DIGITAL TECHNIQUES / MODULE

ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

Licence Category B1
Issue Number 1 5
5.1: Electronic instrument 5.9: Multiplexing
systems 5.10: Fibre optics
5.2: Numbering systems 5.11: Electronic displays
5.3: Data conversion
5.12: Electrostatic sensitive devices
5.4: Data buses
5.13: Software management control
5.5: Logic circuits
5.6: Basic computer structure 5.14: Electromagnetic environment
5.7: Microprocessors 5.15: Typical electronic/digital
5.8: Integrated circuits aircraft systems
 MODULE 5
Licence Category A, B1 and B2

DIGITAL TECHNIQUES ELECTRONIC

INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS
5.1 Electronic instrument systems
Module 5.1 Electronic instrument systems

Certification Statement
These Study Notes comply with the syllabus of EASA
Regulation (EU) No. 1321/2014 Annex III (Part-66) Appendix I,
including the amendment Regulation (EU) 2023/989, and the
associated Knowledge Levels as specified below:

Knowledge Levels
Part-66
Objective B2
Ref. A B3 B1
B2L
Electronic 5.1 1 1 1 1
Instrument
systems
Typical systems
arrangements
and cockpit
layout of
electronic
instrument
systems

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Table of Contents

Classification _________________________________ 4
Classification by use ___________________________ 4
Flight Instruments _____________________________ 4
Engine Instruments ____________________________ 6
Navigational instruments ________________________ 6
Instrument arrangement ________________________ 8
Glass cockpit ________________________________ 10
General ____________________________________ 10
Advantages _________________________________ 12
Disadvantages ______________________________ 12
Electronic flight instrument system (EFIS)_________ 14
General ____________________________________ 14
EADI and EHSI ______________________________ 14
Transport category aircraft EFIS _________________ 16
PFD and ND ________________________________ 16
The Airbus system (ECAM)_____________________ 20
Small aircraft instrument layouts ________________ 22
General ____________________________________ 22
Light aircraft EFIS ____________________________ 24

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Classification
Classification by use
There are four basic kinds of instruments classified by the job This basic T arrangement for flight instruments as shown in the
they perform: illustration below.

flight instruments; The top centre position directly in front of the pilot and co-pilot
engine instruments; is the basic display position for the artificial horizon even in
navigation instruments; and modern glass cockpits (those with solid-state, flat-panel screen
other systems. indicating systems).

Flight Instruments Original analogue flight instruments are operated by air

The purpose of the flight instruments is to provide the flight pressure and the use of gyroscopes. This eliminates the use of
status of the aircraft to the pilot. The primary flight instruments electricity, which could put the pilot in a dangerous situation if
are: the aircraft lost electrical power. Since then the development of
display and sensing techniques, combined with advanced
attitude; aircraft electrical systems, has made it possible for reliable
altitude; primary and secondary instrument systems that are electrically
airspeed; operated. Nonetheless, often a pneumatic altimeter, a gyro
direction; and artificial horizon, and a magnetic direction indicator are retained
rates. somewhere in the instrument panel as emergency instruments.

are known as the flight instruments. There are basic flight

instruments, such as the altimeter that displays aircraft altitude;
the airspeed indicator; and the magnetic direction indicator, a
form of compass. Additionally, an artificial horizon, a turn
coordinator, and a vertical speed indicator are flight instruments
present in most aircraft. Many variations of these instruments
exist, which is shown in this chapter. Over the years, flight
instruments have come to be positioned similarly on instrument
panels in most aircraft.

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Common instrument arrangement of (from left to right) engine

instruments, flight instruments, navigation instruments, avionics rack

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Engine Instruments Navigational instruments
Status of the power plant Navigational information the path of flight
Amount of power being produced Ground proximity warning
Instrument vacuum or pressure levels Weather avoidance
Electrical systems health
This group includes compasses of various kinds, some of which
Engine instruments are those designed to measure operating incorporate the use of radio signals to define a specific course
to follow when flying the aircraft en route from one airport to
quantity, pressure, and temperature indications. They also another. Other navigational instruments are designed
include measuring engine speed(s). The most common engine specifically land at an airport.
instruments are the fuel and oil quantity and pressure gauges, Traditional navigation instruments include a clock and a
tachometers, and temperature gauges. The table below magnetic compass. Along with the airspeed indicator and wind
contains various engine instruments found on reciprocating information, these can be used to calculate navigational
and turbine-powered aircraft. progress.

