. is now possible with the help breakthroughs to improve performance and efficiency. Future
of the framework presented in this study. In the case of the research will focus on expanding and speeding up these algo-
passport control mechanism that uses the presented frame- rithms, to ensure that the framework remains at the forefront of
work; each country stores its own passport information and technological progress.
this information is stored as private in intra-cluster. The inter- To address the scalability limitations of the framework and
cluster holds the proof of the passport validation information assess its maturity, it will be necessary to simulate the framework
and when all countries are members of this inter-cluster, under high-load situations, employing technologies like load
one country can securely verify the passport information of balancers. This strategic approach aims to thoroughly evaluate
another country. the framework’s performance in different stressful situations,
There are similar frameworks in the literature, however, all of enabling specific enhancements to ensure strong scalability. By
them are focused on a specific problem or applied to a specific conducting systematic testing and assessment, the framework’s
domain. To the best of our knowledge, there is no such frame- capacity to endure and function optimally in various settings will
work that can support diverse applications in the literature. In be greatly improved.
this paper, a baseline framework is presented that can be a rem- Finally, ensuring security is of utmost importance, and it
edy to various problems in numerous problem domains in the is crucial to focus on developing automated and standardized
context of data management. security testing methods based on threat modeling. Our goal
Experimental evaluation has shown that with the concept is to enhance the security characteristics of the framework by
validation of the proposed framework, role-based access to coordinating attacks based on known threat models and closely
data either on or off the blockchain can be provided in monitoring the system’s overall response. The continuous effort
accordance with access control utilizing developed contracts to improve security measures aims to protect the system from
and other components. Furthermore, a solution for gathering constantly changing cybersecurity threats, offering a safe and
nondeterministic information from the chain is proposed. dependable platform for users in different fields.
Our research aims to implement and thoroughly test the sug- Future development includes implementing the system on
gested framework in real-life scenarios, with a particular focus test Ethereum networks and establishing it as a container, build-
on the Internet of Things (IoT), Unmanned Aerial Vehicles ing upon the success of the framework. The objective is to
(UAVs), and the aviation industry as future work and open introduce a framework that is simple to implement, practical,
research areas. Our objective is to collect relevant data from and can be expanded to address issues in different fields. More-
real-world implementations by installing the framework onto over, there is ongoing study in the field of boosting throughput
actual devices and systems and conducting detailed observa- and addressing other security concerns related to hostile actions.
tions. This data will be essential in identifying the necessary The objective is to assess the framework in a setting with many
enhancements and optimizations, guaranteeing that the frame- grouped drones powered by Nvidia Jetson Xavier, enabling data
work adequately fulfills the practical requirements of these interchange during a partially autonomous swarm flight.
advanced technical fields.
In addition to the focus on practical implementation, the cre- AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS
ation of a dedicated testing environment has also become a Ozan Zorlu: Conceptualization; data curation; formal analy-
secondary goal. While we have made some progress in devel- sis; investigation; methodology; resources; software; validation;
oping a simulation and test environment to reduce real-world visualization; writing—original draft; writing—review and edit-
hazards, the many intricacies and contributions of this environ- ing. Adnan Ozsoy: Methodology; project administration;
ment were not within the focus of our current study. Future supervision; validation; writing—review and editing.
research initiatives will focus on providing a comprehensive and
major contribution to this test environment, developing a strong CONFLICT OF INTEREST STATEMENT
platform that will greatly help ongoing and future research and The authors declare no conflict of interest.
development efforts.
The framework’s integration capabilities with current real- DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT
world systems have been greatly affected by engagements with Research data are not shared.
prominent aviation corporations, namely in the areas of data
storage and access procedures. Future endeavors will be focused ORCID
on implementing the framework with tangible devices within Ozan Zorlu https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1357-8082
ZORLU and OZSOY 651
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