~I ~ 2- 1 ·:7- ~t ¾-2. - 0., 2- Q.2..

I
Cl.i., ~.l..

3~ or cl.JU,-- d._ e.. t '2-t" 1\'\,\l\v4' t-

Clu ~ !l-- Cli 3 a ( I,) ' r' t:;:- ..1 vJ-- ro .J )

~, ~1- ~3 ==- ~ 1 l ~l. a3; - °'-32 ~3)

~, ~'.)_ ~3
- ~2- { ~ , ~3 - Cl3, ~;j
+ Cl,3 ( ~, ~l. - ~, ~2.) .
-+ a., g A-, -~ - C°' tJ.Q_ ~ ~
J r--ozJ err- C-OL.) .

a o 0
e M'inor 1
~ ~f-~k 1 ~j
➔ tc~m 1 ~3

• Pro f..Q_x'h~ !
,_) .cJ- b bi2. CL, dlL t a..r ""-' "'oJ'\ t +k.r. b = t} . 1

2..) a-} "'-' hl . ~ lJ...() tl +~ .bJ k '

Ji,..,._
~ cl I\
V cJ.,wt

-{A 0., Lb2..r..e.d j f -hJ () ro i-)n I c..ol,i . CU- e__ I

tn ·t 12.-t-d~~
3) .1. f h,.) o rot.W / = G:i . '1 "'---- ck1- ~ ..Q__ ; den+-,·c,,l '
t~ 1-µ v ~ o-j- +~ d..d ~ D_
• fr-or.c2.-rti.-UJ ;
4) .l f oJJ +LL ~ .en ta + ej- Im Q__ r-o iJ / e... I . CJJ Q..

M.t.Jt· f u.£d "'J Ci..., ~ +i.....,, -tl-Q._ "'..J.wi._ 1

-\-t_,__ ut.cu-lV'-J""a._J .eA ~ -·pU.JLd ~ +w- ND .

Cu 6 C.

d Q_ f.
if h-- ..l

?) if ~ ~ cr:f.-c- r-oiJ / C£JL, M €¥pr-~

an- --u.. ~ 1 ~o ~ . ~ ·,w_ c!sLt-
Q__

f__t;;_.r, ~ Q.¥ fr -V~./)_Q..,J ~ V';)_.U_/y) +i-) o ~ ~ .. of

b ·Z-- a..,
c..
b]
d
·+) X b)
J d. .
d

b.) If CJ,J..Q_
Off~ ~ ~~±t an
{)..,__("\
1 ~ iy(l-Q
Ri -+ c.-R_J tc g!{ 0)

~ I
Dr L; + c_C:_ - t;- L/
,, J aln r.Q.cl •
tt~ ·t--lt_ Ci.Q.} ~ ~t-
2-+& Et-6 £+14

1 ~ 7-
g-- 9 2.

7--) .(J-- ~ JJj- ~ b,Q_ ~ft"~cl Cifc). c::__, -~ t(J1)

°f x_ ) "~ ·f [x_) , If +t~ d.0- f [o_ ) ¼
r "1) • 1 .1 da.f\ +-t c.J r-o~ / C1> Lid - -H~
c~- CZ ) t~ - I ~ CL ·t~-cJ·o-r 1 -+lJi. ck_ t 4~/\J
tC rr) ·
 /
z. X..'j)1 I I R2 -f?., ~ R'2...
~i 1~'- O f3 ~ R2- ~ ~
:t- x. 1- 'j t)

- -:x. }E ~ -I) Ci'~- '1) - ( J - 1) C-x"'- x ~

z__ ?lJ u~-,) [j-,)(j- -x_)J

2- rx_ 'JC~ -,) cJ _, ) { Y -1-) .
,y
I Q., a
. v
I h -h
ry
c_ C
'
 . If 2s =a + b + c , prove tha t
2 2
a (s-a f ( s - a )
(s - b)2 b2 2 3
( s - b) = 2s (s - a)(s - b )( s - c)
2 2 2 .
(s - c) (s-c) C

