JUSTICE BASHEER AHMED SAYEED COLLEGE FOR WOMEN (AN)

(AUTONOMOUS)

DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING

LECTURE NOTES

M.Sc. Computer Science

Prepared by:
Mrs.M.Minu Meera, Asst.Professor
Department of Computer Science

UNIT-1
INTRODUCTION
DIGITAL IMAGE FUNDAMENTALS:
The field of digital image processing refers to processing digital images by means of digital
computer. Digital image is composed of a finite number of elements, each of which has a particular
location and value. These elements are called picture elements, image elements, pels and pixels.
Pixel is the term used most widely to denote the elements of digital image.
An image is a two-dimensional function that represents a measure of some characteristic such
as brightness or color of a viewed scene. An image is a projection of a 3- D scene into a 2D projection
plane.
An image may be defined as a two-dimensional function f(x,y), where x and y are spatial
(plane) coordinates, and the amplitude of f at any pair of coordinates (x,y) is called the intensity of
the image at that point.

The term gray level is used often to refer to the intensity of monochrome images.
Color images are formed by a combination of individual 2-D images.
For example: The RGB color system, a color image consists of three (red, green and blue)
individual component images. For this reason many of the techniques developed for monochrome
images can be extended to color images by processing the three component images individually.
An image may be continuous with respect to the x- and y- coordinates and also in amplitude.
Converting such an image to digital form requires that the coordinates, as well as the amplitude, be
digitized.
Digital Image definition:
A digital image f(m,n) described in a 2D discrete space is derived from an analog image f(x,y)
in a 2D continuous space through a sampling process that is frequently referred to as digitization. The
mathematics of that sampling process will be described in subsequent Chapters. For now we will look
at some basic definitions associated with the digital image. The effect of digitization is shown in
figure.
The 2D continuous image f(x,y) is divided into N rows and M columns. The intersection of a
row and a column is termed a pixel. The value assigned to the integer coordinates (m,n) with
m=0,1,2..N-1 and n=0,1,2…N-1 is f(m,n). In fact, in most cases, is actually a function of many
variables including depth, color and time (t).
There are three types of computerized processes in the processing of image
1) Low level process - these involve primitive operations such as image processing to reduce noise,
contrast enhancement and image sharpening. These kind of processes are characterized by fact the
both inputs and output are images.
2) Mid level image processing - it involves tasks like segmentation, description of those objects to
reduce them to a form suitable for computer processing, and classification of individual objects. The
inputs to the process are generally images but outputs are attributes extracted from images.
3) High level processing - It involves “making sense” of an ensemble of recognized objects, as in
image analysis, and performing the cognitive functions normally associated with vision.
APPLICATIONS OF DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING
Since digital image processing has very wide applications and almost all of the technical fields are
impacted by DIP, we will just discuss some of the major applications of DIP.

Digital image processing has a broad spectrum of applications, such as

 Remote sensing via satellites and other spacecraft’s
 Image transmission and storage for business applications
 Medical processing,
 RADAR (Radio Detection and Ranging)
 SONAR(Sound Navigation and Ranging) and
 Acoustic image processing (The study of underwater sound is known as underwater
acoustics or hydro acoustics.)
 Robotics and automated inspection of industrial parts. Images acquired by
satellites are useful in tracking of
 Earth resources;
 Geographical mapping;
 Prediction of agricultural crops,
 Urban growth and weather monitoring
 Flood and fire control and many other environmental applications.
Space image applications include:
 Recognition and analysis of objects contained in images obtained from deep
space-probe missions.
 Image transmission and storage applications occur in broadcast television
 Teleconferencing
  Transmission of facsimile images(Printed documents and graphics) for office
automation Communication over computer networks.
 Closed-circuit television based security monitoring systems and
 In military communications. Medical applications:
 Processing of chest X- rays
 Cineangiograms
 Projection images of transaxial tomography and
 Medical images that occur in radiology nuclear magnetic resonance(NMR)
 Ultrasonic scanning
IMAGE PROCESSING TOOLBOX (IPT) is a collection of functions that extend the
capability of the MATLAB numeric computing environment. These functions, and the expressiveness
of the MATLAB language, make many image-processing operations easy to write in a compact, clear
manner, thus providing a ideal software prototyping environment for the solution of image
processing problem.

Fundamental Steps in Digital Image Processing:

There are two categories of the steps involved in the image processing –
1. Methods whose outputs are input are images.
2. Methods whose outputs are attributes extracted from those images.

Image acquisition: It could be as simple as being given an image that is already in digital form.
Generally the image acquisition stage involves processing such scaling.
Image Enhancement: It is among the simplest and most appealing areas of digital image processing.
The idea behind this is to bring out details that are obscured or simply to highlight certain features of
interest in image. Image enhancement is a very subjective area of image processing.
Image Restoration: It deals with improving the appearance of an image. It is an objective approach, in the
sense that restoration techniques tend to be based on mathematical or probabilistic models of image
processing. Enhancement, on the other hand is based on human subjective preferences regarding what
constitutes a “good” enhancement result.

Color image processing: It is an area that is been gaining importance because of the use of digital
images over the internet. Color image processing deals with basically color models and their
implementation in image processing applications.
Wavelets and Multiresolution Processing: These are the foundation for representing image in
various degrees of resolution.
Compression: It deals with techniques reducing the storage required to save an image, or the
bandwidth required to transmit it over the network. It has to major approaches a) Lossless
Compression b) Lossy Compression
Morphological processing: It deals with tools for extracting image components that are useful in the
representation and description of shape and boundary of objects. It is majorly used in automated
inspection applications.

Representation and Description: It always follows the output of segmentation step that is, raw pixel
data, constituting either the boundary of an image or points in the region itself. In either case
converting the data to a form suitable for computer processing is necessary.
Recognition: It is the process that assigns label to an object based on its descriptors. It is the last step
of image processing which use artificial intelligence of software.
Knowledge base:
Knowledge about a problem domain is coded into an image processing system in the form of a
knowledge base. This knowledge may be as simple as detailing regions of an image where the
information of the interest in known to be located. Thus limiting search that has to be conducted in
seeking the information. The knowledge base also can be quite complex such interrelated list of all
major possible defects in a materials inspection problems or an image database containing high
resolution satellite images of a region in connection with change detection application.

Components of Image processing System:

 Components of Image processing System
Image Sensors: With reference to sensing, two elements are required to acquire digital image. The
first is a physical device that is sensitive to the energy radiated by the object we wish to image and
second is specialized image processing hardware.
Specialize image processing hardware: It consists of the digitizer just mentioned, plus hardware that
performs other primitive operations such as an arithmetic logic unit, which performs arithmetic such
addition and subtraction and logical operations in parallel on images.
Computer: It is a general purpose computer and can range from a PC to a supercomputer depending
on the application. In dedicated applications, sometimes specially designed computer are used to
achieve a required level of performance
Software: It consists of specialized modules that perform specific tasks a well designed package also
includes capability for the user to write code, as a minimum, utilizes the specialized module. More
sophisticated software packages allow the integration of these modules.
Mass storage: This capability is a must in image processing applications. An image of size 1024
x1024 pixels, in which the intensity of each pixel is an 8- bit quantity requires one Megabytes of
storage space if the image is not compressed .Image processing applications falls into three principal
categories of storage
i) Short term storage for use during processing
ii) On line storage for relatively fast retrieval
iii) Archival storage such as magnetic tapes and disks
Image display: Image displays in use today are mainly color TV monitors. These monitors are driven
by the outputs of image and graphics displays cards that are an integral part of computer system.
Hardcopy devices: The devices for recording image includes laser printers, film cameras, heat
sensitive devices inkjet units and digital units such as optical and CD ROM disk. Films provide the
highest possible resolution, but paper is the obvious medium of choice for written applications.
Networking: It is almost a default function in any computer system in use today because of the large
amount of data inherent in image processing applications. The key consideration in image
transmission bandwidth.

Digital Image Fundamentals

Elements of Visual Perception
Structure of the human Eye:
The eye is nearly a sphere with average approximately 20 mm diameter. The eye is enclosed with
three membranes
a) The cornea and sclera: it is a tough, transparent tissue that covers the anterior surface of the eye.
Rest of the optic globe is covered by the sclera
b) The choroid: It contains a network of blood vessels that serve as the major source of nutrition to the
eyes. It helps to reduce extraneous light entering in the eye.
It has two parts
(1) Iris Diaphragms- it contracts or expands to control the amount of light that enters
the eyes.
(2) Ciliary body

c) Retina – it is innermost membrane of the eye. When the eye is properly focused, light from an
object outside the eye is imaged on the retina. There are various light receptors over the surface of
the retina
The two major classes of the receptors are
1) cones- it is in the number about 6 to 7 million. These are located in the central portion of the retina
called the fovea. These are highly sensitive to color. Human can resolve fine details with these cones
because each one is connected to its own nerve end. Cone vision is called photopic or bright light
vision
2) Rods – these are very much in number from 75 to 150 million and are distributed over the entire
retinal surface. The large area of distribution and the fact that several roads are connected to a single
nerve give a general overall picture of the field of view.They are not involved in the color vision and
are sensitive to low level of illumination. Rod vision is called is scotopic or dim light vision.
The absent of reciprocators is called blind spot
Image Formation in the Eye
The major difference between the lens of the eye and an ordinary optical lens in that the former is
flexible.
The shape of the lens of the eye is controlled by tension in the fiber of the ciliary body. To
focus on the distant object the controlling muscles allow the lens to become thicker in order to focus
on object near the eye it becomes relatively flattened.
The distance between the center of the lens and the retina is called the focal length and it varies from
17mm to 14mm as the refractive power of the lens increases from its minimum to its maximum.
When the eye focuses on an object farther away than about 3m.the lens exhibits its lowest
refractive power. When the eye focuses on a nearly object. The lens is most strongly refractive. The
retinal image is reflected primarily in the area of the fovea. Perception then takes place by the relative
excitation of light receptors, which transform radiant energy into electrical impulses that are ultimately
decoded by the brain.

