Ambo University, Hachalu Hundessa Institute of Technology

Applied Modern Physics

Lecture 06 : Quantum Mechanics

Feyissa E.
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
Lecture Outline

• The wave equation

• Schrödinger’s equation time-dependent form

• Schrödinger’s equation steady state form

• Particle in a box

• Harmonic oscillator
ψ=?
2
 Some major Quantum Optics/Quantum Photonics
Research Centers in the world

• JQI, Joint Quantum Institute (U. Maryland & NIST), USA

• JILA (UCol & NIST), Boulder, USA

• CUA, Center for Ultra cold Atoms, Harvard – MIT, USA

• MPQ, Max Planck Institute of Quantum Optics,

Garching, Germany.

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 Some major Quantum Optics/Quantum Photonics
Research Centers in the world

• ICFO, The Institute of Photonics Sciences, Barcelona,

Spain.

• IQOQI, Institute for Quantum Optics and Quantum

Information, Innsbruck, Austria.

Austrian Academy of Sciences
Institute for Quantum Optics and
Quantum Information
• CQT, Center for Quantum Technologies, Singapore

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 Some major Quantum Optics/Quantum Photonics
Research Centers in the world

• ARC, Centre of Excellence for Engineered Quantum

Systems, Australia

• IQC, Institute for Quantum Computing Waterloo, Canada

–Research areas: Quantum computing, Quantum

sensing, Quantum communication, Quantum materials.

• QUANTOP – QDEV , Niels Bohr Institute, Copenhagen

5
Copenhagen interpretation

• Copenhagen interpretation is the mainstream interpretation of

quantum theory.
• Formulations of the interpretation in general, depends on:
– The uncertainty principle of Heisenberg
– The complementarity principle of Bohr
– The statistical interpretation of Max Born, based on
probabilities determined by the wave function
• Several paradoxes have also been proposed by physicists to refute
the Copenhagen interpretation. They include
– The famous Schrödinger cat paradox
– Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen paradox
– Bell’s theorem (or inequality)

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Erwin Schrödinger and “his” cat
Does the Ψ(x) yield the complete description of the physical reality?

Experimental setup Schrödinger Cat (1930 -Present)

ψ=?
• A. Einstein: … Is the quantum state of a cat created upon a
“measurement”? However, nobody doubts whether the cat state is
something independent from measurement process.

7
Quantum mechanics

• Quantum theory represents a fusion of two conflicting classical

notions, namely wave and particle behavior.
• On the one hand, we have to explain particle-like behavior for
phenomena that we usually considers waves (e.g. light)
– Example: momentum exchange between electrons and light in the
Compton effect
• And on the other, we have to explain wave-like phenomena
associated with particles (e.g. electrons).
– E.g., diffraction of electrons by a crystal
• The basic formalism of quantum mechanics incorporates these two
notions by assigning a wave function to particle-like objects such as
electrons.

8
Quantum mechanics

• The wave-particle duality is a typical feature of quantum particles.

• Classical particles are characterised by energy = and

momentum = v.

• The same is true for quantum particles with the energy E = ℏω and

the momentum =ℏ . However quantum particles can take paths

which are not possible for classical particles.

• The rules are determined by wave physics. This is obvious if one

considers the single and double slit experiments.

9
Quantum mechanics

• The least what one can say is that the number of particles is
proportional to the intensity of the wave. For photons this is
.
• For electrons, protons etc. the wave function is called usually Ψ and
the number of particles is proportional to Ψ ⋅ Ψ * = |Ψ| .
• One important difference between the quantum particles is the
rest mass .
• For photons = 0 and the wave equations are the Maxwell
equations.
• For electrons, protons etc. ≠ 0 and the Maxwell equations have
to be generalized. The corresponding wave equations are known as
the Schrödinger equation.

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Brief history

• 1900 (Planck): light with frequency f is emitted in quantized lumps of

energy; E =hf.
• 1905 (Einstein): the quantization was in fact inherent to the light,
and that the lumps can be interpreted as particles, which we now call
“photons”.
• 1913 (Niels Bohr): electrons in atoms have wavelike properties.
• 1924 (de Broglie): all particles are associated with waves; wave-particle
duality.
• 1926 (Schrodinger): formulated wave equation that governs how the
waves evolve in space and time. Initially Schrodinger thought
(incorrectly) that the wave represented the charge density.
• 1926 (Born): Max Born correctly interpreted Schrodinger’s wave as a
probability amplitude.
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Schrödinger equation

• Recall that the relation between and k for photon is = .