[ This proble m will be solved by apply ing Prope rty 7 of Deter minan t]
a2 (s-a) 2 (s-a)2
solution. Let D = (s -b ) 2 b2 (s _ b)
2

2 (s-c) 2 c2
(s-c)
We consid er D as a functi on of s .

a2 a2 a2

2 2 2
Put s=O in D ; then D = b b b havin g three identi cal colum n.
c2 c2 c2

2
So, by Prope rty 7, (s-0) i.e. s 2 is a factor of D.

Next put s = a in D . Here if s = a , we have 2a =a+ b + c., i.e.

a- b =c, a-c= b.
a2 0 0

Then D= (a -b)
2 b2 (a -b )2
"I
2 (a-c) ~ c2
(a- c)
a2 0 0
a2 0 0
b2 c2 = b2c2 c2 1 1
- c2
c2 b2 1 1
b2 b2

having two identi cal colu1nns. So (s - a) is a factor of D .

Simi larly we can show ( s - b ), (s - c) are factors of D .

Thus s2(s- a )(s-b )(s-c ) is a factor of D. This ex press ion is a

Polyno1nial of degre e 5 of a, b, c . On the other hand ; if expan ded, D is a
:edegree polyn omial of a, b, c. So the res idual factor_ o_f D _will be ~ one
fa gree polyn omia l of a,b, c and a, h, c have same co~fhc1 ent •~ the res idua l
ctor because a, b, c have sa1ne infl uence on the 1unct1 on of D .
 Therefore we suppose ka +kb+ kc is the residual factor of D , where
k is constant (i.e. independent of a, b, c)
Thus, D = s2 (s - a)(s - b)(s - c)(ka +kb+ kc)
= ks 2 (s - a)(s - b)(s- c)(a + b + c) = 2ks 3 (s- a)(s -b)(s- c)
a2 (s -a)
2
(s - a)2
?
.,
or, (s- bf b2 (s -b )- = 2ks 3 (s- a)(s-b)(s - c) (1)
'") ?
(S - C) ~ (s - c)- c2

Since relation ( 1) is a identity of a, b, c so this relation is true for all values

of a, b, c . Putting a= 0, b = 0, c = 2, i.e. s==l in (1) we get
0 1 1
1 O 1 = 2k · 1 · 1-1(-1) or, -2 = -2k . : . k == 1
1 1 4
Putting this in ( 1) we get the result.
 I

0 a h
Without expanding prove that - a O c = o.
-b -c 0
0 a b
O c
.solution. Let D == --ba -c 0
0 - a -b
3
:. D == (-1) a O -c , takin g out -1 from each row
. b c 0

a b0
=- -a O c ~ trans posin g the determinant
-b -c 0
== - D. : . D== - D,
or~ 2D == 0 •
:. D == 0
Example. 5. Show that
1+ a I 1 1)
1 _( l I 1
1 1+ b 1 l == abcd1 l +- +- +- + d
1 1 1+ C I ( a b c
1 l 1 I +d

I+a 1 1 I
I 1+ b 1 1
Solution. l+C 1
l I
1 1 1 I+d
1 1 1
-1 + 1 - -
a b C d
1 I 1 l
1+ - -
a b C d
== abed 1 l 1 1
- I+-
b (' d
a )
I J l l+-
b (' d
(.I

I
 (Takin g out a,h,c, d fro1n I st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th column respectively)

1 l 1 I 1 1 1
- + - +- + - +1 - -
a b d
C b C d
I I I 1 1 1 1
-+ -+- +-+ I 1+- -
a b C d b C d
=- abed
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
-+- +-+ -+1 - 1+- -
a b C d b C d
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
-+- +-+ -+1 - 1+-
a b C d b C d
1 1 1
1 -
b C d
1 1 1
(1 l+- -
= abed - + -1 + -1 + -1 + 1) I 1 b C 1 d1
a b c d
-