Engine instrumentation is often displayed in the centre of the Radios and instruments sending locating information via radio
cockpit where it is easily visible to both the pilot and co-pilot. waves have replaced these manual efforts in modern aircraft.
On light aircraft requiring only one flight crewmember, this may Global position systems (GPS) use satellites to pinpoint the
not be the case. Multi-engine aircraft often use a single gauge location of the aircraft via geometric triangulation. This
for a particular engine parameter, but it displays information for technology is built into some aircraft instrument packages for
all engines through the use of multiple pointers on the same navigational purposes.
dial face.
Many of these aircraft navigational systems are discussed in
Navigation instruments are those that contribute position Module 11.5 and 13.4
information to the pilot in order for him to guide the aircraft along
a pre-set course.

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Navigation instruments

DC10 engine instruments

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Instrument arrangement
In the old days, the arrangement of the instruments in the panel
was placed randomly.

The directional gyro and gyro horizon were much larger than
the other instruments and were often placed in inappropriate
locations.

Basic T
The six flight instruments are located on the flight panel in a
group called basic six.

The standard arrangement for the most important 4 basic flight

instruments, is known as the basic T arrangement.

The basic T arrangement has been used on almost all aircraft

since the early 1950s. Sometimes basic T is called the flight
Tee.

A few helicopters are not using the basic T arrangement

standard.

The attitude indicator is in the top centre, airspeed to the left,

altitude to the right and heading indicator under the attitude
indicator.

The other two, turn-coordinator and vertical-speed, are usually

found under the airspeed and altitude but are given more
latitude in placement.

The magnetic compass will be above the instrument panel,

often on the windscreen centre.

In newer aircraft with glass cockpit instruments, the layout of

the displays conforms to the basic T arrangement on the
primary flight display.

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The four primary instruments in a turboprop aeroplane

arranged in a basic-T configuration The 6 basic flight instruments

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Glass cockpit
General

cockpit that features electronic (digital) flight instrument

displays, typically large LCD screens, rather than the traditional
style of analogue dials and gauges. While a traditional cockpit
relies on numerous mechanical or electro-mechanical gauges

a glass cockpit uses several displays driven by computers, that

can be configured to display flight information as needed. This
simplifies aircraft operation and navigation and allows pilots to
focus only on the most pertinent information. In recent years
the technology has become widely available in small aircraft
also.

As aircraft displays have modernized, the sensors that feed

them have modernized as well. Traditional gyroscopic flight
instruments have been replaced by electronic attitude and
heading reference systems (AHRS) and air data computers
(ADCs), improving reliability and reducing cost and
maintenance. GPS receivers are usually integrated into glass
cockpits.

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MFD (centre display unit) and PFD (left and right display units) of the Garmin G1000

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Advantages Disadvantages
The glass cockpits offer the pilot a great deal more information, From a maintenance point of view, there are no disadvantages
which can be presented in a way that has be designed to help of glass cockpit, apart from the installation costs as previously
increase situational awareness. mentioned.

-
glass cockpit systems, and in most cases, such overlays and
add-ons can be added to existing installations with the
minimum of hardware and sometimes only a software upgrade
being the only requirement.

Examples of overlays and add-ons are:

TCAS - traffic and collision awareness system

GPWS - ground proximity warning system
Weather - Can receive weather information in some
places
GPS - with moving map
Automation - many things can now be automated

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Large transport aircraft (Airbus A380) glass cockpit

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Electronic flight instrument system (EFIS)

General
An electronic flight instrument system (EFIS) is a flight deck
instrument display system in which the display technology used
is electronic rather than electromechanical. EFIS usually
consists of a primary flight display (PFD), multi-function display
(MFD) and engine indicating system (EIS) and crew alerting
system (CAS) display.

In many (but not all) smaller aircraft, the EIS and CAS are
integrated into the MFD. Both Airbus and Boeing combine the
EIS and CAS into a system comprising 2 display units, known
as an engine indication and crew alerting system (EICAS) and
electronic centralised aircraft monitor (ECAM) for the Boeing
and Airbus systems, respectively.

Although cathode ray tube (CRT) displays were used at first,

liquid crystal displays (LCD) are now more common due to their
weight advantage and lower cooling requirements.

