UNIVERSITY OF GONDAR

INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND COMPUTER ENGINEERING

APPLIED ELECRONICS I LABORATORY MANUAL

(Electrical Engineering II ECEg 2241)

PREPARED BY: ASMAMAW MALEDE

MESIFIN TEGEGNE
 UNIVERSITY OF GONDAR
2013
E.C

INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Department Of Electrical And Computer Engineering

Table of Contents

EXPERMINT 1 : Characteristics of Diodes, Diode Modeling and zener Diod..........................................2

EXPERMINT 2: Diode Applications (Rectifier Circuits)...........................................................................6

EXPERMINT 4: Characteristics of LDR and PHOTODIODE................................................................21

EXPERMINT 5: Characteristics of DIAC................................................................................................25

EXPERMINT 6: Characteristics of TRIAC..............................................................................................27

EXPERMINT 7: Transistor Test...............................................................................................................29

EXPERMINT 7.1: Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)..........................................................................33

EXPERMINT 7.2 Transisotor Amplifier...............................................................................................34

EXPERMINT 7.3 Amplitude Distortion On A Transisotor................................................................35

EXPERMINT 7.4 Push Pulls Class A Amplifier On A Transisotor....................................................36

EXPERMINT 7.5 push pull class B amplifier on a transisotor............................................................37

EXPERMINT 8: JFET Depletion Mode N&P-Channel............................................................................38

EXPERMINT 9: N&P-MOSFET Depletion Mode...................................................................................47

EXPERMINT 10: N&P-channel MOSFET Enhancement Mode.............................................................51

EXPERIMENT 11.....................................................................................................................................55

Title :Power Amplifier...............................................................................................................................55

Class ‘D’ Amplifier or Switching amplifier..........................................................................................67

EXPERIMENT 12 Frequency responses (RF), amplitude and phase modulation...................................71

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INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Department Of Electrical And Computer Engineering

EXPERIMENT 12.1 Tuned LC.............................................................................................................72

EXPERIMENT 12.2 phase modulation (PM)........................................................................................74

EXPERIMENT 12.3 Amplitude modulation using DC voltage............................................................76

EXPERIMENT 12.4 Phase modulation using DC voltage....................................................................77

EXPERIMENT 12.5 Measure modulation index in FM...............................................................79

EXPERIMENT 12.6 Measure modulation index in AM.......................................................................79

EXPERIMENT 12.7 Pulse width modulator.........................................................................................80

References..............................................................................................................................................82

Index..........................................................................................................................................................83

Principles of Electrical Safety...................................................................................................................83

Function generator...............................................................................................................................93

Oscilloscope Features...........................................................................................................................94

Digital Multimeter................................................................................................................................96

Breadboard...........................................................................................................................................99

Semiconductor....................................................................................................................................100

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2013
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INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Department Of Electrical And Computer Engineering

PART ONE: PRE READING INTRUDACTION TO EXPERIMENT

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 UNIVERSITY OF GONDAR
2013
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INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Department Of Electrical And Computer Engineering

ECEg 2241

Electrical Engineering Lab II

Course objectives To acquaintance with characteristics of various

active devices, Amplifiers, to find frequency
&competences
response and calculation of ripple etc.

To be acquired

Course 1. Basic Measurements on Characteristics of

Description Electronic Devices and Circuits;
2. Semiconductor Diode Characteristics;
/Course
Rectification and Filtering;
Contents
3. Bipolar Junction Transistor Characteristics,
Transistor Biasing & Operating Point Stability;
4. Transistor Amplifier; Frequency Response;
Multistage Amplifier; Power amplifier; Tuned
amplifier

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Department Of Electrical And Computer Engineering

EXPERMINT 1 : Characteristics of Diodes, Diode Modeling and zener Diod

Objective:

i) To study and plot the forward and reverse bias characteristics of a normal diode
and to determine the threshold voltage, static and dynamic resistance.
ii) To study and plot forward and reverse bias characteristics of a zener diode and
to determine the threshold and zener break-down voltage.
iii) In this experiment, the i-v characteristics of the silicon, germanium, zener
diodes and LED’s will be investigated and diode voltages and resistances will
be calculated. Rather than plotting the i-v curve point by point, an AC signal
will be used to display the i-v characteristics on CRO.
Equipment Quantity
1. Oscilloscope…………………………………………1
2. Signal generator……………………………………..1
3. DC Power supply ………………………………..….1
4. 1N4007 (Si) diode ………………………………….1
5. Ge diode …………………………………………….1
6. 4.7 V zener diode ………………………………… 1
7. Red LED …………………………………………....1
8. Resistor 1KΩ,……………………………..………1
9. Multimeter…………………………………………..1
10. Breadboard------------------------------------------------1