1 - 1+- -
b C d
1 1 1
1 - l+-
b C d
0 -1 0 0
1 1 1
1 1+- -

cde-+- +-+ -+l

=ab
b C d
1 1 1 ) 1 1 1
a b c d 1 - 1+- - RI - R.2 ➔ R{
b C d
1 1 1 '
1 - - 1+-
b C d

0 -1 0 0
0 1 -1 0
=abe d( -+-
1
1 1+-+ -+1 1 J 1 -1 1
l+-
I
a b c d b c d , R2 - R 3 ➔ R~
1 _!_ 1 1
l+-
b C d
0 -1 0 0
J )
1 1 l + -+l
__ a!Jc·d ( -+- 0 1 -1 0
- · +- O O 1 -]
a b c d 1 1 1
J l +-
b C d
 0 -1 0
==abed(_!_+ _!__ + _!_C + _!_ + 1) O1 -1 ex pa nd in g.
b d
Cl
. . 1 1 1 +1- '
c d
0 -l
1 1 -1 + -1 + I ) 1 , ag ai n ex pa nd in g
= ab ed ( - +· -- + 1 I+ -
a b c d d
. g
1 + --l + -1 + -1 + 1) x 1 , ex pa nd in
= ab ed ( -
a b c d

= ab ed ( I + _!_ + _!_ + _!_ + _!_)

'-
a b c d
 Minor and Con1plemcntary Minor of a Dctcnn i na

Lr!I D == \au 11
be a determinant of order n. fl r number qf rows and
)..
11

,. 1111 ,nhe r of coh11nns be deleted fi·nm

D, then the remaining dete rrninant
D.
t?f'<)ldl!r (n - r) is said to be a minor of order (n -- r) (?l
all a 12 G13 G14

Illustration
.. Let D=
G21 C/22 G23 G 24
= laul4 x4·
G31 032, G33 0 34

G41 G42 04, G44

deleted from D .
Let the 1st row, 3rd row and 3rd cohunn. 4th colwnn be
l d .
. ant ia21
Th en tl.1e detenrun i
a22
= Jvt.1-l 34 1s M'1nor of t 1e etenmnant.
<

\a4 1 a42 ..,,

del ete d from th e

If all the row s and col um ns of a min or M. be
call ed cow ,ple men tary
determinant D then the rem aini ng dete rmi nan t is
Minor ofM .
a 13 a14
For exa111ple, Co1n1Jle1nentary Minor of j\113 . 14 1s a3 3 a34

Algebraic. Complement of a Minor.

th~ · · ·, i,- th rows
Let lvf be a minor of or er r o tame rom iifh , i2
its Complen1entary
and }ifh , ) 2 th. ••• ~},.th coltnnns and let M' be
Minor. The n Algebraic Con1ple1nent of Mi s

ebraic Co1nplen1cnt
Illustration : In the previous exan1ples of art 1.9, Alg

· or M
of th e n1m = ,\- 1) I+ 3+ 3+4 x °1J O
14
= - a
1J a I -t
13 34 u_n 034 (l :u CI J4
'

, Laplace method of Expansion of Detrr · a

row s he Sl·k ctcd .
ln an nth order detenninant, D = a i!) III '< II if any r
a ll m i1 hlt S of 01Je1 r
D can be ex pressed as the s Lun of the products of
formed fr om th ose r numh cr of ro\v s nn<l their
n: spc r ti\ t.: a lgch r~iic
comp lements .
 X 11 X 12 X 13 X14

Expand the detern1inant X2 1

X31
X22
X32
X23
X33
X2 4
X34
= Ix ij I4 1(4 Jn
X41 X4 2 X43 X 44
tenns of 1ninors of order 2 formed fro1n the 1st two rows .
According to Laplace Expansion Rule
X 11 X12 X13 X14

X 21 X22 X23 X24

X11 X13 X32 X34
= (-1t2+1+2 X11 X12 X33 X34 +(-1)1+2+1+3
X31 X32 X3 3 X34
.X21 X22 X43 X44 X21 X23 X42 X44
X41 X42 X43 X44

+(-1)1+2+1+4 X11 X1 4 X32 X33

X21 X24 X42 X43

+(-1)1+2+2+3 X12 X13 X31 X34

X22 X23 X 41 X44

+(-1)1+2+2+4 X12 X14 X31 X33 .