EADI and EHSI

The ability to manufacture cathode ray tubes (CRTs) in the
required size and reliability resulted in the mechanical attitude
director indicator (ADI) and horizontal situation indicator (HSI)
being replaced by electronic attitude director indicator (EADI)
and electronic horizontal situation indicator (EHSI).

The EADI and EHSI kept the same layout (ADI top, HSI bottom)
as the conventional gauges. Many pilot/owners of smaller
aircraft could retrofit their old steam gauges with new
electronic versions.

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Conventional electro-mechanical EADI and EHSI

ADI and HSI The Aspen Avionics EFIS designed to
replace conventional instruments without
the necessity to modify the panel structure

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Transport category aircraft EFIS

It was not long before manufacturers realised the full potential
of electronic instrumentation.

PFD and ND
The EADI was integrated with speed (IAS) information (in tape
form) with stall and overspeed visual warnings, altitude and
vertical speed information (in tape form), and autopilot and
other annunciations. All information required to fly the aircraft
is supplied on one screen. The name is changed to the more
appropriate primary flying display (PFD).

The EHSI was integrated with ILS, VOR and flight plan MAP
information, colour coded for effortless and instantaneous
mode recognition, aircraft speeds (GS and TAS), heading/track
information in digital format, and annunciation of which NAV
equipment is supplying the data. All information required to
navigate the aircraft is supplied on one screen. Selectable
alternative configurations enabled the pilot to view the display
in either full rose or sector format, with variable ranging rings
indicated. The name is changed to the more appropriate
navigation display (ND).

The ND can be integrated with terrain information from a

Worldwide mesh terrain database (EGPWS), with weather
radar information (including local ground mapping) and traffic
information (ACAS/TCAS). In the case of the latter, the PFD
and ND provide resolution advisories in the event of a collision
threat.

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A Boeing PFD and ND

The ND displaying terrain information and weather

radar information

An Airbus PFD and ND

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The Boeing system (EICAS)
An engine-indicating and crew-alerting system (EICAS) is an
integrated system used in modern aircraft to provide aircraft
crew with aircraft engines and other instrumentation and crew
annunciations. On EICAS equipped aircraft, the recommended
remedial action is called a checklist.

EICAS typically includes instrumentation of various engine

parameters, including, for example, revolutions per minute,
temperature values, fuel flow and quantity and oil pressure.
Other aircraft systems monitored by EICAS are hydraulic,
pneumatic, electrical, de-icing, environmental and control
surface systems. EICAS has high connectivity and provides
data acquisition and routing.

The crew-alerting system (CAS) is used in place of the

annunciator panel on older systems. Rather than signalling a
system failure by turning on a light behind a translucent button,
failures are shown as a list of messages in a small window near
the other EICAS indications.

The primary and auxiliary (upper and lower) screens display

primary and secondary engine data, respectively, and indicate
visual cautions, warnings and memos of aircraft system status.
System synoptics are also displayed on these screens.

A full description of the EFIS and EICAS is provided in

Module 5.15.

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A PFD and ND on a Boeing 777

The Boeing EICAS

main and auxiliary
display units

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The Airbus system (ECAM)
An electronic centralised aircraft monitor (ECAM) is developed The primary and secondary (originally left and right, but now
by Airbus that monitors aircraft functions and relays them to the configured upper and lower) screens display primary engine
pilots. It also produces messages detailing failures and lists data and secondary engine data, respectively, and indicate
procedures to undertake to correct the problem in some visual cautions, warnings and memos of aircraft system status.
instances. System synoptics are also displayed on these screens.

A full description of the EFIS and ECAM is provided in

system (EICAS), used by Boeing and Embraer, displaying data Module 5.15.
concerning aircraft systems and failures. Airbus developed
ECAM, such that it not only provided the features of EICAS but
also displayed corrective action to be taken by the pilot and
system limitations after the failures. Using a colour-coded
scheme, the pilots can instantly assess the situation and decide
on the actions. It was designed to ease pilot stress in abnormal
and emergencies by designing a paperless cockpit in which all
the procedures are instantly available.

