KEBBI STATE UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY ALIERO

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING (B.Eng.) ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS

DIGITAL SIGNAL PROCESSING (DSP)

(EEE 507)
LECTURE NOTE

FOR
500 LEVEL
Credit Unit 2

COMPILED BY
Engr. Dr. Abdulhakeem. M. DOBI, B.Eng.; M.Eng, (BUK) ; PhD. (UTM)
 CHAPTER ONE: SIGNALS AND SIGNAL CLASSIFICATION

1.1 Introduction
A signal defines the variation of some physical quantity as a function of one or more independent
variables, and this variation contains information that is of interest to us. For example, a
continuous-time signal that is periodic contains the values of its fundamental frequency and the
harmonics contained in it, as well as the amplitudes and phase angles of the individual harmonics.
The purpose of signal processing is to modify the given signal such that the quality of information.
is improved in some well-defined meaning. For example, in mixing consoles for recording music,
the frequency responses of different filters are adjusted so that the overall quality of the audio
signal (music) offers as high fidelity as possible. Important information extracted from signals are
used to bring about a vast technological breakthrough i.e. telecommunication by making it possible
for us to talk to one another over a very long distance, large amount of information storage and
dissemination over the internet, establish communication protocol among various computer
peripherals, weather forecasting and navigation system etc. in this section, mathematical
description and representation of signals and system as well as their classification are introduced.
‘

1.2 Classification of signals

Signals is a function representing a physical quantity or variable and it contains information about
the behaviour or nature of the phenomenon. Example, in an RC circuit the signal may represent
the voltage across the capacitor or the current through the resistor. Mathematically, a signal is
represented as a function of an independent variable 𝑡𝑡. usually, 𝑡𝑡 represents time. Thus, a signal is
denoted by 𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡). Basically, signals can be classified as follows:
• Analogue signal or continuous-time signal
• Digital signal or Discrete-time signal
• Periodic signal and non-periodic signals
• Even and odd signals
• Real and complex signal
• Deterministic and random signals.

1.2.1 Analogue signal or continuous-time signal

An analogue signal or a continuous-time signal 𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡) is a signal that can take on any value in the
continuous interval (𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏), where 𝑎𝑎 may be −∞ and 𝑏𝑏 may be +∞. A signal 𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡) is said to be
continuous-time signal if 𝑡𝑡 is continuous variable. Fig. 1 depicts a continuous-time signals.
Mathematically, a continuous signal is represented by a function 𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡) whose domain is a range of
numbers (𝑡𝑡1 , 𝑡𝑡2 ), where 𝑡𝑡 1 > −∞ and 𝑡𝑡2 < ∞.
 Fig. 1. Continuous-time signal

1.2.2 Digital signal or discrete-time signals

On the other hand, a discrete-time signal/digital signal is defined at a discrete time instant i.e.
millisecond, seconds, hours or daily. Since discrete-time signal is defined at discrete times/interval,
a discrete-time signal is often identified as a sequence number, denoted by (𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛 ), 𝑥𝑥[𝑛𝑛] or 𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛 where
𝑛𝑛 is an integer. A discrete-time signal is illustrated in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2. Discrete-time signal

A discrete-time signal 𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛 may represent a phenomenon where the independent variable is
inherently discrete. A discrete-time signal 𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛 can be obtained by sampling a continuous-time signal
𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡) as illustrated in Fig.3 such as
𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑜 ), 𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡1 ), 𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡2 ), … … … 𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡𝑛𝑛 ) ….
Or
𝑥𝑥[0], 𝑥𝑥[1], 𝑥𝑥[2], … . . , 𝑥𝑥[𝑛𝑛] ….
 𝑥𝑥0 , 𝑥𝑥1 , 𝑥𝑥2 , … . . 𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛 , … … … …
where
𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛 = 𝑥𝑥[𝑛𝑛] = 𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡𝑛𝑛 )
"𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛 " are referred to as samples and the time interval between them is called sampling interval.
When the sampling interval are equal, then
𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛 = 𝑥𝑥[𝑛𝑛] = 𝑥𝑥(𝑛𝑛𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 )
Where 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 is the sampling period between adjacent discrete signal values and 𝑛𝑛 is an integer (𝑛𝑛1 ,
𝑛𝑛2 ) 𝑛𝑛 1 > −∞ and 𝑛𝑛2 < ∞.

Sampler

Quantizer Encoder

CLK
Fig.3. Sampling system A/D interface

1.2.3 Periodic and non-periodic signal

A continuous-time signal 𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡) is said to be periodic with period 𝑇𝑇 if there is a positive nonzero
value of 𝑇𝑇 for which
𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡 + 𝑇𝑇) = 𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡)
Any continuous time signal which is not periodic is termed as nonperiodic or aperiodic signal.