• Similarly, let us use the de Broglie relations for a particle such as an
electron to find the relation between and .
• We already know that the total energy (nonrelativistic) of a particle
of mass is
= +
2
where is the potential energy. Substituting the de Broglie
relations =ℏ and =ℏ in to this equation we get
ℏ
ℏ = +
2
• This differs from Equation for a photon because it contains the
potential energy and because the angular frequency does not
vary linearly with .
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Schrödinger equation

• A wave with frequency and wavenumber k can be written as usual

( )
as , =
• We now note that

ℏ
• If we multiply the energy equation(ℏ = + ( )) by , and then
plug in these relations, we obtain the time-dependent Schrodinger
equation.

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Time-dependent Schrödinger equation

• The Schrödinger wave equation in its time-dependent form for a

particle of mass m moving in a potential in one dimension is

ℏ , ( , )
− + , , = ℏ
2

• This equation is satisfied by an exponential form of a harmonic wave

function in the special case of a free particle, one on which no net

force acts, so that the potential energy is constant, , = .
• Thus,
, = ( ) = [ − + − ]
where is a constant, is a solution of this wave equation.

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Time-dependent Schrödinger equation

• The Schrödinger wave equation in 3-D can be written as

ℏ
− + + + , , , = ℏ
2

• In this course we focus only on 1-D Schrödinger equation.

• Exercise

– Show that the 1-D time-dependent Schrödinger equation is

( )
satisfied by , = .

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Properties of valid wave functions

• Besides the Schrödinger wave equation, there are certain properties

(often called boundary conditions) that an acceptable wave
function must also satisfy:
– In order to avoid infinite probabilities, must be finite
everywhere.
– In order to avoid multiple values of the probability, must be
single valued.
– For finite potentials, and must be continuous. This is
required because the second-order derivative term in the wave
equation must be single valued. (There are exceptions to this rule
when is infinite.)
– In order to normalize the wave functions, must approach zero as
x approaches ±∞.
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Time-independent Schrödinger wave equation

• In many cases, the potential will not depend explicitly on time. The
dependence on time and position can then be separated in the
Schrödinger wave equation. Let
, = ( )
• We insert this , into wave Equation and obtain
ℏ
ℏ =− + ( )
2
• If we divide this equation by , we’ll get
1 ( ) ℏ 1
ℏ =− + ( )
( ) 2
• The left side of this Equation depends only on time, and the right
side depends only on spatial coordinates. Thus, both sides of the
equation must be equal to the same constant C, called the separation
constant.

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Time-independent Schrödinger wave equation

• Thus,

ℏ 1
− + =
2

1 ( )
ℏ =C
( )

( )
• Let us solve Equation ℏ ( )
= C first. Rewriting this equation,

( ) C C
= =−
( ) ℏ ℏ

• The general solution of this Equation is

= /ℏ

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Time-independent Schrödinger wave equation

• Which can also be written as

/ℏ
= = − = 2 − 2
ℏ ℏ ℎ ℎ
• Thus, we see that which describes the time variation of , is an
oscillatory function with frequency = .
• However, according to the de Broglie relation, the frequency of the
wave represented by , is = .
• Therefore, we conclude that the separation constant C = E, the total
energy of the particle, and we have
= /ℏ

ℏ , ( , )
for all solutions to − + , , = ℏ .

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Time-independent Schrödinger wave equation

• Finally, the time-independent Schrödinger equation is then given

as
ℏ
− + =
2

• The time-independent Schrödinger equation in one dimension is an

ordinary differential equation in one variable x and it is a
fundamental equation in quantum mechanics.
• Therefore we can write the full solution without loss of generality
using the given above:
, = ℏ ( ) Stationary state

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Interpretation of the wave function

• Analogy with electromagnetic waves:

– ( ) is proportional to the intensity, i. e. the photon density.

• Similarly, for a quantum-mechanical particle:

( )∝

is the probability density of finding a particle in x.

• Probability density: what’s this? more:

– given a small (infinitesimal) volume ∆V centered around , ( ) is

the “Probability divided by ∆V ” of finding the particle in this

volume.
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Normalization

• Wave function , .
• The probability P(x)dx that the electron will be found in the volume
dx is
= , . ( , )∗ = ,

• For time-independent Schrödinger equation,

= , . ( , )∗ = /ℏ ( )∗ /ℏ

= ( )∗ =
( )∗ → complex
• Thus, normalization equation becomes, conjugate of ψ(x)

∗ =1

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 Particle in a box

An electron or other particle

confined absolutely to a region
between x = 0 and x = L by a
potential

, < <
=
∞, < >

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Particle in a box

• A problem that provides several illustrations of the properties of

wave functions and is also one of the easiest problems to solve using
the time-independent, one-dimensional Schrödinger equation is that
of the particle in a box.
• a particle is trapped in a box with infinitely hard walls that the
particle cannot penetrate.
∞ ∞
Many physical
situations can be
∞ ≤ 0, ≥
= approximated by
0 0< <
particle in a box.