ECAM is a series of systems designed to work in unison to

display information to the pilots quickly and effectively. Sensors
placed throughout the aircraft, monitoring key parameters, feed
their data into two system data acquisition concentrators
(SDACs), which process the data and feed it to two flight
warning computers (FWCs). The FWCs check for
discrepancies in the data and then display the data on the
ECAM displays through the three display management
computers (DMCs). In the event of a fault, the FWCs generate
the appropriate warning messages and sounds. More vital
systems are routed directly through the FWCs such that failures
can still be detected even with the loss of both SDACs. The
whole system can continue to operate even with the failure of
one SDAC and one FWC.

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Airbus A320 EFIS showing location of the ECAM display units The Airbus ECAM fuel system synoptic

The Airbus EFIS layout

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Small aircraft instrument layouts

General
Light aircraft instrumentation systems vary widely from aircraft
to aircraft, even on similar types of aircraft. The reason for this
is that although light aircraft are much easier to upgrade
(retrofit) with the latest technology, whether this is done or not,
the

Since many small aircraft are piloted by their owner, the

instrumentation equipment installed is essentially a matter of
their personal preference. This differs somewhat from the
larger commercial aircraft, which are governed by competition
(market forces) and regulations.

Secondly, many light aircraft are used as training aircraft. They

to introduce
trainee pilots to the working principles of instrumentation and
navigational aids.

Consequently, the maintenance engineer may find themself

working on the latest integrated electronic flight instrument
system (EFIS) glass cockpit one day and the old mechanical
instrumentation (affectionately named steam gauges ) the next
day.

Another issue that may be encountered when working on light

aircraft instrumentation is that the regulations for this category
of aircraft require only one pilot. Hence it may be equipped with
only one set of instrumentation. A trainer aircraft may have dual
(left and right) instrumentation for instructor and trainee and
may even have a glass cockpit on one side and a conventional
steam gauge cockpit on the other side.

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The GROB Tutor (G115A) trainer cockpit with dual The GROB G120TP trainer with dual EFIS cockpit
steam gauge instrumentation, ideally suited to training

Single pilot glass cockpit layout (Garmin G1000) Single pilot steam gauge cockpit layout

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Light aircraft EFIS
The popular Garmin G1000 is used for the following overview The top card can be removed from the G1000 system following
of the EFIS architecture and displays. The system is typical, an update, but the bottom card must stay in both the PFD and
and all other systems are similar. MFD to ensure accurate terrain awareness information.

The Garmin G1000 is an integrated flight instrument system Primary flight display (PFD)
manufactured by Garmin typically composed of two display The primary flight display shows the basic six flight instruments
units, one serving as a primary flight display and one as a multi- in a basic-T configuration, including the airspeed indicator, the
function display. It serves as a replacement for most altimeter, the heading indicator, and the course deviation
conventional flight instruments and avionics. indicator. A small map called the inset map can be enabled in
the corner.
Beyond that, additional features are found on newer and larger
G1000 installations, such as in business jets. This includes: The buttons on the PFD are used to set the squawk code on
the transponder. The PFD can also be used for entering and
a third display unit, to act as a co-pilot PFD; activating flight plans. The PFD also has a reversionary mode ,
an alphanumeric keyboard; and which can display all information generally shown on the MFD
an integrated flight director/autopilot (without it, the (engine gauges and navigational information). This capability is
G1000 interfaces with an external autopilot). provided in case of an MFD failure.
The display unit is available in two options; one has autopilot Multi-function display (MFD)
controls built in, and the other does not. For this option, an The multi-function display typically shows a moving map on the
autopilot control panel can be purchased separately at a later right side and engine instrumentation on the left. Most of the
date. other screens in the G1000 system are accessed by turning the
knob on the lower right corner of the unit. Other than the map,
Both the PFD and MFD each have two slots for SD memory screens available from the MFD include the setup menus,
cards. The top slot is used to update the Jeppesen aviation information about nearest airports and NAVAIDs, Mode S traffic
database (also known as NavData) every 28 days and load reports, terrain awareness, XM radio (where available), and
software and configuration to the system. The aviation flight plan programming.
database must be current to use GPS for navigation during IFR
instrument approaches. The bottom slot houses the World
terrain and Jeppesen obstacle databases. While terrain
information rarely changes or needs to be updated, obstacle
databases can be updated every 56 days through a
subscription service.

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PFD on the G1000 The MFD usually shows engine

instrumentation and a moving map

Typical 1-pilot PFD and MFD installation Typical helicopter EFIS installation

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