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Procedure
1) Testing Diodes: The AVO (Ohmmeter) Method: A quick way of determining
whether a diode is defective or not is to use an ohmmeter. If the internal battery of the
ohmmeter forward biases the pn junction, a low resistance is read on the scale.
Otherwise a high resistance is read. If the diode is defective, the ratio of the two
readings is close to unity (poor rectification).
a) Using the AVO meter, test your diodes.
b) Determine their anodes. Does the band on the diode indicate the cathode or the
anode terminal?

Fig:1. 18 Normal diode

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Fig:1. 19 LED

2) Determining Diode Voltages (Vγ): Set up the circuit in Figure 1. At first, set the
variable DC source to 0 Volt. Then slowly increase its value, while watching the input
voltage and the voltage on the diode from the scope. Using this circuit, how could you
find the forward biasing voltage (Vγ) of the diodes? Determine this value for four
different (Si, Ge, Zener, LED) diodes.
3) Characteristic of Diode: Set up the following circuit to display the i-v characteristics
of four different -Si, Ge, Zener, LED- diodes. Vi (t) =4 Sin wt, f=200 Hz.
A) Set both channels to DC. Set the scope into X-Y mode.
B) Obtain i-v characteristic of the diode and draw it by scale. Calculate RF, Vγ, values
from the curve and write them on following table.
Forward Bias: Reverse Bias:

Fig

Revers
Forward

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Fig:1. 20 Model Graph Forward

Table 1. 1

Forward bias Reverse bias

Vs (V) VR1 (V) Vd=Vs –VR1 (V) Id=If Vs (V) VR1(V) Vd=Vs–VR1 (V) Id=If (mA)
(mA)
0 0
0.1 0.1
0.2 0.2
0.3 0.3
0.4 0.4
0,5 0,5
0.6 0.6
0.7 0.7
0.8 0.8
0.9 0.9
1 1
3 3
5 5
7 7

C) Repeat the same process for Zener diode. Calculate rf, Vγ, Vz, rz values and write
them on the table. Can you observe the zener region with an input signal of Vi (t) =4 Sin
wt? If the answer is no, why and what do you suggest for doing this?

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Department Of Electrical And Computer Engineering

Fig:1. 21 Zener diode.

EXPERMINT 2: Diode Applications (Rectifier Circuits)

Equipment Quantity
1. Oscilloscope………………………………………...1
2. Signal generator……………………………………..1
3. DC Power supply ………………………………..….1
4. 1N4007 (Si) diode ………………………………….1
5. Ge diode …………………………………………….1
6. 4.7 V zener diode ………………………………… 1
7. Red LED …………………………………………....1
8. Resistor 1KΩ,……………………………..………1
9. Multimeter…………………………………………..1
10. Breadboard………………………………………….1
11. Discrete compontent panel………………………….1
2.1 Simple Half-wave Rectifier Without and With Filter
Objective:
1. To construct a half-wave bridge rectifier circuit and analyze its output.
2. To analyze the rectifier output using a capacitor in shunt as a filter.
Overview:
Construct the circuit of fig on the construction board dc voltage across the load is
sinusoidal for the first half cycle only and a pure Input signal is converted into a
unidirectional pulsating output signal.

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, , .
Where Vmax is the peak value of the voltage.
Ripple factor: As the voltage across the load resistor is only present during the positive
half of the cycle, the resultant voltage is "ON" and "OFF" during every cycle resulting in
a low average dc value. This variation on the rectified waveform is called "Ripple" and is
an undesirable feature. The ripple factor is a measure of purity of the D.C. output of a
rectifier and is defined as

In case of a half-wave rectifier Vrms = Vmax/2 = 0.5Vmax. (How?)

Rectification Efficiency: Rectification efficiency, η is a measure of the percentage of
total a.c. power input converted to useful D.C. power output.
η= d c power delivered to load/a c power at input

.
Here rd is the forward resistance of diode. Under the assumption of no diode loss
(rd<<1), the rectification efficiency in case of a half-wave rectifier is approximately
40.5%.