Position
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Particle in a box

• The particle is constrained to move only between x = 0 and x = L,

where the particle experiences no forces.
• Most of the situations we encounter allow us to use the time-
independent Schrödinger wave equation. Such is the case here.
• Recall the time-independent Schrödinger equation,
ℏ
− + =
2
• If we insert V = ∞ in this Equation, we see that the only possible
solution for the wave function is = 0. Therefore, there is zero
probability for the particle to be located at x ≤ 0 or x ≥ L . However,
when V = 0,
2
=− =−
ℏ
here = 2 /ℏ .

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Particle in a box

• A suitable solution to equation =− is

= + ( )

where A and B are constants used to normalize the wave function.

• The wave function must be continuous, which means that =0

at both x = 0 and x = L.

• Therefore B = 0 in order to have = 0 = 0. If = = 0, then

A sin(kL) = 0, and because A = 0 leads to a trivial solution, we must

have
= where n is a positive integer.
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Particle in a box

• The wave function is now

= ( = 1, 2, 3, … )

• We normalize our wave function over the total distance −∞ < < ∞.
∗ =1

• Substitution of the wave function yields

=1

• Integrating this function yields A =

2/
• The normalized wave function becomes
2
= sin (n = 1, 2, 3, …)

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• We already know that = /
• Thus,
2
= =
ℏ

• This equation is solved for to yield

ℏ
= (n = 1, 2, 3, …)
2
• This shows Quantized energy levels.

• The possible energies of the particle are quantized, and the

integer n is a quantum number.
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• Graphical description of wave function , probability density
, and energy for the lowest three values of n = (1, 2, 3).

Position
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• For a macroscopic object in a box adjacent energy levels would be
so close together that we could not measure their differences.
• Macroscopic objects must have very large values of n.
• According to Bohr’s correspondence principle, we should obtain the
same probability in the region where the classical and quantum
results should agree, that is, for large n.
• The quantum probability density is = .
• For large values of n, there will be many oscillations within the
box.
• The average value of ( ) over one complete cycle is 1/2. The
average value of ( ) over many oscillations is also 1/2.
• Therefore, the quantum probability approaches 1/L in this limit, in
agreement with the classical result.
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Probability distribution for n = 10 for the particle in a box. The
dashed line is the classical probability density P = 1/L , which is
equal to the quantum mechanical distribution averaged over a
region ∆ containing several oscillations.

Diagram source: Paul A. Tipler & Ralph A. Llewellyn,

“Modern Physics”, 5th ed.
31
Uncertainty

• Notice that the state with lowest energy, the ground state does not
have zero energy as classically expected, but has a finite energy
ℏ
=
• This is the so-called zero point energy.
• This comes from the fact, that a particle confined in a finite region
of size ∆x = L has a nonzero kinetic energy ∆E ∼ Δ /(2 ),
associated with a nonzero momentum ∆p.
• Identifying ∆E with , we have
Δ .Δ ~ ℏ
• which is related to the well-known Heisenberg uncertainty principle

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Energy quantisation

• This particular example teaches us some important general results of

quantum mechanics:
• The wavefunction of a particle confined in a finite region (so-called
bound state) has only a discrete set of possible energies.
• (On the contrary, if the wavefunction is not confined, like for the
free particle, the allowed energies form a continuum. Important
examples in the real world are the energy levels of electrons in an
atomic potential.)
• The minimum energy is always larger than the minimum value of the
potential. The difference is called zero point energy.
• The ground state wavefunction has no nodes, the first excited state
has one node, the second two, and so on.

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 Particle in a finite square well
potential

How does all this

change if we make the
well finite?

34
Finite square well potential

• Now we want to look at a more realistic potential—one that is not

infinite.

• We will consider a particle of

energy < that classically is

bound inside the well.

• We will find that quantum V=0

mechanics allows the particle to be

outside the well.

35
Finite square well potential

• We set the potential = in the time-independent Schrödinger

Equation for regions I and III outside the square well.
• This gives
ℏ 1
− = − regions I, III
2
• We rewrite this using = , a positive constant.
ℏ

=
• The solution to this differential equation has exponentials of the
form and .

36
• In the region x > L , we can reject the positive exponential term,
because it would become infinite as → ∞. Similarly, the negative
exponential can be rejected for < 0.
• The wave functions become
= region I, x < 0

= region III, x > L

• Inside the square well, where the potential is zero, the wave
equation becomes

=−
Where k = 2 /ℏ .