Brightness Adaption and Discrimination

Digital image are displayed as a discrete set of intensities. The range of light intensity levels to which
the human visual system can adopt is enormous- on the order of 1010 from scotopic threshold to the
glare limit. Experimental evidences indicate that subjective brightness is a logarithmic function of the
light intensity incident on the eye.

The curve represents the range of intensities to which the visual system can adopt. But the visual
system cannot operate over such a dynamic range simultaneously. Rather, it is accomplished by
change in its overcall sensitivity called brightness adaptation.
For any given set of conditions, the current sensitivity level to which of the visual system is called
brightness adoption level , Ba in the curve. The small intersecting curve represents the range of
subjective brightness that the eye can perceive when adapted to this level. It is restricted at level
Bb, at and below which all stimuli are perceived as indistinguishable blacks. The upper portion of the
curve is not actually restricted. whole simply raise the adaptation level higher than B a .
The ability of the eye to discriminate between change in light intensity at any specific adaptation level
is also of considerable interest.
Take a flat, uniformly illuminated area large enough to occupy the entire field of view of the subject. It
may be a diffuser such as an opaque glass, that is illuminated from behind by a light source whose
intensity, I can be varied. To this field is added an increment of illumination ∆I in the form of a short
duration flash that appears as circle in the center of the uniformly illuminated field. If ∆I is not bright
enough, the subject cannot see any perceivable changes.

As ∆I gets stronger the subject may indicate of a perceived change. ∆Ic is the increment of
illumination discernible 50% of the time with background illumination I. Now, ∆Ic /I is called the
Weber ratio.
Small value means that small percentage change in intensity is discernible representing “good”
brightness discrimination.
Large value of Weber ratio means large percentage change in intensity is required representing “poor
brightness discrimination”.
Optical illusion
In this the eye fills the non existing information or wrongly pervious geometrical properties of objects.

IMAGE SENSING AND ACQUISITION:

The types of images in which we are interested are generated by the combination of an “illumination”
source and the reflection or absorption of energy from that source by the elements of the “scene” being
imaged. We enclose illumination and scene in quotes to emphasize the fact that they are
considerably more general than the familiar situation in which a visible light source illuminates a
common everyday 3-D (three-dimensional) scene. For example, the illumination may originate from a
source of electromagnetic energy such as radar, infrared, or X-ray energy. But, as noted earlier, it
could originate from less traditional sources, such as ultrasound or even a computer-generated
illumination pattern. Similarly, the scene elements could be familiar objects, but they can just as
easily be molecules, buried rock formations, or a human brain. We could even image a source, such
as acquiring images of the sun. Depending on the nature of the source, illumination energy is reflected
from, or transmitted through, objects. An example in the first category is light reflected from a planar
surface. An example in the second category is when X-rays pass through a patient’s body for the
purpose of generating a diagnostic X-ray film. In some applications, the reflected or transmitted
energy is focused onto a photo converter (e.g., a phosphor screen), which converts the energy into
visible light. Electron microscopy and some applications of gamma imaging use this approach. The
idea is simple: Incoming energy is transformed into a voltage by the combination of input electrical
power and sensor material that is responsive to the particular type of energy being detected. The output
voltage waveform is the response of the sensor(s), and a digital quantity is obtained from each
sensor by digitizing its response. In this section, we look at the principal modalities for image sensing
and generation.

Fig:Single Image sensor

Fig: Line Sensor

Fig: Array sensor

Image Acquisition using a Single sensor:

The components of a single sensor. Perhaps the most familiar sensor of this type is the
photodiode, which is constructed of silicon materials and whose output voltage waveform is
proportional to light. The use of a filter in front of a sensor improves selectivity. For example, a
green (pass) filter in front of a light sensor favors light in the green band of the color spectrum. As a
consequence, the sensor output will be stronger for green light than for other components in the visible
spectrum.

In order to generate a 2-D image using a single sensor, there has to be relative displacements in both
the x- and y-directions between the sensor and the area to be imaged. Figure shows an arrangement
used in high-precision scanning, where a film negative is mounted onto a drum whose mechanical
rotation provides displacement in one dimension. The single sensor is mounted on a lead screw that
provides motion in the perpendicular direction. Since mechanical motion can be controlled with high
precision, this method is an inexpensive (but slow) way to obtain high-resolution images. Other
similar mechanical arrangements use a flat bed, with the sensor moving in two linear directions. These
types of mechanical digitizers sometimes are referred to as microdensitometers.
Image Acquisition using a Sensor strips:
A geometry that is used much more frequently than single sensors consists of an in-line arrangement
of sensors in the form of a sensor strip, shows. The strip provides imaging elements in one direction.
Motion perpendicular to the strip provides imaging in the other direction. This is the type of
arrangement used in most flat bed scanners. Sensing devices with 4000 or more in-line sensors are
possible. In-line sensors are used routinely in airborne imaging applications, in which the imaging
system is mounted on an aircraft that flies at a constant altitude and speed over the geographical area
to be imaged. One dimensional imaging sensor strips that respond to various bands of the
electromagnetic spectrum are mounted perpendicular to the direction of flight. The imaging strip gives
one line of an image at a time, and the motion of the strip completes the other dimension of a two-
dimensional image. Lenses or other focusing schemes are used to project area to be scanned onto the
sensors. Sensor strips mounted in a ring configuration are used in medical and industrial imaging to
obtain cross-sectional (“slice”) images of 3-D objects.
 Fig: Image Acquisition using linear strip and circular strips.
Image Acquisition using a Sensor Arrays:
The individual sensors arranged in the form of a 2-D array. Numerous electromagnetic and some
ultrasonic sensing devices frequently are arranged in an array format. This is also the predominant
arrangement found in digital cameras. A typical sensor for these cameras is a CCD array, which can be
manufactured with a broad range of sensing properties and can be packaged in rugged arrays of
elements or more. CCD sensors are used widely in digital cameras and other light sensing instruments.
The response of each sensor is proportional to the integral of the light energy projected onto the
surface of the sensor, a property that is used in astronomical and other applications requiring low noise
images. Noise reduction is achieved by letting the sensor integrate the input light signal over minutes
or even hours. The two dimensional, its key advantage is that a complete image can be obtained by
focusing the energy pattern onto the surface of the array. Motion obviously is not necessary, as is the
case with the sensor arrangements This figure shows the energy from an illumination source being
reflected from a scene element, but, as mentioned at the beginning of this section, the energy also
could be transmitted through the scene elements. The first function performed by the imaging system
is to collect the incoming energy and focus it onto an image plane. If the illumination is light, the front
end of the imaging system is a lens, which projects the viewed scene onto the lens focal plane. The
sensor array, which is coincident with the focal plane, produces outputs proportional to the integral of
the light received at each sensor. Digital and analog circuitry sweep
these outputs and convert them to a video signal, which is then digitized by another section of the

imaging system.

A Simple Image Model:

An image is denoted by a two dimensional function of the form f{x, y}. The value or amplitude of f at
spatial coordinates {x,y} is a positive scalar quantity whose physical meaning is determined by the
source of the image. When an image is generated by a physical process, its values are proportional
to energy radiated by a physical source. As a consequence, f(x,y) must be nonzero and finite; that is
o<f(x,y) <co The function f(x,y) may be characterized by two components- The amount of the source
illumination incident on the scene being viewed.
 (a) The amount of the source illumination reflected back by the objects in the scene These
are called illumination and reflectance components and are denoted by i(x,y) an r (x,y) respectively.
The functions combine as a product to form f(x,y). We call the intensity of a monochrome image at
any coordinates (x,y) the gray level (l) of the image at that point l= f (x, y.)
L min ≤ l ≤ Lmax Lmin is to be positive and Lmax must be finite

Lmin = imin rmin

Lmax = imax rmax
The interval [Lmin, Lmax] is called gray scale. Common practice is to shift this interval
numerically to the interval [0, L-l] where l=0 is considered black and l= L-1 is considered white on
the gray scale. All intermediate values are shades of gray of gray varying from black to white.

SAMPLING AND QUANTIZATION:

To create a digital image, we need to convert the continuous sensed data into digital form. This
involves two processes: sampling and quantization. A continuous image, f(x, y), that we want to
convert to digital form. An image may be continuous with respect to the x- and y- coordinates, and
also in amplitude. To convert it to digital form, we have to sample the function in both coordinates and
in amplitude. Digitizing the coordinate values is called sampling. Digitizing the amplitude values is
called quantization.