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Department Of Electrical And Computer Engineering

Fig:2. 1 Simple Half-wave Rectifier Without Filter

Procedure:

1) Construct the circuit of fig on the construction board dc voltage across the load is
sinusoidal for the first half cycle only and a pure.

2) Input signal is converted into a unidirectional pulsating output signal

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3) Adjust the signal generator to get an output of 1Vpk using an oscilloscope and give it
to your circuit.

4) .With the oscilloscope. Coupled, adjust the time base and the Y-amplifier sensitivity
to obtain a steady trace of the waveform.
5) Measure and record the time T and peak voltage Vpk of the trace .Note also the mean
voltage on the volt meter.
6) Sketch the wave form and label it to show the periods, when the diode is conducting
and those when it is no. Time T depends on the frequency of your power supply.
PART II–Effect of Reservoir Capacitor

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1) Add a capacitor of 1uF to the circuit of fig in parallel with the load.

2) Observe the output waveform on the oscilloscope and note the value of the peak to
peak variations in voltage. Note also then mean voltage on the voltmeter. Is the new
mean voltage greater or less than it was before.

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Department Of Electrical And Computer Engineering

3) Now replace the 1uF capacitor by a much larger value of 22uF (make sure to connect
the + side of the capacitor to the diode cathode if an electrolytic type of capacitor is
used).
4) Is the ripple now less or more than it was with the lower value capacitor?
5) Is the new mean rectified voltage now greater or less?
Conclusive Questions:
PART I:
1) Why will Vpk not be exactly equal to the peak voltage of the alternating supply?
2) How much will it differ?
DR 10K, Oscilloscope common
Oscilloscope Y input +VL 50Hz
3) The mean voltage you obtain is positive relative to zero. How could you obtain a
negative voltage?

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PART II:
1) Describe briefly the effect to f the reservoir capacitor on the ripple and mean rectified
voltage?
2) How do you relate they value of the capacitor to the amount of ripple obtained?
3) List sever all methods to reduce the ripple.
4) Summaries the things that you have learned from this experiment and give
reasonable conclusion

Table 2. 1 (I): half-wave rectifier without filter

Output voltage Efficiency η

=(V2dc/R)/(VacIa)%
Input Current

Ripple Factor

2Vmax/π
Load RL(KΩ)

Vdc(volt)
Vac(volt)
Iac(mA)

(volt)
No.

1
2
3

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Table 2. 2 (II): half-wave rectifier with filter (C= ----μF)

Output voltage Efficiency η

Input Current

Ripple Factor
Load RL(KΩ)

=(V2dc/R)/(VacIa)%
2Vmax/π
Vdc(volt)
Vac(volt)
Iac(mA)
No.

(volt)
1
2
3

(III) Input and output waveforms:

Waveforms without Filter:
RL = ______ Input Output
(Paste data here)
Waveforms with Capacitor Filter:
RL = ______ Input Output
(Paste dat here

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2.2 Full-Wave (Bridge) Rectifier Circuit Without and With Filter

Objectives:
3. To construct a full-wave bridge rectifier circuit and analyze its output.
4. To analyze the rectifier output using a capacitor in shunt as a filter.
Overview:
As you have seen already a half-wave rectifier circuit is unsuitable to applications
which need a "steady and smooth" dc supply voltage. One method to improve on
this is to use every half-cycle of the input voltage instead of every other half-cycle.
The circuit which allows us to do this is called a Full-wave Rectifier. Here,
unidirectional current flows in the output for both the cycles of input signal and
rectifies it. The rectification can be done either by a center tap full wave rectifier
(using two diodes) or a full wave bridge rectifier (using four diodes). In this
experiment we will study a full wave bridge rectifier.
The Full-wave Bridge Rectifier
Another type of circuit that produces the same
output as a full-wave rectifier is that of the
Bridge Rectifier

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Fig:2. 2 Full-wave Bridge Rectifier

Fig:2. 3 Full-wave Bridge Rectifier

The 4 diodes labeled D1 to D4 are arranged in
"series pairs “with only two diodes conducting
current during each half cycle. During the
positive half cycle of the supply, diodes D1and
D2 conduct in series while diodes D3 and D4
are reverse biased and the current flows through
the load as shown below Fig. During the
negative half cycle of the supply, diodes D3
and D4 conduct in series, but diodes D1 and D2
switch off as they are now reverse biased. The
current flowing through the load is the same
direction as before.the average dc output
voltage across the load resistor is double that of
a half-wave rectifier circuit, assuming no

losses.