+(-1)1+2+3+4 X13 X14 X31 X32
X22 X24 X41 X43
X23 X24 X41 X42
 ·-,
~ Expand ing the determinant by Laplace 's method in terms of
1ninors of 2nd order fanned fro1n the first two rows, prove that
0 a b c
-a O d e ( . )2
-b -d O f = _cif - be+ cd [ WB. U. T 2003,2007,2016]
-c -e - j ~ 0
By Laplac e's expansion, ·

0 a b c
-a O d e == (- l)1+2+1+2 0 a O. f +(- l) 1+2+1+ 3 0 b -d f
-b -d 0 fo
-a d. -e o
· -a O - j O
-c -e -f
+(-1)1+2+1+4 0 C -d o_ +(-1t2 +2+3a b -~ f
,-a e -e - f O d -c 0

+(-l)1+2 +2+4 a c -b O +(- l)1+2+3+4 b c -b -d

0 e -c - f d e - c -e

= a 2f2 - abef + adcf + dacf --abef + (be - cd)2

'2
== ( af· - be + cd) .
 Prove that

v(/ 0
.,
(a-b)- (a-c)-
.
? ')

? , ' 2
(b-a)- 0 (b-c)~ =2{(b-c) (c-a)(a-b J}
-(c-a)2 (c-b}2 0

I a a2
Solution.W e have lb b; =(b-c)(c- a)(a- b)
I C c- '
Squaring both side,
2
1 a a2 2
I b b2 = {(b - c)( c - a)( a - b)}
I c c2

11 a a 2 1 a a 2 1
or II b b 2 1 b b 2 ={(b-c)(c--a)(a-b)f
' /1 c c 2 1 c c 2 ·

1 a a2 l a a2 . ,
or, 2 lb b 2 I b b2 =2{(b ~c)(c - u)(a - bf
J c c2 1 c c2
 1 2a a "'-- 1 a a 2
or, 1 2b b2 1 b b2 :::: 2{(b - c )( c - a)( a - b
1 2c c 2 l C c; 2
n2
')
a-- 1 2a 1 a a2
or, h2 1 2b l b b2 = 2{(b - c )( c - a)( a - b)} 2
2
C 1 2c l C c._')

a 2 2a 1 1 a a 2
or, - h2 2b 1 1 b h; ,= 2{(b - c)(c -a)( a-b )}
2 2

c 2c 1 l c c -

a 2 ·-2 a l 1 a a 2
or, b2 - 2b ] 1 b b~ =2{(b- c)(c -a)(a-b)}2
2

c --2 c 1 jl c c-

a2 - 2a 2 + a 2 a 2 - 2ab + b 2 a 2 - 2ca + c 2
or, b2 - 2ba + a 2 b 2 - 2b 2 + b 2 b 2 - 2bc + c 2
c2 - 2ca + a 2 c 2 - 2bc + b 2 c 2 - 2c 2 + c 2
2
= 2{(b - c)( c - a)( a - b)}
·2 21
0 (a - b) (a-c ) 1
..,
or., (b - a )-
.