Fig.: Generating a digital image (a) Continuous image (b) A scan line from A to Bin the
continuous image, used to illustrate the concepts of sampling and quantization (c) Sampling
and quantization. (d) Digital scan line
There is a continuous the image along the line segment AB. To simple this function, we take
equally spaced samples along line AB. The location of each samples is given by a vertical tick back
(mark) in the bottom part. The samples are shown as block squares superimposed on function the set
of these discrete locations gives the sampled function.
 In order to form a digital, the gray level values must also be converted (quantized) into discrete
quantities. So we divide the gray level scale into eight discrete levels ranging from eight level values.
The continuous gray levels are quantized simply by assigning one of the eight discrete gray levels to
each sample. The assignment it made depending on the vertical proximity of a simple to a vertical tick
mark.
Starting at the top of the image and covering out this procedure line by line produces a two
dimensional digital image. In addition to the number of discrete level used, the accuracy of
quantization is highly dependent on the noise content of the sampled signal.
In practice, the method of sampling is determined by the sensor arrangement used to generate the
image. Sampling is accomplished by selecting the number of individual mechanical increments at
which we activate the sensor to collect data. Mechanical motion can be made very exact so, in
principle; there is almost no limit as to how fine we can sample an image. However, practical limits
are established by imperfections in the optics used to focus on the sensor. An illumination spot that is
inconsistent with the fine resolution achievable with mechanical displacements.
When a sensing strip is used for image acquisition, the number of sensors in the strip establishes
the sampling limitations in one image direction. Mechanical motion in the other direction can be
controlled more accurately, but it makes little sense to try to achieve sampling density in one direction
that exceeds the sampling limits established by the number of sensors in the other. Quantization of the
sensor outputs completes the process of generating a digital image.
When a sensing array is used for image acquisition, there is no motion and the number of sensors
in the array establishes the limits of sampling in both directions. The following figure illustrates this
concept. Figure (a) shows a continuous image projected onto the plane of an array sensor. Figure (b)
shows the image after sampling and quantization. Clearly, the quality of a digital image is determined
to a large degree by the number of samples and discrete gray levels used in sampling and quantization

Representing the Digital Image:

Representing Digital Images The result of sampling and quantization is matrix of real numbers.
Assume that an image f(x,y) is sampled so that the resulting digital image has M rows and N Columns.
The values of the coordinates (x,y) now become discrete quantities thus the value of the coordinates at
origin become ( x,y) =(0,0) The next Coordinates value along the first signify the image along the first
row. It does not mean that these are the actual values of physical coordinates when the image was
sampled. Thus the right side of the matrix represents a digital element, pixel or pel.
In general the value of the image at any coordinates (x,y) is denoted as f(x,y) , where x and y are
integers. The section of the real plane spanned by the coordinates of an image is called spatial domain,
with x and y referred as spatial variables or spatial coordinates.

There are three basic ways to represent f(x,y) as follows:

a)

b)

c)
Thus the right side of the matrix represents a digital element, pixel or pel.
The matrix can be represented in the following form as well. Let Z and R be denoted as set of integers
and set of real numbers respectively. The sampling process may be viewed as partitioning the xy plane
into a grid with the coordinates of the center of each grid being a pair of elements from the Cartesian
products Z2 which is the set of all ordered pair of elements (Z i, Zj) with Zi and Zj being integers from
Z. Hence f(x,y) is a digital image if gray
level (that is, a real number from the set of real number R) to each distinct pair of coordinates (x,y).
This functional assignment is the quantization process. If the gray levels are also integers, Z replaces
R, the and a digital image become a 2D function whose coordinates and she amplitude value are
integers. Due to processing storage and hardware consideration, the number gray levels typically is an
integer power of 2.
L=2k
Then, the number, b, of bites required to store a digital image is
b=M *N* k
When M=N, the equation become
b=N2 *k
When an image can have 2k gray levels, it is referred to as “k- bit”. An image with 256 possible gray
levels is called an “8- bit image” (256=28 ).
Spatial and Gray level resolution:
Spatial resolution is the smallest discernible details are an image. Suppose a chart can be constructed
with vertical lines of width w with the space between the also having width W, so a line pair consists
of one such line and its adjacent space thus. The width of the line pair is 2w and there is 1/2w line pair
per unit distance resolution is simply the smallest number of discernible line pair unit distance.

Gray levels resolution refers to smallest discernible change in gray levels. Measuring discernible
change in gray levels is a highly subjective process reducing the number of bits R while repairing the
spatial resolution constant creates the problem of false contouring.
It is caused by the use of an insufficient number of gray levels on the smooth areas of the digital image
. It is called so because the rides resemble top graphics contours in a map. It is generally quite visible
in image displayed using 16 or less uniformly spaced gray levels.

Iso Preference Curves

To see the effect of varying N and R simultaneously. There picture are taken having little, mid level
and high level of details.
Different image were generated by varying N and k and observers were then asked to rank the results
according to their subjective quality. Results were summarized in the form of iso-preference curve in
the N-k plane

The iso-preference curve tends to shift right and upward but their shapes in each of the three image
categories are shown in the figure. A shift up and right in the curve simply means large values for N
and k which implies better picture quality The result shows that iso-preference curve tends to become
more vertical as the detail in the image increases. The result suggests that for image with a large
amount of details only a few gray levels may be needed. For a fixed value of N, the perceived quality
for this type of image is nearly independent of the number of gray levels used.
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PIXELS:
We consider several important relationships between pixels in a digital image.
NEIGHBORS OF A PIXEL
• A pixel p at coordinates (x,y) has four horizontal and vertical neighbors whose coordinates are
given by:
(x+1,y), (x-1, y), (x, y+1), (x,y-1)

This set of pixels, called the 4-neighbors or p, is denoted by N 4(p). Each pixel is one unit distance
from (x,y) and some of the neighbors of p lie outside the digital image if (x,y) is on the border of the
 image.

The four diagonal neighbors of p have coordinates and are denoted by ND (p).
(x+1, y+1), (x+1, y-1), (x-1, y+1), (x-1, y-1)

These points, together with the 4-neighbors, are called the 8-neighbors of p, denoted by N8 (p).

As before, some of the points in ND (p) and N8 (p) fall outside the image if (x,y) is on the border of

the image.
ADJACENCY AND CONNECTIVITY
Let v be the set of gray –level values used to define adjacency, in a binary image, v={1}. In a
gray-scale image, the idea is the same, but V typically contains more elements, for example, V =
{180, 181, 182, …, 200}.
If the possible intensity values 0 – 255, V set can be any subset of these 256 values. if
we are reference to adjacency of pixel with value.
Three types of adjacency
 4- Adjacency – two pixel P and Q with value from V are 4 –adjacency if A is in the set
N4(P)
 8- Adjacency – two pixel P and Q with value from V are 8 –adjacency if A is in the set
N8(P)
 M-adjacency –two pixel P and Q with value from V are m – adjacency if (i) Q is in N4(p)
or (ii) Q is in ND(q) and the set N4(p) ∩ N4(q) has no pixel whose values are from V.
Mixed adjacency is a modification of 8-adjacency. It is introduced to eliminate the
ambiguities that often arise when 8-adjacency is used.
• For example:
 Fig:(a) Arrangement of pixels; (b) pixels that are 8-adjacent (shown dashed) to the
center pixel; (c) m-adjacency.
Types of Adjacency:
• In this example, we can note that to connect between two pixels (finding a path
between two pixels):
– In 8-adjacency way, you can find multiple paths between two pixels
– While, in m-adjacency, you can find only one path between two pixels
• So, m-adjacency has eliminated the multiple path connection that has been generated
by the 8-adjacency.
• Two subsets S1 and S2 are adjacent, if some pixel in S1 is adjacent to some pixel in S2.
Adjacent means, either 4-, 8- or m-adjacency.
A Digital Path:
• A digital path (or curve) from pixel p with coordinate (x,y) to pixel q with coordinate (s,t)
is a sequence of distinct pixels with coordinates (x0,y0), (x1,y1), …, (xn, yn) where (x0,y0) =
(x,y) and (xn, yn) = (s,t) and pixels (xi, yi) and (xi-1, yi-1) are adjacent for 1 ≤ i ≤ n
• n is the length of the path
• If (x0,y0) = (xn, yn), the path is closed.
We can specify 4-, 8- or m-paths depending on the type of adjacency specified.
• Return to the previous example:

Fig: (a) Arrangement of pixels; (b) pixels that are 8-adjacent(shown dashed) to the
center pixel; (c) m-adjacency.
In figure (b) the paths between the top right and bottom right pixels are 8-paths. And
the path between the same 2 pixels in figure (c) is m-path
Connectivity:
• Let S represent a subset of pixels in an image, two pixels p and q are said to be
connected in S if there exists a path between them consisting entirely of pixels in S.

• For any pixel p in S, the set of pixels that are connected to it in S is called a connected
component of S. If it only has one connected component, then set S is called a
connected set.
Region and Boundary:
• REGION: Let R be a subset of pixels in an image, we call R a region of the image if R
is a connected set.
• BOUNDARY:The boundary (also called border or contour) of a region R is the set of
pixels in the region that have one or more neighbors that are not in R.
If R happens to be an entire image, then its boundary is defined as the set of pixels in the first and
last rows and columns in the image. This extra definition is required because an image has no
neighbors beyond its borders. Normally, when we refer to a region, we are referring to subset
of an image, and any pixels in the boundary of the region that happen to coincide with the border
of the image are included implicitly as part of the region boundary.

The two regions (of 1’s) in this figure are adjacent only
if 8-adjacency is used (according to the earlier definition,
a 4-path between the two region does not exist. So their
union is not a connected set).

The circled point is part of the boundary of the 1-valued

pixels only if 8-adjacency between region and
background is used

The inner boundary of the 1-valued region does not form

a closed path, but its outer boundary does.