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Ripple factor: As mentioned in the previous lab the ripple factor is a measure of purity of
the D.C. output of a rectifier and is defined as

In case of a full-wave rectifier Vrms = Vmax/√2 = 0.707Vmax. The ripple frequency

is now twice the supply frequency (e.g. 100Hz for a 50Hz supply).

Rectification Efficiency: Rectification efficiency, η, is a measure of the percentage of

total a.c. power input converted to useful D.C. power output.

η= d c power delivered to load∕ a c power at input.

Here rd is the forward resistance of diode. Under the assumption of no diode loss
(rd<<1), the rectification efficiency in case of a full-wave rectifier is approximately
81.1%. Which is twice the value for a half-wave rectifier

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Fig:2. 4 Filter:

Procedure:

1. Configure the full-wave rectifier circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.

Note down all the values of the components being used.
2. Connect the primary side of the transformer to the a.c. Mains and
secondary to the input of the circuit.
3. Measure the input a.c. voltage (Vac) and current (Iac) and the output a.c.
(Vac) and D.C. (Vdc) voltages using multimeter for at least 3 values of load
resistor (Be careful to choose proper settings of multimeter for ac and dc
measurement).
4. Feed the input and output to the oscilloscope (we will use oscilloscope
here only to trace the output waveform) and save the data for each
measurement.

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Measure the Input and Output Voltages Separately.

1. Multiply the Vac at the input by √2 to get the peak value and calculate Vdc
Using the formula Vdc = 2Vmax/π.
2. Compare this value with the measured Vdc at the output.
3. Calculate the ripple factor and efficiency.
4. Connect the capacitor across the output for each load resistor.
5. Measure the output a.c. and D.C. voltages once again and calculate the
ripple factor.
6. Trace the input and output waveforms in oscilloscope and notice the change.
(If time permits you could also use different values of capacitors and study the
output).

Table 2. 3 (I): full wave rectifier without filter

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Output voltage Efficiency η
Input Current

Ripple Factor
Load RL(KΩ)

=(V2dc/R)/(VacIa)%
2Vmax/π

Vdc(volt)
Vac(volt)
Iac(mA)
No.

(volt)
1
2
3

Table 2. 4 (II): full wave rectifier with filter (C= ----μF)

Output voltage Efficiency η

Input Current

Ripple Factor

=(V2dc/R)/(VacIa)%
Load RL(KΩ)

2Vmax/π
Vdc(volt)
Vac(volt)
Iac(mA)
NO.

(volt)
1
2
3

(III) Input and output waveforms:

Waveforms without Filter:

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RL = ______ Input Output
(Paste data here)
Waveforms with Capacitor Filter:
RL = ______ Input Output
(Paste dat here

2.3 Clipper and Clamper

Objective: Clipper and Clamper circuits will be designed and performance of these
will be investigated experimentally in the laboratory.
Equipment Quantity
1. Oscilloscope …………………………………...1
2. 1N4007 (Si) diode………………………………1
3. Signal generator………………………………..1
4. 1 K, 100 K resistors ……………………………2
5. 1μF capacitor……………………………………1
6. Power supply……………………………………1

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7. Discrete component panel………………………1

Procedure: Clipper (Limiter)

with Diode

1) Design the circuits that

have the following
characteristic by using
ideal diodes, resistors and
sources.
2) Set up the circuit shown
Fig.
3) Apply a sinusoidal wave with an amplitude of 10 V to the input and obtain its transfer
characteristic on oscilloscope screen and draw it on paper.

Fig:3. 1 Clipper (Limiter) with Diode

4) Repeat (a) for triangle and square waves with 10 V peak values.
5) While a sine wave is applied to input, lower the dc voltage levels (V1 and V2) and
observe that the output waveform looks like a square wave. Vi (t) =10Sinwt, f=100
Hz.
Procedure: Clamper Circuit

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1) Set channel 1 or
channel 2 to DC. Vi
(t) =8Sin (ωt), f=100
Hz, VDC = 3V.
2) Set up the circuit
shown in Fig. and for
RL=1KΩ,100KΩ
draw its output
waveforms for sine,
triangle and square
waves.
Fig:3. 2 Clamper Circuit
3) Observe the clamper voltage to be VDC + Vγ. Adjust Vdc to zero volt. Set the load
resistance values to RL = 100 KΩ and draw the output waveforms for each case.
Results and Conclusions
1) Explain the operation principles of Clipper circuits and Clamper circuits.
2) Comment on the results you have obtained.