37
• Instead of a sinusoidal solution, we can write it as

= + region II, 0< x < L

• To satisfy the boundary-value properties

• = at x = 0.

• = at x = L.

• Both and must be continuous at x = 0.

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Continuity problem?

• However: The wave function must be continuous and differentiable!

What can we do? This can be achieved by suitably adjusting the
parameters A,B,C,D but most importantly the energy E. This results
in only a discrete set of energies to be allowed: energy quantisation.

39
 The energy levels and wave functions for the lowest
quantum numbers for the finite square-well potential. Notice
that extends past x < 0 and x > L, where classically the
particle is forbidden.

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Remarks on particle in a box

• Any differences between the infinite and finite square well?

– The particle has a finite probability of being outside the finite

square well.

– The wave functions join smoothly at the edges of the well and
approach zero exponentially outside the well.

– The de Broglie wavelength is larger for the finite square well

because the waves extend past the square well.

• This in turn leads to smaller momentum and lower energy levels.

– When > the particle is unbound.

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Harmonic Oscillator

42
Harmonic oscillator

• Because of their common occurrence in nature, we now want to

examine simple harmonic oscillators.
• Consider a spring having spring constant k that is in equilibrium at
= . The restoring force along the x direction is F = −k( − ),
and the potential energy stored in the spring is = − /2.

Equilibrium position

43
Harmonic oscillator

• The resulting motion is called simple harmonic motion (SHM), and the
equations describing it are well known.
• Many phenomena in nature can be approximated by SHM, for
example, diatomic molecules and atoms in a solid lattice of atoms.
• Consider a lattice in which the force on the atoms depends on the
distance x from some equilibrium position .
• Expanding the potential in a Taylor series results in,
1
= + − + ( − ) +⋯
2
where , , and are constants.

44
Harmonic oscillator

• At = we have a minimum of the potential, so = 0 at = .

• This requires that = 0, and if we redefine the zero of potential
energy to require = 0, then the lowest term of the potential V(x) is
1
= −
2
• This is the origin of the potential energy = that occurs so
often.
• We want to study the quantum description of simple harmonic
motion by inserting a potential = into the time-independent
Schrödinger wave equation
2 2
=− − = − +
ℏ 2 ℏ ℏ

45
Harmonic oscillator

• If we let
=
ℏ
• And
2
=
ℏ
• Then
= −

• Because the particle is confined to the potential well, centered at x =

0, it has zero probability of being at = ±∞.
• Therefore, → 0 as → ±∞.
• What is the lowest energy level possible for the harmonic oscillator?
Is E = 0 possible? If E = 0, then x = 0 and V = 0 to allow E ≥ V.

46
Harmonic oscillator

• But if E and V are zero, then the kinetic energy K = 0, and the
momentum p = 0.
• Simultaneously having both x = 0 and p = 0 (that is, both x and p
are known exactly) violates the uncertainty principle. Therefore, the
minimum energy E cannot be zero.

• The wave function solutions for Equation = −

are
/
= ( )
where ( ) are polynomials of order n, and n is an integer ≥ 0.

• The functions ( ) are related by a constant to the Hermite

polynomial functions.

47
Harmonic oscillator

• The first few values of and are shown below

48
Harmonic oscillator

• In contrast to the particle in a box, where the oscillatory wave

function is a sinusoidal curve, in this case the oscillatory behavior is
due to the polynomial, which dominates at small x. The exponential
tail is provided by the Gaussian function, which dominates at large
x.
• The energy levels are given by
1 1
= + ℏ = + ℏ
2 2

where = , and is the classical angular frequency.

• From this Equation we can see that the zero-point energy is
1
= ℏ
2

49
Harmonic oscillator

• The minimum energy allowed by the uncertainty principle,

sometimes called the Heisenberg limit, is found for the ground state of
the simple harmonic oscillator.
• Graphical comparison of the motion as described by classical and
quantum theory: Classical
probability

50
Harmonic oscillator

• Why is it so interesting?

• Restoring force F = -k x
• Classical solution: oscillations with
– Frequency = /
ℏ
ℏ
• Is it a too special model?
ℏ
ℏ /2 No!: it is a good approximation for
the dynamics of a particle near the
minimum of a generic potential.

• Ground state energy = ℏ /2: zero-point vibration

• Equispaced energies: =ℏ ( + )
51
We Are Almost Done with This

• Schrodinger equation equation for quantum-mechanical

particles.

• Particle in a box

• Harmonic oscillator

• Max Born interpretation of wave function:

– Probability distribution or probability density for the particle,
( ) = ∗ ( )
– ( ) is the probability of finding the particle in the interval
between and + .

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