DISTANCE MEASURES:
For pixel p,q and z with coordinate (x.y) ,(s,t) and (v,w) respectively D is a distance function
or metric if
D [p.q] ≥ O {D[p.q] = O iff p=q}
D [p.q] = D [p.q] and
D [p.q] ≥ O {D[p.q]+D(q,z)
• The Euclidean Distance between p and q is defined as:

De (p,q) = [(x – s)2 + (y - t)2]1/2

Pixels having a distance less than or equal to some value r from (x,y) are the points
contained in a disk of radius „ r „centered at (x,y)
 • The D4 distance (also called city-block distance) between p and q is defined as:
D4 (p,q) = | x – s | + | y – t |
Pixels having a D4 distance from (x,y), less than or equal to some value r form a
Diamond centered at (x,y)

Example:
The pixels with distance D4 ≤ 2 from (x,y) form the following contours of constant
distance.
The pixels with D4 = 1 are the 4-neighbors of (x,y)

• The D8 distance (also called chessboard distance) between p and q is defined as:
D8 (p,q) = max(| x – s |,| y – t |)
Pixels having a D8 distance from (x,y), less than or equal to some value r form a
square Centered at (x,y).

Example:
D8 distance ≤ 2 from (x,y) form the following contours of constant distance.
• Dm distance:
It is defined as the shortest m-path between the points.
In this case, the distance between two pixels will depend on the values of the pixels along
the path, as well as the values of their neighbors.
Example:
Consider the following arrangement of pixels and assume that p, p2, and p4 have value 1 and
that p1 and p3 can have can have a value of 0 or 1 Suppose that we consider the adjacency of
pixels values 1 (i.e. V = {1})

Now, to compute the Dm between points p and p4

Here we have 4 cases:
Case1: If p1 =0 and p3 = 0
The length of the shortest m-path (the Dm
distance) is 2 (p, p2, p4)

Case2: If p1 =1 and p3 = 0
now, p1 and p will no longer be adjacent (see m-adjacency definition)
then, the length of the shortest path will be

3 (p, p1, p2, p4)

Case3: If p1 =0 and p3 = 1
The same applies here, and the shortest –m-path will be 3 (p, p2, p3, p4)

Case4: If p1 =1 and p3 = 1
 The length of the shortest m-path will be 4 (p, p1 , p2, p3, p4)

Color Image Processing:

The use of color is important in image processing because:
 Color is a powerful descriptor that simplifies object identification and extraction.
 Humans can discern thousands of color shades and intensities, compared to about only two dozen
shades of gray.
Color image processing is divided into two major areas:
 Full-color processing: images are acquired with a full-color sensor, such as a color TV camera or
color scanner.
 Pseudocolor processing: The problem is one of assigning a color to a particular monochrome
intensity or range of intensities.
Color Fundamentals
Colors are seen as variable combinations of the primary color s of light: red (R), green (G), and blue
(B). The primary colors can be mixed to produce the secondary colors: magenta (red+blue), cyan
(green+blue), and yellow (red+green). Mixing the three primaries, or a secondary with its opposite
primary color, produces white light.

RGB colors are used for color TV, monitors, and video cameras.
However, the primary colors of pigments are cyan (C), magenta (M), and yellow (Y), and the
secondary colors are red, green, and blue. A proper combination of the three pigment primaries, or
a secondary with its opposite primary, produces black.
 CMY colors are used for color printing.
Color characteristics
The characteristics used to distinguish one color from another are:

 Brightness: means the amount of intensity (i.e. color level).

 Hue: represents dominant color as perceived by an observer.
 Saturation: refers to the amount of white light mixed with a hue.

Color Models
The purpose of a color model is to facilitate the specification of colors in some standard way. A color
model is a specification of a coordinate system and a subspace within that system where each color is
represented by a single point. Color models most commonly used in image processing are:

 RGB model for color monitors and video cameras

 CMY and CMYK (cyan, magenta, yellow, black) models for color printing
 HSI (hue, saturation, intensity) model

The RGB color model

In this model, each color appears in its primary colors red, green, and blue. This model is based on a
Cartesian coordinate system. The color subspace is the cube shown in the figure below. The different
colors in this model are points on or inside the cube, and are defined by vectors extending from the
origin.
 Fig:RGB color model

All color values R, G, and B have been normalized in the range [0, 1]. However, we can represent each
of R, G, and B from 0 to 255.
Each RGB color image consists of three component images, one for each primary color as shown in
the figure below. These three images are combined on the screen to produce a color image.

Fig:Scheme of RGB color image

The total number of bits used to represent each pixel in RGB image is called pixel depth. For example,
in an RGB image if each of the red, green, and blue images is an 8-bit image, the pixel depth of the
RGB image is 24-bits. The figure below shows the component images of an RGB image.

Full color
 Red Green Blue

Fig:A full-color image and its RGB component

images

The CMY and CMYK color model

Cyan, magenta, and yellow are the primary colors of pigments. Most printing devices such as color
printers and copiers require CMY data input or perform an RGB to CMY conversion internally. This
conversion is performed using the equation
𝐶 1 𝑅
𝑀 = 1 − 𝐺
𝑌 1 𝐵
where, all color values have been normalized to the range [0, 1].
In printing, combining equal amounts of cyan, magenta, and yellow produce muddy-looking black. In
order to produce true black, a fourth color, black, is added, giving rise to the CMYK color model.

The figure below shows the CMYK component images of an RGB image.

Full color Cyan Magenta

Yellow Black
Fig: A full-color image and its CMYK component images
The HSI color model
The RGB and CMY color models are not suited for describing colors in terms of human interpretation.
When we view a color object, we describe it by its hue, saturation, and brightness (intensity).
Hence the HSI color model has been presented. The HSI model decouples the intensity component
from the color-carrying information (hue and saturation) in a color image. As a result, this model is an
ideal tool for developing color image processing algorithms.
Relationship between RGB and HAI color models

Hue and Saturation on Color Planes

The hue, saturation, and intensity values can be obtained from the RGB color cube.
That is, we can convert any RGB point to a corresponding point is the HSI color model by working
out the geometrical formulas.
Converting colors from RGB to HSI Converting colors from HSI to RGB
 Full color

Hue Saturation Intensity

Fig: A full-color image and its HSI component images

Basics of Full-Color Image Processing

Full-color image processing approaches fall into two major categories:
 Approaches that process each component image individually and then form a composite
processed color image from the individually processed components.

 Approaches that work with color pixels directly.

In full-color images, color pixels really are vectors. For example, in the RGB system, each color pixel
can be expressed as
For an image of size M×N, there are MN such vectors, c(x, y), for x = 0,1, 2,...,M-1; y = 0,1,2,...,N-1.
IMAGE TRANSFORMS:
2-D FFT:

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Page 36
WALSH TRANSFORM:
We define now the 1-D Walsh transform as follows:

The above is equivalent to:

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The transform kernel values are obtained from:

Therefore, the array formed by the Walsh matrix is a real

symmetric matrix. It is easily shown that it has orthogonal columns
and rows
1-D Inverse Walsh Transform

The above is again equivalent to

The array formed by the inverse Walsh matrix is identical to the one formed by the forward
Walsh matrix apart from a multiplicative factor N.
2-D Walsh Transform
We define now the 2-D Walsh transform as a straightforward extension of the 1-D transform:

•The above is equivalent to:

2-D Inverse Walsh Transform

We define now the Inverse 2-D Walsh transform. It is identical to the forward 2-D Walsh
transform

•The above is equivalent to:

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HADAMARD TRANSFORM:
We define now the 2-D Hadamard transform. It is similar to the 2-D Walsh transform.

The above is equivalent to:

We define now the Inverse 2-D Hadamard transform. It is identical to the forward 2-D
Hadamard transform.

The above is equivalent to:

DISCRETE COSINE TRANSFORM (DCT) :

The discrete cosine transform (DCT) helps separate the image into parts (or spectral sub-
bands) of differing importance (with respect to the image's visual quality). The DCT is
similar to the discrete Fourier transform: it transforms a signal or image from the spatial
domain to the frequency domain.
The general equation for a 1D (N data items) DCT is defined by the following equation:

and the corresponding inverse 1D DCT transform is simple F-1(u), i.e.:

where

The general equation for a 2D (N by M image) DCT is defined by the following equation:

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and the corresponding inverse 2D DCT transform is simple F-1(u,v), i.e.:
where

The basic operation of the DCT is as follows:

 The input image is N by M;
 f(i,j) is the intensity of the pixel in row i and column j;
 F(u,v) is the DCT coefficient in row k1 and column k2 of the DCT matrix.
 For most images, much of the signal energy lies at low frequencies; these appear
in the upper left corner of the DCT.
 Compression is achieved since the lower right values represent higher
frequencies, and are often small - small enough to be neglected with little visible
distortion.
 The DCT input is an 8 by 8 array of integers. This array contains each pixel's gray
scale level;
 8 bit pixels have levels from 0 to 255.
DISCRETE WAVELET TRANSFORM (DWT):
There are many discrete wavelet transforms they are Coiflet, Daubechies, Haar,
Symmlet etc.
Haar Wavelet Transform
The Haar wavelet is the first known wavelet. The Haar wavelet is also the simplest
possible wavelet. The Haar Wavelet can also be described as a step function f(x) shown in Eq
1 0  x  1/ 2,

f (x)  1 1/ 2  x  1,

0 otherwise.

Each step in the one dimensional Haar wavelet transform calculates a set of wavelet
coefficients (Hi-D) and a set of averages (Lo-D). If a data set s 0, s1,…, sN-1 contains N
elements, there will be N/2 averages and N/2 coefficient values. The averages are stored in
the lower half of the N element array and the coefficients are stored in the upper half.
The Haar equations to calculate an average ( ai ) and a wavelet coefficient ( ci ) from
the data set are shown below Eq

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 ai  si  si  si  si  1
1 ci 
2 2
In wavelet terminology the Haar average is calculated by the scaling function. The
coefficient is calculated by the wavelet function.
Two-Dimensional Wavelets
The two-dimensional wavelet transform is separable, which means we can apply a
one-dimensional wavelet transform to an image. We apply one-dimensional DWT to all rows
and then one-dimensional DWTs to all columns of the result. This is called the standard
decomposition and it is illustrated in figure 4.8.