EXPERMINT 4: Characteristics of LDR and PHOTODIODE

Objective: To plot distance Vs Photocurrent Characteristics of LDR and Photodiode

Theory:

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Light dependent resistor (LDR): A photo resistor or light dependent resistor or
cadmium sulfide (CdS) cell is a resistor hose resistance decreases with increasing
incident light intensity. It can also be referred to as a photoconductor.
A photo resistor is made of a high resistance semiconductor. If light falling on the device
is of high enough frequency, photons absorbed by the semiconductor give bound
electrons enough energy to jump into the conduction band. The resulting free electron
(and its whole partner) conduct electricity, thereby lowering resistance Photodiode
Photodiode: A silicon photodiode is a solid state light detector that consists of a shallow
diffused P-N junction with connections provided to the outside world. When the top
surface is illuminated, photons of light penetrate into the silicon to a depth determined by
the photon energy and are absorbed by the silicon generating electron-hole pairs. The
electron-hole pairs are free to diffuse (or wander) throughout the bulk of the photodiode
until they recombine. The average time before recombination is the “minority carrier
lifetime”. At the P-N junction is a region of strong electric field called the depletion
region. It is formed by the voltage potential that exists at the P-N junction. Those light
generated carriers that wander into contact with this field are swept across the junction. If
an external connection is made to both sides of the junction a photo induced current will
flow as long as light falls upon the photodiode. In addition to the photocurrent, a voltage
is produced across the diode. In effect, the photodiode functions exactly like a solar cell
by generating a current and voltage when exposed to light.

Equipment Quantity
1. Oscilloscope or multimeter 2 …………………..
2. photodiode……………………………………...1

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3. Signal generator………………………………..1
4. LDR 1KΩ, ………………………………….....1
5. Resistor 1kΩ……………………………………1
6. Wire……………………………………………. needed
7. Power supply……………………………………1
8. breed board or Discrete component panel………1
Procedure Light dependent resistor (LDR):
1) Connect circuit as shown in figure Keep light source at a distance and switch it ON, so
that it falls on the LDR.
2) Note down current and voltage in ammeter and voltmeter.
3) Vary the distance of the light source and note the V & I.
4) Sketch graph between R as calculated from observed V and I and distance of light source.

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Fig:4. 1 Light dependent resistor (LDR) circuit & graph

Plot the graph: resistancVs distance

Table 4. 1

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Procedure Photodiode:
1) Connect circuit as shown in figure Maintain a known distance between the bulb and
photodiode say 5cm.
2) Set the voltage of the bulb, vary the voltage of the diode in steps of 1 volt and note
down the diode current Ir.
3) Repeat above procedure for VL=4V, 6V, etc.

Table 4. 2

Fig:4. 2 Photodiode circuit &graph

The characteristics of LDR and Photodiode is to be tabulated and the graphs are plotted
RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS
1. For which purpose do we use diodes?
2. Why are the conduction voltage and zener voltage of each diode different?

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3. AC power supply was used to obtain the i-v characteristics of diodes. Why? Can this
process be done with DC power supply?

EXPERMINT 5: Characteristics of DIAC

Theory: A DIAC is a two terminal three layer bidirectional device which can be
switched from its off state to on state for either polarity of applied voltage. The operation
of DIAC is identical both in forward and reverse conduction. The DIAC does not conduct
until the applied voltage of either polarity reaches the break over voltage VBO.
Objective: To draw the V-I characteristics of DIAC and obtain the break over voltage
(VBO)

Equipment Quantity
1. Oscilloscope or multimeter 2 …………………..
2. DIAC or 2 diode………………………………..
3. Signal generator………………………………..1
4. Resistor 1kΩ……………………………………1
5. Wire……………………………………………. needed
6. Power supply……………………………………1
7. breed board or Discrete component panel………1
Procedure: DIAC Characteristics:
1. The connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram.