0
')
(b - C) ~ 2 {(b - C)(c- Cl )(a - b)} - .
2
2 2
(c - a) (c - b) 0
 Adjoint or Adjugate Determin ant.
0 11 a1 2 alnl
Let D == a21 a22
a2n1
•• • l
=la I lJ lnxn
be a detennin ant
anl an2 a nn I
Let A;1 be the co-factors of aiJ in D. Then the detennina nt
Al 1 A12 A ln
D' = A21 A2 2 A2 11 == 1
1
A) 1ll X Jl
is called adjoint detennina nt of D.
An 1 A 112 A,111
...)(/il.;o find the adjugate determmant of a OC
D= a b 0
0 b c
We find co-fa ctor of a=(-1) t ~ 1
.. , = b['

co-factor of O= ( - 1) I+-,- a0 ~
l
=-al'

co-factor of c=(-1 )
1 3 a b =ab
+
0 b
., + I
co-factor of a= (-1)- b0 Cc =be

co-factor of b = (-1) 2+"- a0 Cc =ae

co-factor of O= (-1 )-
.,+3 a 0 = -ab
0 b

co-factor of O=( -1 )3+1 0 0C =-be

b
a C =ac
co-factor of b =( -1 )3+2 a 0

co-factor of c = ( - 1)3+3 aa b
0 =ab.
be -ca ab
Therefore the adjugate determinant of D is D' = be ca -ab .
-be ca ab
 . ~.)lcobi's Theorem (for 3rd order determinant)e
\JC/ If D be a 3rd order non-zero detenninant, then D' = D 2 , 'Nhere D' s1

the adjugate determinant of D.

Proof. H.ere we shall prove that D' == D 2 .
a 11 a 12 a 13 A1 1 A 12
Let D == a 21 a 22 a 33 and D' = A 21 A22
a31 a3 2 a33 A31 A32

\vhere A11 , A 12 , A 13 _,··· etc. are co-factors of a 11 ,a 12 ,a 13 ,··· m D.

a 11 a12 a13 A1 i A12 A13

Then DD'= a2 1 a22 a23 A21 A22 A23
a31 a32 G33 A31 A32 A33

a11A11 +a12A12 +a13A13 a1tA21 +a12A22 +a13A23

= a A +a22A12 +a23A13 a21A21 +a22A22 +a23A23
la 21 11
A +a A12 +a33A13
31 11 32 G31A21 +a32A22 +a33A23

a11A31 +a12A32 +a13A33 .

a 21 A31 + a 22 A32 + a23 A33 (by row wise 1nulttp
· I'ica tion)
G 3 1A31 +a3 2 A32 +aDA3 3
 D O 0
= 0 D O , using Theore m 1 & 2 of art 1.1.7.
0 0 D
=D3.
3
or, DD'= D :.D'= D 2 (·: D-:;c.0).
Note : The above theore m is true for D==O also.
Jac~ heor em for nth order Determ inant.
Let D be a non-ze ro detenninant of order n then D' == Dn-1 .

Proof. Beyon d the scope of the book.

 frov Q_ ~ ~ h C " - (a j
+ h ~+c - 3~c J
3

\Sol " : j c~., b c_

c_ ~
b
c__ Q_ b

b c_
·2..- a. +b +C
+ C3 ~ C, I
c.. a_
a. + b +C C., + c2
c + a+ b tL b

\ 6 e
L c a._,
L ~ b

2- ( lL+ b+ C ) I b ;; _, .
~ o c. - b lA.. '-
o CA_-b b -c _
 ~ .,~ ~
(A +b .+C - 3cJoC.- ·

= l ~b ) ~ - 1 t:<. b( a H) -t_C _ .;, IR-h( .

:::.- (O-- + h +e / - 3 [ o. H ) e: ( IH b + c ) - 3-~ ( a +~ j - J a..b c . .

3 ,
lo...+ b -t c) l ~ + u ) [ o.. -th +c) - 3.~ ( a. --1- b +c )
I

~ - ~

z_ l&+ bK )} (o._+ b+c) -v-_ JO\(_ - Jbc_ - 3-~ I-

-z- C_ a.+ b + c ) ( o.."' + b"'-t c'V+ 2.fl--b + 2-b c -t 2.u:,;.__ -J °'-C. ~ 3 hc.
- 3% )

==- (ci..+-b+c..)(a..""+h"'+cl\,-Ovb -be - ~ ) .