Figure The standard decomposition of the two-dimensional DWT.

We can also apply a wavelet transform differently. Suppose we apply a wavelet
transform to an image by rows, then by columns, but using our transform at one scale only.
This technique will produce a result in four quarters: the top left will be a half-sized version
of the image and the other quarter‟s high-pass filtered images. These quarters will contain
horizontal, vertical, and diagonal edges of the image. We then apply a one-scale DWT to the
top-left quarter, creating smaller images, and so on. This is called the nonstandard
decomposition, and is illustrated in figure 4.9.

Figure 4.9 The nonstandard decomposition of the two-dimensional DWT.

Steps for performing a one-scale wavelet transform are given below:
Step 1: Convolve the image rows with the low-pass filter.
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Step 2 : Convolve the columns of the result of step 1 with the low-pass filter and rescale this
to half its size by sub-sampling.
Step 3 : Convolve the result of step 1 with high-pass filter and again sub-sample to obtain an
image of half the size.
Step 4 : Convolve the original image rows with the high-pass filter.
Step 5: Convolve the columns of the result of step 4 with the low-pass filter and recycle this
to half its size by sub-sampling.
Step 6 :Convolve the result of step 4 with the high-pass filter and again sub-sample to obtain
an image of half the size.
At the end of these steps there are four images, each half the size of original. They are
1. The low-pass / low-pass image (LL), the result of step 2,
2. The low-pass / high-pass image (LH), the result of step 3,
3. The high-pass / low-pass image (HL), the result of step 5, and
4. The high-pass / high-pass image (HH), the result of step 6
These images can be placed into a single image grid as shown in the figure 4.10.

Figure 4.10 the one-scale wavelet transforms in terms of filters.

Figure 4.11 describes the basic dwt decomposition steps for an image in a block
diagram form. The two-dimensional DWT leads to a decomposition of image into four
components CA, CH, CV and CD, where CA are approximation and CH, CV, CD are details
in three orientations (horizontal, vertical, and diagonal), these are same as LL, LH, HL, and
HH. In these coefficients the watermark can be embedded.

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 Figure 4.11 DWT decomposition steps for an image.

Figure Original image and DWT decomposed image.

An example of a discrete wavelet transform on an image is shown in Figure above.
On the left is the original image data, and on the right are the coefficients after a single pass
of the wavelet transform. The low-pass data is the recognizable portion of the image in the
upper left corner. The high-pass components are almost invisible because image data contains
mostly low frequency information.

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 UNIT -2
IMAGE ENHANCEMENT

Image enhancement approaches fall into two broad categories: spatial domain
methods and frequency domain methods. The term spatial domain refers to the image plane
itself, and approaches in this category are based on direct manipulation of pixels in an image.
Frequency domain processing techniques are based on modifying the Fourier
transform of an image. Enhancing an image provides better contrast and a more detailed image as
compare to non enhanced image. Image enhancement has very good applications. It is used to
enhance medical images, images captured in remote sensing, images from satellite e.t.c. As indicated
previously, the term spatial domain refers to the aggregate of pixels composing an image.
Spatial domain methods are procedures that operate directly on these pixels. Spatial domain
processes will be denoted by the expression.
g(x,y) = T[f(x,y)]
where f(x, y) is the input image, g(x, y) is the processed image, and T is an operator
on f, defined over some neighborhood of (x, y). The principal approach in defining a
neighborhood about a point (x, y) is to use a square or rectangular subimage area centered at
(x, y), as Fig. 2.1 shows. The center of the subimage is moved from pixel to pixel starting,
say, at the top left corner. The operator T is applied at each location (x, y) to yield the output,
g, at that location. The process utilizes only the pixels in the area of the image spanned by the
neighborhood.

Fig.: 3x3 neighborhood about a point (x,y) in an image.

The simplest form of T is when the neighborhood is of size 1*1 (that is, a single pixel). In
this case, g depends only on the value of f at (x, y), and T becomes a gray-level (also called
an intensity or mapping) transformation function of the form

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 s=T(r)
where r is the pixels of the input image and s is the pixels of the output image. T is a
transformation function that maps each value of „r‟ to each value of „s‟.
For example, if T(r) has the form shown in Fig. 2.2(a), the effect of this transformation would
be to produce an image of higher contrast than the original by darkening the levels below m
and brightening the levels above m in the original image. In this technique, known as contrast
stretching, the values of r below m are compressed by the transformation function into a
narrow range of s, toward black.The opposite effect takes place for values of r above m.
In the limiting case shown in Fig. 2.2(b), T(r) produces a two-level (binary) image. A
mapping of this form is called a thresholding function.
One of the principal approaches in this formulation is based on the use of so-called
masks (also referred to as filters, kernels, templates, or windows). Basically, a mask is a small
(say, 3*3) 2-D array, such as the one shown in Fig. 2.1, in which the values of the mask
coefficients determine the nature of the process, such as image sharpening. Enhancement
techniques based on this type of approach often are referred to as mask processing or
filtering.

Fig. 2.2 Gray level transformation functions for contrast enhancement.

Image enhancement can be done through gray level transformations which are
discussed below.
BASIC GRAY LEVEL TRANSFORMATIONS:
 Image negative
 Log transformations
 Power law transformations
 Piecewise-Linear transformation functions
LINEAR TRANSFORMATION:
First we will look at the linear transformation. Linear transformation includes simple
identity and negative transformation. Identity transformation has been discussed in our

Page 45
tutorial of image transformation, but a brief description of this transformation has been given
here.
Identity transition is shown by a straight line. In this transition, each value of the
input image is directly mapped to each other value of output image. That results in the same
input image and output image. And hence is called identity transformation. It has been
shown below:

Fig. Linear transformation between input and output.

NEGATIVE TRANSFORMATION:
The second linear transformation is negative transformation, which is invert of
identity transformation. In negative transformation, each value of the input image is
subtracted from the L-1 and mapped onto the output image
IMAGE NEGATIVE: The image negative with gray level value in the range of [0, L-1] is obtained
by negative transformation given by S = T(r) or
S = L -1 – r
Where r= gray level value at pixel (x,y)
L is the largest gray level consists in the image
It results in getting photograph negative. It is useful when for enhancing white details embedded in
dark regions of the image.
The overall graph of these transitions has been shown below.

Negativ
e
nth
root

Lo
g nth
power

Identit Inverse
y Log

Input gray level, r

Fig. Some basic gray-level transformation functions used for image enhancement.

Page 46
In this case the following transition has been done.

s = (L – 1) – r
since the input image of Einstein is an 8 bpp image, so the number of levels in this image are
256. Putting 256 in the equation, we get this

s = 255 – r
So each value is subtracted by 255 and the result image has been shown above. So what
happens is that, the lighter pixels become dark and the darker picture becomes light. And it
results in image negative.
It has been shown in the graph below.

Fig. Negative transformations.

LOGARITHMIC TRANSFORMATIONS:
Logarithmic transformation further contains two type of transformation. Log transformation
and inverse log transformation.
LOG TRANSFORMATIONS:
The log transformations can be defined by this formula
s = c log(r + 1).
Where s and r are the pixel values of the output and the input image and c is a constant. The
value 1 is added to each of the pixel value of the input image because if there is a pixel
intensity of 0 in the image, then log (0) is equal to infinity. So 1 is added, to make the
minimum value at least 1.
During log transformation, the dark pixels in an image are expanded as compare to the
higher pixel values. The higher pixel values are kind of compressed in log transformation.
This result in following image enhancement.
An another way of representing LOG TRANSFORMATIONS: Enhance details in the darker regions
of an image at the expense of detail in brighter regions.
T(f) = C * log (1+r)
 Here C is constant and r ≥ 0.

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  The shape of the curve shows that this transformation maps the narrow range of low gray
level values in the input image into a wider range of output image.
 The opposite is true for high level values of input image.

Fig. log transformation curve input vs output

POWER – LAW TRANSFORMATIONS:
There are further two transformation is power law transformations, that include nth
power and nth root transformation. These transformations can be given by the expression:
s=crγ
This symbol γ is called gamma, due to which this transformation is also known as
gamma transformation.
Variation in the value of γ varies the enhancement of the images. Different display
devices / monitors have their own gamma correction, that‟s why they display their image at
different intensity.
γ
where c and g are positive constants. Sometimes Eq. (6) is written as S = C (r +ε)
to account for an offset (that is, a measurable output when the input is zero). Plots of s versus
r for various values of γ are shown in Fig. 2.10. As in the case of the log transformation,
power-law curves with fractional values of γ map a narrow range of dark input values into a
wider range of output values, with the opposite being true for higher values of input levels.
Unlike the log function, however, we notice here a family of possible transformation curves
obtained simply by varying γ.
In Fig that curves generated with values of γ>1 have exactly The opposite effect as those
generated with values of γ<1. Finally, we Note that Eq. (6) reduces to the identity
transformation when c=γ=1.

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 Fig. 2.13 Plot of the equation S = crγ for various values of γ (c =1 in all cases).
This type of transformation is used for enhancing images for different type of display
devices. The gamma of different display devices is different. For example Gamma of CRT
lies in between of 1.8 to 2.5, that means the image displayed on CRT is dark.
Varying gamma (γ) obtains family of possible transformation curves S = C* r γ
Here C and γ are positive constants. Plot of S versus r for various values of
γ is γ > 1 compresses dark values
Expands bright values
γ < 1 (similar to Log
transformation) Expands dark
values Compresses bright
values
When C = γ = 1 , it reduces to identity transformation .