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Fig:5. 1 two diode test with multimeter as DIAC

Fig:

Fig:5. 2 DIAC forward direction, Reverse direction &graph

2. First DIAC is connected in forward direction.

3. The input supply is increased in step by step by varying the RPS.
4. The corresponding ammeter and voltmeter readings are noted and tabulated.
5. Then the DIAC is connected in reverse condition.
6. The above process is repeated.
Table 5. 1 component DIAC
NO. Forward direction Reverse direction
Voltage(volt) Current(mA) Voltage(volt) Current(mA)
1
2

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3
4
5

Result:
Thus the V-I characteristics of DIAC was obtained and graph was drawn

EXPERMINT 6: Characteristics of TRIAC

Theory: A TRIAC is a three terminal semiconductor switching device which can control alternating
current in a load. A TRIAC can control conduction of both positive and negative half Cycles of A.C
supply. It is sometimes called a bidirectional semiconductor Triode switch.
Objective: To draw the V-I characteristics of TRIAC and obtain the break over voltage (VBO).
Equipment Quantity
1. Oscilloscope or multimeter 2 …………………..
2. TRIAC ………………………………………….
3. Signal generator………………………………..1
4. Resistor 1kΩ……………………………………1
5. Wire……………………………………………. needed
6. Power supply……………………………………1
7. breed board or Discrete component panel………1
Procedure: TRIAC Characteristics:
1. The connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram.

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Fig:6. 1 TRIAC forward direction, Reverse direction &graph

2. The TRIAC is connected in forward direction and supply is switched ‘ON’.

3. VMT1MT2 is constant by varying RPS2 and then varying IG by varying RPS1.
4. The corresponding ammeter and voltmeter readings are noted and tabulated.
5. Next the TRIAC is connected in reverse direction.
6. The above process is repeated.

Table 6. 1

NO. VMT1,MT2(v) IG(mA) VMT1,MT2(v) IMT2(mA)

when when
TRIAC off TRIAC on
1
2
3
4
5

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Result: Thus the V-I characteristics of TRIAC was obtained and graph was draw

EXPERMINT 7: Transistor

Introduction: Transistor devices are made up of semiconductor material which is

commonly used for application or switching purpose, it can also be used for the
controlling own of voltage and current. It is also used to amplify the input signals into the
extent output signal. A transistor is usually a solid state electronic device which is made
up of semiconducting materials. The electronic current circulation can be altered by the
addition of electrons. This process brings voltage variations to affect proportionally many
variations in output current, bringing application into existence.Mainly we can divide the
Transistor in two categories Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) and Field Effect
Transistor (FET). Further we can divide it like below:

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Objective
1. Testing a transistor: are basically made up of two Diodes connected together back-
to-back (Fig.). We can use this analogy to determine whether a transistor is of the type
PNP or NPN by testing its Resistance between the three different leads, Emitter, Base
and Collector.
2. Testing with a multimeter: Use a multimeter or a simple tester (battery, resistor and
LED) to check each pair of
Between Transistor Terminals PNP NPN
leads for conduction. Set a digital
(R) (R) multimeter to diode test and
an Collector Emitter high high analogue multimeter to a
low Collector Base low high resistance range.
3. Test Transistor Resistance(R)
Values: for the PNP and
Emitter Collector high high
NPN transistor types.
Emitter Base low high
Table 7. 1

Base Collector high low

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Equipment Quantity
1. Oscilloscope or multimeter 2 …………………..
2. Transistor or 2 diode……………………………
3. Signal generator………………………………..1
4. Resistor 1kΩ……………………………………1
5. Wire……………………………………………. needed
6. Power supply……………………………………1
7. bread board or Discrete component panel………1
Procedure:
Test each pair of leads both ways (six tests in total):

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1. The base-emitter (BE) junction should behave like a diode and conduct one way only.
2. The base-collector (BC) junction should behave like a diode and conduct one way
only.
3. The collector-emitter (CE) should not conduct either way.
4. The diagram shows how the junctions behave in an NPN transistor.
5. The diodes are reversed in a PNP transistor but the same test procedure can be used.