 2
bc- a ca - b 2 ab- c 2
2 2
ca- b 2 ah -c 2 bc -a 2 = (a 3 +b3 + c1- 3ahc)2.
ab - c be - a ca - b2 ·

r,
solution. We know for the circulant determinant of 3rd orde
a b c
3
D= b c a= -(a +b 3 +c 3 -3a bc) (1)
c a b

Now, ro-fa::tcr of a in D = (-1)1+ ~ /J =bc- a 2

1

co-factor of b in D = (-1)1+ 2 ~ b= ca - b 2

.
co-factor of c 1n D = ( -1 )1+3 bc aC = ab- c 2

.
co-factor of b 1n D = ( -1 ) 2+1 ab bC = ca - bi-

.
co-factor of c m D =,( -1 ) 2+2 ac bc = a b· - c-'?

co-factor of a in D -- (-l)2 +3 b =be _ 0 2

ac a

co-factor of c in D -- (-1)3+1 bca

_ c = ab - c2

co-factor of a in D = (- 1)
a
3+2b aicl= bc- a2

3+ 3 a b = ac _ b2
co-factor of bin D = ( -l ) b c

be- a 2 Ca - b2 ab- c2
c 2 be - a 2
b 2 ab -- a2
f
:. The adjugate o ,
D D' = ca -
ab - c2 be ac - bi-

By Jacobi's Theorern~ D' = D2 .

2
bc- u 2 ca -- b 2 ab -c2?
a b c
or,- ca - h 2 ab - c ~ bc- a - =b c a
c 2 be - a . . ac- b 2
c a b
ab -
 1 a a2 a 3 + bed
. Ev al ua te wi th ou t ex pa nd in g 1 b b2 b 3 + cda
.1 C c 2 c 3 + abd .
1 d d 2 d 3 + abc
1 a a 2 a 3 + be d
.Solu tion. Le t D = . 1 b b2 b3 + cd a
3
1 C c2 c + ab d
1 d d2 d 3 +a bc

1 a a 2 .a 3 1 a a4-• be d
')

1 b b2 b3 1 b b2 cd a
--
1 C c-? c 3 + 1 C c~ ab d
~

1 d d2 d3 1 d d2 abc
== D 1 + D2 , (sa y)

1 a a2 be d
Now I b b2 cd a
D2 = 1 C c2 ab d
1 d d2 ah c
 a a 2 a ] abed
1 b h2 bJ abed
- abed C C
2
abed C
3

d d 2 dJ
abed

a a2 a3 l
')
abed b b- b3 1
- 2
abed C C c3 1
d ii 2 d3 1

a 1 a3
a 2
b b2 1 b3 ging C4 and C3
- 1 c3 , interchan
°

C c2
d d2 1 d 3

a3
')

a 1 a-
b 1 b
2 b3
-- inter changing C,2 and C3 ·
3 '
C 1 c2 C
3
d 1 d2 lf

1 a a2 a3
· Ci and CJ.. ·
b3 interchanging
-- 1 b lJ .:.,,
1 C c2 c3
I cl d2 d3

==- D,

D == D1 - Di == 0 .
 O 2 1 -1

/.u. Using Lap lace ' s expan sion 1nethod, evalu ate -2 0 5 - 2
-1 -5 0 3
1 2 -3 0
"'1 a -b -a b
~ - Prove that ~ ~d -: =d = 4(a2 + b2 )(c2 + d2) by expan ding the
d C d C

detenninant by Lapla ce 1nethod in tenns of 1ninors of order 2 forme d fron1

the first two rows.

✓ Expand by Lapla ce method to prove that

X y Z 1V
-y X ·w Z
-z -W
- == (x2 + y2 + z2 + ,v2) 2 .
X ✓
V
-W Z -y X

a a a a

./show that
a
a
a
b
a
a
a a

a h
1
b a -= a(b - a)'

by Lapla ce develop1nent 1nethod in tenns of 1ninors of order 2