CORRECTING GAMMA:
s=crγ

s=cr (1/2.5)
The same image but with different gamma values has been shown here.
Piecewise-Linear Transformation Functions:
A complementary approach to the methods discussed in the previous three sections is
to use piecewise linear functions. The principal advantage of piecewise linear functions over
the types of functions we have discussed thus far is that the form of piecewise functions can
be arbitrarily complex.
The principal disadvantage of piecewise functions is that their specification requires
considerably more user input.
Contrast stretching: One of the simplest piecewise linear functions is a contrast-stretching

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transformation. Low-contrast images can result from poor illumination, lack of dynamic

Page 50
range in the imaging sensor, or even wrong setting of a lens aperture during image
acquisition.
S= T(r )
Figure x(a) shows a typical transformation used for contrast stretching. The locations
of points (r1, s1) and (r2, s2) control the shape of the transformation
Function. If r1=s1 and r2=s2, the transformation is a linear function that produces No
changes in gray levels. If r1=r2, s1=0and s2= L-1, the transformation Becomes a thresholding
function that creates a binary image, as illustrated In fig. 2.2(b).
Intermediate values of ar1, s1b and ar2, s2b produce various degrees Of spread in the
gray levels of the output image, thus affecting its contrast. In general, r1≤ r2 and s1 ≤ s2 is
assumed so that the function is single valued and Monotonically increasing.

Fig. x Contrast stretching. (a) Form of transformation function. (b) A low-contrast stretching.
(c) Result of contrast stretching. (d) Result of thresholding (original image courtesy of
Dr.Roger Heady, Research School of Biological Sciences, Australian National University
Canberra Australia.
Figure x(b) shows an 8-bit image with low contrast. Fig. x(c) shows the result of contrast
stretching, obtained by setting (r1, s1 )=(rmin, 0) and (r2, s2)=(r max,L-1) where rmin and rmax
denote the minimum and maximum gray levels in the image, respectively.Thus, the
transformation function stretched the levels linearly from their original range to the full range

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[0, L-1]. Finally, Fig. x(d) shows the result of using the thresholding function defined
previously,
with r1=r2=m, the mean gray level in the image. The original image on which these results
are based is a scanning electron microscope image of pollen, magnified approximately 700
times.
Gray-level slicing:
Highlighting a specific range of gray levels in an image often is desired. Applications
include enhancing features such as masses of water in satellite imagery and enhancing flaws
in X-ray images.
There are several ways of doing level slicing, but most of them are variations of two
basic themes.One approach is to display a high value for all gray levels in the range of
interest and a low value for all other gray levels.
This transformation, shown in Fig. y(a), produces a binary image. The second
approach, based on the transformation shown in Fig.y (b), brightens the desired range of gray
levels but preserves the background and gray-level tonalities in the image. Figure y (c) shows
a gray-scale image, and Fig. y(d) shows the result of using the transformation in Fig.
y(a).Variations of the two transformations shown in Fig. are easy to formulate.

Fig. y (a)This transformation highlights range [A,B] of gray levels and reduces all others to a
constant level (b) This transformation highlights range [A,B] but preserves all other levels.
(c) An image . (d) Result of using the transformation in (a).
BIT-PLANE SLICING:
Instead of highlighting gray-level ranges, highlighting the contribution made to total
image appearance by specific bits might be desired. Suppose that each pixel in an image is
represented by 8 bits. Imagine that the image is composed of eight 1-bit planes, ranging from
bit-plane 0 for the least significant bit to bit plane 7 for the most significant bit. In terms of 8-

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bit bytes, plane 0 contains all the lowest order bits in the bytes comprising the pixels in the
image and plane 7 contains all the high-order bits.
Figure 3.12 illustrates these ideas, and Fig. 3.14 shows the various bit planes for the
image shown in Fig. 3.13. Note that the higher-order bits (especially the top four) contain the
majority of the visually significant data.The other bit planes contribute to more subtle details
in the image. Separating a digital image into its bit planes is useful for analyzing the relative
importance played by each bit of the image, a process that aids in determining the adequacy
of the number of bits used to quantize each pixel.

In terms of bit-plane extraction for an 8-bit image, it is not difficult to show that the
(binary) image for bit-plane 7 can be obtained by processing the input image with a
thresholding gray-level transformation function that (1) maps all levels in the image between
0 and 127 to one level (for example, 0); and (2) maps all levels between 129 and 255 to
another (for example, 255).The binary image for bit-plane 7 in Fig. 3.14 was obtained in just
this manner. It is left as an exercise
(Problem 3.3) to obtain the gray-level transformation functions that would yield the other bit
planes.
Histogram Processing:
The histogram of a digital image with gray levels in the range [0, L-1] is a discrete
function of the form
H(rk)=nk
where rk is the kth gray level and nk is the number of pixels in the image having the
level rk.. A normalized histogram is given by the equation
p(rk)=nk/n for k=0,1,2,…..,L-1
P(rk) gives the estimate of the probability of occurrence of gray level rk.
The sum of all components of a normalized histogram is equal to 1.
The histogram plots are simple plots of H(rk)=nk versus rk.

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In the dark image the components of the histogram are concentrated on the low (dark) side
of the gray scale. In case of bright image the histogram components are baised towards the
high side of the gray scale. The histogram of a low contrast image will be narrow and will
be centered towards the middle of the gray scale.
The components of the histogram in the high contrast image cover a broad range of the gray
scale. The net effect of this will be an image that shows a great deal of gray levels details
and has high dynamic range.

Histogram Equalization:
Histogram equalization is a common technique for enhancing the appearance of images.
Suppose we have an image which is predominantly dark. Then its histogram would be

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skewed towards the lower end of the grey scale and all the image detail are compressed into
the dark end of the histogram. If we could „stretch out‟ the grey levels at the dark end to
produce a more uniformly distributed histogram then the image would become much
clearer.
Let there be a continuous function with r being gray levels of the image to be enhanced. The
range of r is [0, 1] with r=0 repressing black and r=1 representing white. The transformation
function is of the form
S=T(r) where 0<r<1
It produces a level s for every pixel value r in the original image.

The transformation function is assumed to fulfill two condition T(r) is single valued and
monotonically increasing in the internal 0<T(r)<1 for 0<r<1.The transformation
function should be single valued so that the inverse transformations should exist.
Monotonically increasing condition preserves the increasing order from black to white
in the output image. The second conditions guarantee that the output gray levels will be
in the same range as the input levels. The gray levels of the image may be viewed as
random variables in the interval [0.1]. The most fundamental descriptor of a random
variable is its probability density function (PDF) Pr(r) and Ps(s) denote the probability
density functions of random variables r and s respectively. Basic results from an
elementary probability theory states that if Pr(r) and Tr are known and T-1(s) satisfies
conditions (a), then the probability density function Ps(s) of the transformed variable is
given by the formula

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Thus the PDF of the transformed variable s is the determined by the gray levels PDF of
the input image and by the chosen transformations function.
A transformation function of a particular importance in image processing

This is the cumulative distribution function of r.

L is the total number of possible gray levels in the image.
IMAGE ENHANCEMENT IN FREQUENCY DOMAIN
BLURRING/NOISE REDUCTION: Noise characterized by sharp transitions in image
intensity. Such transitions contribute significantly to high frequency components of Fourier
transform. Intuitively, attenuating certain high frequency components result in blurring and
reduction of image noise.
IDEAL LOW-PASS FILTER:
Cuts off all high-frequency components at a distance greater than a certain distance
from origin (cutoff frequency).
H (u,v) = 1, if D(u,v) ≤ D0
0, if D(u,v) ˃ D0
Where D0 is a positive constant and D(u,v) is the distance between a point (u,v) in the
frequency domain and the center of the frequency rectangle; that is

D(u,v) = [(u-P/2)2 + (v-Q/2)2] 1/2

Where as P and Q are the padded sizes from the basic equations
Wraparound error in their circular convolution can be avoided by padding these
functions with zeros,
VISUALIZATION: IDEAL LOW PASS FILTER:
Aa shown in fig.below

Fig: ideal low pass filter 3-D view and 2-D view and line graph.

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EFFECT OF DIFFERENT CUTOFF FREQUENCIES:
Fig.below(a) Test pattern of size 688x688 pixels, and (b) its Fourier spectrum. The spectrum
is double the image size due to padding but is shown in half size so that it fits in the page.
The superimposed circles have radii equal to 10, 30, 60, 160 and 460 with respect to the full-
size spectrum image. These radii enclose 87.0, 93.1, 95.7, 97.8 and 99.2% of the padded
image power respectively.

Fig: (a) Test patter of size 688x688 pixels (b) its Fourier spectrum

Fig: (a) original image, (b)-(f) Results of filtering using ILPFs with cutoff frequencies
set at radii values 10, 30, 60, 160 and 460, as shown in fig.2.2.2(b). The power removed by
these filters was 13, 6.9, 4.3, 2.2 and 0.8% of the total, respectively.

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 As the cutoff frequency decreases,
 image becomes more blurred
 Noise becomes increases
 Analogous to larger spatial filter sizes
The severe blurring in this image is a clear indication that most of the sharp detail
information in the picture is contained in the 13% power removed by the filter. As the filter
radius is increases less and less power is removed, resulting in less blurring. Fig. (c ) through
(e) are characterized by “ringing” , which becomes finer in texture as the amount of high
frequency content removed decreases.
WHY IS THERE RINGING?
Ideal low-pass filter function is a rectangular function
The inverse Fourier transform of a rectangular function is a sinc function.