Fig:7. 1 test two diode as transistor

Symbol

Picture

Fig:7. 2 transistor symbol and picture

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Fig:7. 3Testing an NPN (BD135) power transistor

Fig:7. 4 Testing a PNP (2N3906) transistor

EXPERMINT 7.1: Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)

Objective : Common Emitter (CE) AC Transisotor Amplifier

Equipment Quantity
1. Oscilloscope or multimeter 2 …………………..
2. Semiconductor Module……………… ………1
3. Signal generator………………………………..1
4. Wire……………………………………………. needed

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5. Power supply……………………………………1
procedure:
1. Assemble the circuit shown fig:

Fig:7. 5 CE Amplifier

2. Connect the output of oscillator across the socket marked INPUT of the amplifier
3. Connect the calibrated CRO across the sockets marked OUTPUT.
4. Set the frequency of oscillator 1 KHz.
5. Vary the output of the oscillator (Vi) from 1mV to 10mV.
6. In steps of 1mV and notes the output of amplifier for each value on the CRO.
7. Be sure that the output signal waveform should not get distorted.
8. Calculate the voltage gain (A) by measuring the amplitude of output signal (Vo)

waveform, using formula each of steps.

EXPERMINT 7.2 Transisotor Amplifier

Objective : Common Emitter (CE) AC Gain(A) Of The Transisotor Amplifier

Equipment Quantity
1. Oscilloscope or multimeter 2 …………………..
2. Semiconductor Module……………… ………1

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3. Signal generator………………………………..1
4. Wire……………………………………………. needed
5. Power supply……………………………………1
Procedure:
1. Assemble the circuit shown fig:

Fig:7. 6 Gain(A) Of The Transisotor Amplifier

2. Connect the output of oscillator across the socket marked INPUT of the amplifier
3. Connect the calibrated CRO across the sockets marked OUTPUT.
4. Set the frequency of oscillator 1 KHz.
5. Vary the output of the oscillator (Vi) from 1mV to 10mV.
6. In steps of 1mV and notes the output of amplifier for each value on the CRO.
7. Be sure that the output signal waveform should not get distorted.
8. Calculate the voltage gain (A) by measuring the amplitude of output signal (Vo)

waveform, using formula each of steps

EXPERMINT 7.3 Amplitude Distortion On A Transisotor

Objective : Common Emitter (CE) Effect of Amplitude Distortion On A Transisotor

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Equipment Quantity
9. Oscilloscope or multimeter 2 …………………..
10.Semiconductor Module……………… ………1
11. Signal generator………………………………..1
12.Wire……………………………………………. needed
13.Power supply……………………………………1
Procedure:
1. Assemble the circuit shown fig:

Fig:7. 7 Amplitude Distortion On A Transistor

2. Connect the output of oscillator across the socket marked INPUT of the amplifier
3. Connect the calibrated CRO across the sockets marked OUTPUT.

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4. Set the frequency of oscillator 1 KHz.
5. Vary the output of the oscillator (Vi) from 1mV to 10mV.
6. In steps of 1mV and notes the output of amplifier for each value on the CRO.
7. Be sure that the output signal waveform should not get distorted.
8. After this position now increase the amplitude of input then observe the amplitude
in distorted waveform.

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EXPERMINT 7.4 Push Pulls Class A Amplifier On A Transisotor

Objective : Common Emitter (CE) Push Pulls Class A Amplifier On A Transisotor

Equipment Quantity
1. Oscilloscope or multimeter 2 …………………..
2. Semiconductor Module……………… ………1
3. Signal generator………………………………..1
4. Wire……………………………………………. needed
5. Power supply……………………………………1
Procedure:
1. Assemble the circuit shown fig:

Fig:7. 8 Push Pulls Class A Amplifier On A Transisotor

2. Connect the oscillator as input.

3. Connect the CRO at output terminal and observe the waveform.

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EXPERMINT 7.5 push pull class B amplifier on a transisotor

Common emitter (CE):

Equipment Quantity
4. Oscilloscope or multimeter 2 …………………..
5. Semiconductor Module……………… ………1
6. Signal generator………………………………..1
7. Wire……………………………………………. needed
8. Power supply……………………………………1
Procedure:
1. Assemble the circuit shown fig:

Fig:7. 9 push pull class B amplifier on a transisotor

2. Connect the oscillator as input.

3. Connect the CRO at output terminal and observe the waveform.

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Electronics devices

Fig:1. 1 Electronics devices

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Discrete component panel view

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Fig:1. 2 Discrete component panel view

Master unit

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Fig:1. 3 semiconductor module

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Fig:1. 4 Amplifier &Electronics Circuit Application Trainer

Master Unit

Transistor amplifier experiment panel (kit)/p9

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Fig:1. 5 Master Unit

Transistor Amplified Experiment Panel9

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Fig:1. 6 Transistor Amplified Experiment Panel9