Figure 2.4; Periodic signal

1.2.4 Odd and even signals

A signal continuous-time signal 𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡) or a discrete-time signal 𝑥𝑥(𝑛𝑛) is referred to as even signal if:
 𝑥𝑥(−𝑡𝑡) = 𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡)
𝑥𝑥(−𝑛𝑛) = 𝑥𝑥(𝑛𝑛)
And a continuous-time signal 𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡) or a discrete-time signal 𝑥𝑥(𝑛𝑛) is referred to as odd signal if:

𝑥𝑥(−𝑡𝑡) = −𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡)
𝑥𝑥(−𝑛𝑛) = −𝑥𝑥(𝑛𝑛)

Even signals

Odd signals

Any signal 𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡) or 𝑥𝑥[𝑛𝑛] can be expressed as the sum of two signals, one of which is even and one
of which is
𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡) = 𝑥𝑥𝑒𝑒 (𝑡𝑡) + 𝑥𝑥𝑜𝑜 (𝑡𝑡)
𝑥𝑥[𝑛𝑛] = 𝑥𝑥𝑒𝑒 [𝑛𝑛] + 𝑥𝑥𝑜𝑜 [𝑛𝑛]
Where
1
𝑥𝑥𝑒𝑒 (𝑡𝑡) = {𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡) + 𝑥𝑥(−𝑡𝑡)} 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡)
2
1
𝑥𝑥𝑒𝑒 [𝑛𝑛] = {𝑥𝑥[𝑛𝑛] + 𝑥𝑥[−𝑛𝑛]} 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑥𝑥[𝑛𝑛]
2
 1
𝑥𝑥0 (𝑡𝑡) = {𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡) − 𝑥𝑥(−𝑡𝑡)} 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡)
2
1
𝑥𝑥0 [𝑛𝑛] = {𝑥𝑥[𝑛𝑛] − 𝑥𝑥[−𝑛𝑛]} 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑥𝑥[𝑡𝑡]
2
Example 1.
Find the even and odd part of 𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡) = 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
Solution
The even part is
1
𝑥𝑥𝑒𝑒 (𝑡𝑡) = {𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡) + 𝑥𝑥(−𝑡𝑡)}
2
1 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
𝑥𝑥𝑒𝑒 (𝑡𝑡) = �𝑒𝑒 + 𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 �
2
Using Euler’s formular
𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = cos 𝑡𝑡 + 𝑗𝑗 sin 𝑡𝑡
𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = cos 𝑡𝑡 − 𝑗𝑗 sin 𝑡𝑡
1
𝑥𝑥𝑒𝑒 (𝑡𝑡) = {cos 𝑡𝑡 + 𝑗𝑗 sin 𝑡𝑡 + cos 𝑡𝑡 − 𝑗𝑗 sin 𝑡𝑡}
2
1
𝑥𝑥𝑒𝑒 (𝑡𝑡) = {2 cos 𝑡𝑡} = cos 𝑡𝑡
2
Similarly, the odd part is
1
𝑥𝑥0 (𝑡𝑡) = {𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡) − 𝑥𝑥(−𝑡𝑡)}
2
1
𝑥𝑥0 (𝑡𝑡) = �𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 �
2
1
𝑥𝑥0 (𝑡𝑡) = {cos 𝑡𝑡 + 𝑗𝑗 sin 𝑡𝑡 − (cos 𝑡𝑡 − 𝑗𝑗 sin 𝑡𝑡)}
2
1
𝑥𝑥0 (𝑡𝑡) = {cos 𝑡𝑡 + 𝑗𝑗 sin 𝑡𝑡 − cos 𝑡𝑡 + 𝑗𝑗 sin 𝑡𝑡} = 𝑗𝑗 sin 𝑡𝑡
2
Exercise: Determine the even and odd components of
(a) 𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡) = sin 𝑡𝑡 + 5 cos 𝑡𝑡 − cos 𝑡𝑡 sin 𝑡𝑡
(b) 𝑦𝑦(𝑡𝑡) = 𝑡𝑡 2 + 4𝑡𝑡 − 10 ans 𝑦𝑦𝑒𝑒 (𝑡𝑡) = 𝑡𝑡 2 − 10, 𝑦𝑦𝑜𝑜 (𝑡𝑡) = 4𝑡𝑡
Note that
sin(−𝑡𝑡) = − sin 𝑡𝑡 and cos(−𝑡𝑡) = cos 𝑡𝑡