Fig. Spatial representation of ILPFs of order 1 and 20 and corresponding intensity

profiles through the center of the filters( the size of all cases is 1000x1000 and the cutoff
frequency is 5), observe how ringing increases as a function of filter order.
BUTTERWORTH LOW-PASS FILTER:
Transfor funtion of a Butterworth lowpass filter (BLPF) of order n, and with cutoff
frequency at a distance D0 from the origin, is defined as

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 -

Transfer function does not have sharp discontinuity establishing cutoff between
passed and filtered frequencies.
Cut off frequency D0 defines point at which H(u,v) = 0.5

Fig. (a) perspective plot of a Butterworth lowpass-filter transfer function. (b) Filter
displayed as an image. (c)Filter radial cross sections of order 1 through 4.
Unlike the ILPF, the BLPF transfer function does not have a sharp discontinuity that
gives a clear cutoff between passed and filtered frequencies.
BUTTERWORTH LOW-PASS FILTERS OF DIFFEREN T FREQUENCIES:

Fig. (a) Original image.(b)-(f) Results of filtering using BLPFs of order 2, with cutoff
frequencies at the radii
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 Fig. shows the results of applying the BLPF of eq. to fig.(a), with n=2 and D0 equal to
the five radii in fig.(b) for the ILPF, we note here a smooth transition in blurring as a function
of increasing cutoff frequency. Moreover, no ringing is visible in any of the images
processed with this particular BLPF, a fact attributed to the filter‟s smooth transition
between low and high frequencies.
A BLPF of order 1 has no ringing in the spatial domain. Ringing generally is
imperceptible in filters of order 2, but can become significant in filters of higher order.
Fig.shows a comparison between the spatial representation of BLPFs of various
orders (using a cutoff frequency of 5 in all cases). Shown also is the intensity profile along a
horizontal scan line through the center of each filter. The filter of order 2 does show mild
ringing and small negative values, but they certainly are less pronounced than in the ILPF. A
butter worth filter of order 20 exhibits characteristics similar to those of the ILPF (in the
limit, both filters are identical).

Fig.2.2.7 (a)-(d) Spatial representation of BLPFs of order 1, 2, 5 and 20 and

corresponding intensity profiles through the center of the filters (the size in all cases is 1000 x
1000 and the cutoff frequency is 5) Observe how ringing increases as a function of filter
order.
GAUSSIAN LOWPASS FILTERS:
The form of these filters in two dimensions is given by

 This transfer function is smooth , like Butterworth filter.

 Gaussian in frequency domain remains a Gaussian in spatial domain
 Advantage: No ringing artifacts.

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Where D0 is the cutoff frequency. When D(u,v) = D0, the GLPF is down to 0.607 of its
maximum value. This means that a spatial Gaussian filter, obtained by computing the IDFT
of above equation., will have no ringing. Fig..shows a perspective plot, image display and
radial cross sections of a GLPF function.

Fig. (a) Perspective plot of a GLPF transfer function. (b) Filter displayed as an image.
(c). Filter radial cross sections for various values of D0

Fig.(a) Original image. (b)-(f) Results of filtering using GLPFs with cutoff
frequencies at the radii shown in fig.2.2.2. compare with fig.2.2.3 and fig.2.2.6

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 Fig. (a) Original image (784x 732 pixels). (b) Result of filtering using a GLPF with
D0 = 100. (c) Result of filtering using a GLPF with D0 = 80. Note the reduction in fine skin
lines in the magnified sections in (b) and (c).
Fig. shows an application of lowpass filtering for producing a smoother, softer-
looking result from a sharp original. For human faces, the typical objective is to reduce the
sharpness of fine skin lines and small blemished.
IMAGE SHARPENING USING FREQUENCY DOMAIN FILTERS:
An image can be smoothed by attenuating the high-frequency components of its
Fourier transform. Because edges and other abrupt changes in intensities are associated with
high-frequency components, image sharpening can be achieved in the frequency domain by
high pass filtering, which attenuates the low-frequency components without disturbing high-
frequency information in the Fourier transform.
The filter function H(u,v) are understood to be discrete functions of size PxQ; that is
the discrete frequency variables are in the range u = 0,1,2,…….P-1 and v = 0,1,2,…….Q-1.
The meaning of sharpening is
 Edges and fine detail characterized by sharp transitions in image intensity
 Such transitions contribute significantly to high frequency components of
Fourier transform
 Intuitively, attenuating certain low frequency components and preserving high
frequency components result in sharpening.
Intended goal is to do the reverse operation of low-pass filters
 When low-pass filter attenuated frequencies, high-pass filter passes them

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  When high-pass filter attenuates frequencies, low-pass filter passes
them. A high pass filter is obtained from a given low pass filter using the
equation.
H hp (u,v) = 1- Htp (u,v)
Where Hlp (u,v) is the transfer function of the low-pass filter. That is when the low-
pass filter attenuates frequencies, the high-pass filter passed them, and vice-versa.
We consider ideal, Butter-worth, and Gaussian high-pass filters. As in the previous
section, we illustrate the characteristics of these filters in both the frequency and spatial
domains. Fig.. shows typical 3-D plots, image representations and cross sections for these
filters. As before, we see that the Butter-worth filter represents a transition between the
sharpness of the ideal filter and the broad smoothness of the Gaussian filter. Fig.discussed in
the sections the follow, illustrates what these filters look like in the spatial domain. The
spatial filters were obtained and displayed by using the procedure used.

Fig: Top row: Perspective plot, image representation, and cross section of a typical
ideal high-pass filter. Middle and bottom rows: The same sequence for typical butter-worth
and Gaussian high-pass filters.
IDEAL HIGH-PASS FILTER:
A 2-D ideal high-pass filter (IHPF) is defined as
H (u,v) = 0, if D(u,v) ≤ D0
1, if D(u,v) ˃ D0

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 Where D0 is the cutoff frequency and D(u,v) is given by eq. As intended, the IHPF is
the opposite of the ILPF in the sense that it sets to zero all frequencies inside a circle of
radius D0 while passing, without attenuation, all frequencies outside the circle. As in case of
the ILPF, the IHPF is not physically realizable.
SPATIAL REPRESENTATION OF HIGHPASS FILTERS:

Fig.. Spatial representation of typical (a) ideal (b) Butter-worth and (c) Gaussian
frequency domain high-pass filters, and corresponding intensity profiles through their centers.
We can expect IHPFs to have the same ringing properties as ILPFs. This is
demonstrated clearly in Fig.. which consists of various IHPF results using the original image
in Fig.(a) with D0 set to 30, 60,and 160 pixels, respectively. The ringing in Fig. (a) is so
severe that it produced distorted, thickened object boundaries (e.g.,look at the large letter “a”
). Edges of the top three circles do not show well because they are not as strong as the other
edges in the image (the intensity of these three objects is much closer to the background
intensity, giving discontinuities of smaller magnitude).
FILTERED RESULTS: IHPF:

Fig.. Results of high-pass filtering the image in Fig.(a) using an IHPF with D0 = 30,
60, and 160.

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 The situation improved somewhat with D0 = 60. Edge distortion is quite evident still,
but now we begin to see filtering on the smaller objects. Due to the now familiar inverse
relationship between the frequency and spatial domains, we know that the spot size of this
filter is smaller than the spot of the filter with D0 = 30. The result for D0 = 160 is closer to
what a high-pass filtered image should look like. Here, the edges are much cleaner and less
distorted, and the smaller objects have been filtered properly.
Of course, the constant background in all images is zero in these high-pass filtered
images because highpass filtering is analogous to differentiation in the spatial domain.
BUTTER-WORTH HIGH-PASS FILTERS:
A 2-D Butter-worth high-pass filter (BHPF) of order n and cutoff frequency D0 is defined as

Where D(u,v) is given by Eq.(3). This expression follows directly from Eqs.(3) and (6). The
middle row of Fig.2.2.11. shows an image and cross section of the BHPF function.
Butter-worth high-pass filter to behave smoother than IHPFs. Fig.2.2.14.shows the
performance of a BHPF of order 2 and with D0 set to the same values as in Fig.2.2.13. The
boundaries are much less distorted than in Fig.2.2.13. even for the smallest value of cutoff
frequency.
FILTERED RESULTS: BHPF:

Fig. Results of high-pass filtering the image in Fig.2.2.2(a) using a BHPF of order 2
with D0 = 30, 60, and 160 corresponding to the circles in Fig.2.2.2(b). These results are much
smoother than those obtained with an IHPF.
GAUSSIAN HIGH-PASS FILTERS:
The transfer function of the Gaussian high-pass filter(GHPF) with cutoff frequency
locus at a distance D0 from the center of the frequency rectangle is given by

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 Where D(u,v) is given by Eq.(4). This expression follows directly from Eqs.(2) and
(6). The third row in Fig.2.2.11. shows a perspective plot, image and cross section of the
GHPF function. Following the same format as for the BHPF, we show in Fig.2.2.15.
comparable results using GHPFs. As expected, the results obtained are more gradual than
with the previous two filters.
FILTERED RESULTS:GHPF:

Fig. Results of high-pass filtering the image in fig.(a) using a GHPF with D0 = 30, 60
and 160, corresponding to the circles in Fig.(b).

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 UNIT-3
IMAGE RESTORATION

IMAGE RESTORATION:
Restoration improves image in some predefined sense. It is an objective process.
Restoration attempts to reconstruct an image that has been degraded by using a priori
knowledge of the degradation phenomenon. These techniques are oriented toward
modeling the degradation and then applying the inverse process in order to recover the
original image. Restoration techniques are based on mathematical or probabilistic
models of image processing. Enhancement, on the other hand is based on human
subjective preferences regarding what constitutes a “good” enhancement result. Image
Restoration refers to a class of methods that aim to remove or reduce the degradations
that have occurred while the digital image was being obtained. All natural images when
displayed have gone through some sort of degradation:
 During display mode
 Acquisition mode, or
 Processing mode
 Sensor noise
 Blur due to camera mis focus
 Relative object-camera motion
 Random atmospheric turbulence
 Others
Degradation Model:
Degradation process operates on a degradation function that operates on an input
image with an additive noise term. Input image is represented by using the notation
f(x,y), noise term can be represented as η(x,y).These two terms when combined gives
the result as g(x,y). If we are given g(x,y), some knowledge about the degradation
function H or J and some knowledge about the additive noise teem η(x,y), the objective
of restoration is to obtain an estimate f'(x,y) of the original image. We want the estimate
to be as close as possible to the original image. The more we know about h and η , the
closer f(x,y) will be to f'(x,y). If it is a linear position invariant process, then degraded
image is given in the spatial domain by
g(x,y)=f(x,y)*h(x,y)+η(x,y)

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h(x,y) is spatial representation of degradation function and symbol * represents
convolution. In frequency domain we may write this equation as
G(u,v)=F(u,v)H(u,v)+N(u,v)
The terms in the capital letters are the Fourier Transform of the corresponding terms in
the spatial domain.

Fig: A model of the image Degradation / Restoration process

Noise Models:
The principal source of noise in digital images arises during image acquisition
and /or transmission. The performance of imaging sensors is affected by a variety of
factors, such as environmental conditions during image acquisition and by the quality of
the sensing elements themselves. Images are corrupted during transmission principally
due to interference in the channels used for transmission. Since main sources of noise
presented in digital images are resulted from atmospheric disturbance and image sensor
circuitry, following assumptions can be made i.e. the noise model is spatial invariant
(independent of spatial location). The noise model is uncorrelated with the object
function.
Gaussian Noise:
These noise models are used frequently in practices because of its tractability in both spatial
and frequency domain. The PDF of Gaussian random variable is

Where z represents the gray level, μ= mean of average value of z, σ= standard deviation.

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Rayleigh Noise:
Unlike Gaussian distribution, the Rayleigh distribution is no symmetric. It is given by
the formula.

The mean and variance of this density is

(iii) Gamma Noise:

The PDF of Erlang noise is given by

The mean and variance of this density are given by

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Its shape is similar to Rayleigh disruption. This equation is referred to as gamma density
it is correct only when the denominator is the gamma function.
(iv) Exponential Noise:
Exponential distribution has an exponential shape. The PDF of exponential noise is given as

Where a>0. The mean and variance of this density are given by

(v) Uniform Noise:

The PDF of uniform noise is given by

The mean and variance of this noise is

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(vi) Impulse (salt & pepper) Noise:
In this case, the noise is signal dependent, and is multiplied to the image.
The PDF of bipolar (impulse) noise is given by

If b>a, gray level b will appear as a light dot in image. Level a will appear like a dark dot.

Restoration in the presence of Noise only- Spatial filtering:

When the only degradation present in an image is noise, i.e.
g(x,y)=f(x,y)+η(x,y)
or
G(u,v)= F(u,v)+ N(u,v)
The noise terms are unknown so subtracting them from g(x,y) or G(u,v) is not a
realistic approach. In the case of periodic noise it is possible to estimate N(u,v)
from the spectrum G(u,v).
So N(u,v) can be subtracted from G(u,v) to obtain an estimate of original image.
Spatial filtering can be done when only additive noise is present. The following
techniques can be used to reduce the noise effect:

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i) Mean Filter:
ii) (a)Arithmetic Mean filter:
It is the simplest mean filter. Let Sxy represents the set of coordinates in the sub
image of size m*n centered at point (x,y). The arithmetic mean filter computes the
average value of the corrupted image g(x,y) in the area defined by Sxy. The value of the
restored image f at any point (x,y) is the arithmetic mean computed using the pixels in
the region defined by Sxy.

This operation can be using a convolution mask in which all coefficients have
value 1/mn A mean filter smoothes local variations in image Noise is reduced as a result
of blurring. For every pixel in the image, the pixel value is replaced by the mean value
of its neighboring pixels with a weight .This will resulted in a smoothing effect in the
image.
(b) Geometric Mean filter:
An image restored using a geometric mean filter is given by the expression

Here, each restored pixel is given by the product of the pixel in the sub image window,
raised to the power 1/mn. A geometric mean filters but it to loose image details in the
process.
(c) Harmonic Mean filter:
The harmonic mean filtering operation is given by the expression

The harmonic mean filter works well for salt noise but fails for pepper noise. It does
well with Gaussian noise also.
(d) Order statistics filter:
Order statistics filters are spatial filters whose response is based on ordering the pixel
contained in the image area encompassed by the filter. The response of the filter at any
point is determined by the ranking result.
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(e) Median filter:
It is the best order statistic filter; it replaces the value of a pixel by the median of gray
levels in the Neighborhood of the pixel.

The original of the pixel is included in the computation of the median of the filter are
quite possible because for certain types of random noise, the provide excellent noise
reduction capabilities with considerably less blurring then smoothing filters of similar
size. These are effective for bipolar and unipolor impulse noise.
(e) Max and Min filter:
Using the l00th percentile of ranked set of numbers is called the max filter and is given
by the equation

It is used for finding the brightest point in an image. Pepper noise in the image has very
low values, it is reduced by max filter using the max selection process in the sublimated
area sky. The 0th percentile filter is min filter.

This filter is useful for flinging the darkest point in image. Also, it reduces salt noise
of the min operation.
(f) Midpoint filter:
The midpoint filter simply computes the midpoint between the maximum and minimum
values in the area encompassed by

It comeliness the order statistics and averaging .This filter works best for randomly
distributed noise like Gaussian or uniform noise.
Periodic Noise by Frequency domain filtering:
These types of filters are used for this purpose-
Band Reject Filters:
It removes a band of frequencies about the origin of the Fourier transformer.
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Ideal Band reject Filter:

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An ideal band reject filter is given by the expression

D(u,v)- the distance from the origin of the centered frequency

rectangle. W- the width of the band
Do- the radial center of the frequency rectangle.
Butterworth Band reject Filter:

Gaussian Band reject Filter:

These filters are mostly used when the location of noise component in the frequency
domain is known. Sinusoidal noise can be easily removed by using these kinds of
filters because it shows two impulses that are mirror images of each other about the
origin. Of the frequency transform.

Band pass Filter:

The function of a band pass filter is opposite to that of a band reject filter It allows a specific
frequency band of the image to be passed and blocks the rest of frequencies. The transfer
function of a band pass filter can be obtained from a corresponding band reject filter with
transfer function Hbr(u,v) by using the equation

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These filters cannot be applied directly on an image because it may remove too much details
of an image but these are effective in isolating the effect of an image of selected frequency
bands.
Notch Filters:
A notch filter rejects (or passes) frequencies in predefined neighborhoods about a
center frequency.
Due to the symmetry of the Fourier transform notch filters must appear in symmetric
pairs about the origin.
The transfer function of an ideal notch reject filter of radius D0 with centers a (u0 , v0)
and by symmetry at (-u0 , v0) is

Ideal, butterworth, Gaussian notch filters

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Inverse Filtering:
The simplest approach to restoration is direct inverse filtering where we complete an

estimate of the transform of the original image simply by dividing the transform
of the degraded image G(u,v) by degradation function H(u,v)

We know that

Therefore

From the above equation we observe that we cannot recover the undegraded image
exactly because N(u,v) is a random function whose Fourier transform is not known.
One approach to get around the zero or small-value problem is to limit the filter
frequencies to values near the origin.
We know that H(0,0) is equal to the average values of h(x,y).
By Limiting the analysis to frequencies near the origin we reduse the probability of
encountering zero values.
Minimum mean Square Error (Wiener) filtering:
The inverse filtering approach has poor performance. The wiener filtering approach
uses the degradation function and statistical characteristics of noise into the
restoration process.

The objective is to find an estimate of the uncorrupted image f such that the mean
square error between them is minimized.
The error measure is given by

Where E{.} is the expected value of the argument.

We assume that the noise and the image are uncorrelated one or the other has zero
mean.
The gray levels in the estimate are a linear function of the levels in the degraded
image.

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Where H(u,v)= degradation function
H*(u,v)=complex conjugate of H(u,v)
| H(u,v)|2=H* (u,v) H(u,v)
Sn(u,v)=|N(u,v)|2= power spectrum of the noise Sf(u,v)=|
F(u,v)|2= power spectrum of the underrated image
The power spectrum of the undegraded image is rarely known. An approach used
frequently when these quantities are not known or cannot be estimated then the
expression used is

Where K is a specified constant.

Constrained least squares filtering:
The wiener filter has a disadvantage that we need to know the power spectra of the
undegraded image and noise. The constrained least square filtering requires only the
knowledge of only the mean and variance of the noise. These parameters usually can
be calculated from a given degraded image this is the advantage with this method.
This method produces a optimal result. This method require the optimal criteria
which is important we express the

in vector-matrix form

The optimality criteria for restoration is based on a measure of smoothness, such as

the second derivative of an image (Laplacian).
The minimum of a criterion function C defined as

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Subject to the constraint

Where is a euclidean vector norm is estimate of the

undegraded image. is laplacian operator.
The frequency domain solution to this optimization problem is given by

Where γ is a parameter that must be adjusted so that the constraint is satisfied.

P(u,v) is the Fourier transform of the laplacian operator

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