Function generator

Lab Equipment

Power type and voltage Alternating Current supply (AC) / 117 Volt
Power out
from Radiomuseum.org Model: Standard Signal Generator 800
Material Metal case
Shape Tablemodel, with any shape - general.
Dimensions (WHD) 255 x 365 x 210 mm / 10 x 14.4 x 8.3 inch
model 800 is a signal generator covering 25 MHz to 960 MHz.
Notes
Generator signal 25 MHz a 960 MHz

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Fig:1. 7 Function generator

Oscilloscope Features

DC-40/60MHz, Dual channels/dual traces, X-Y mode.

6-inch display, high brightness oscilloscope tube.

High sensitivity of triggering, up to1mV/division CH1channel incremental magnification

function for clearer observation than oscilloscope .TV synchronous separation circuit for
displaying stable TV signal Triggering mode: AUTO/NORM/TV-V/TV-H

Vertical: CH1/CH2/ALT/CHOP/ADD

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Fig:1. 8 Oscilloscope Features.

Table 1. 2 Oscilloscope Features

Specification 17006 17010

CRT 6 inch rectangular screen with internal graticule,8×10div.(1div=1cm)

Vertical deflection
Display mode CH1,CH2,ADD,ALT,CHOP
Deflection factor 5mV/div to 5V/div ±3%,1mV/div ±5%(×5),10steps
Rise time ≤8.8ns ≤5.9ns
Max. Input voltage 250V(DC+AC peak)≤1KHz
Input coupling AC,DC,GND
Polarity selection + or – (CH2 only)
Horizontal deflection
Display mode 1,10,X-Y
Time base 0.2µs/div to 0.2s/div,9 ranges
Sweep magnification ×10
CH1ALTMagnificatio
n ×10
Accuracy ±3%
Trigger mode NORM,AUTO,TV-V,TV-H

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Trigger source CH1,CH2,VERT,LINE,EXT
Sensitivity and 20Hz~60MHz 20Hz-60MHz
Frequency AUTO, NORM 1.5div(INT),0.8Vp-p
TV-V,TV-H At least 1div or 1Vp-p
Input impedance 1Mhz
X-Y Phase difference ≤30, DC-50KHz
Calibration waveform Frequency:1KHz±20%,Voltage:0.5±10%
Power supply 220V/110V ±10%,50/60Hz
Dimensions 310(W)×130(H)×370(D)mm
Weight 9Kg
Detailed note in to index

Digital Multimeter

The Ohmmeter: The ohmmeter is a device that when connected across a circuit element,
can measure the resistance of the element. One important rule needs to be remembered:
The resistance of an element can be measured only when the element is disconnected
from any other circuit.

The Ammeter: The ammeter is a device that when connected in series with a circuit
element, can measure the current flowing through the element. From two requirements
are evident for obtaining a correct measurement of current: consider the number of
electrons passing by a point in a circuit every second with a steady electric current of 1
amp:

1 amp = 6,250,000,000,000,000,000 electrons per second. 1 amp = 6.25 x 10 18 electrons

per second.

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1. The ammeter must be placed in series with the element whose current is to be
measured.

2. The ammeter should not restrict the flow of current (i.e., cause a voltage drop), or else
it will not be measuring the true current flowing in the circuit. An ideal ammeter has zero
internal resistance

The Voltmeter: The voltmeter is a device that can measure the voltage across a circuit
element. Since voltage is the difference in potential between two points in a circuit, the
voltmeter needs to be connected across the element whose voltage we wish to measure. A
voltmeter must also fulfill two requirements:

1. The voltmeter must be placed in parallel with the element whose voltage it is
measuring.

2. The voltmeter should draw no current away from the element whose voltage it is
measuring, or else it will not be measuring the true voltage across that element. Thus, an
ideal voltmeter has infinite internal resistance

Multimeter frontal panel

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Fig:1. 9 three type Multimeter

1. digital reading
2. Light continuity.
3. Off multimeter position
4. Ohmmeter range 0_200Ω,
2kΩ,20kΩ,200kΩ,2MΩ&amp; 20MΩ.
5. . Move arrow switch to select position.
6. Continuity &amp; diode test point.
7. Farad meter range 200µ, 2µ, 200n&amp;20n F
8. Dc current range 2m, 20m, 200m&amp;20A
9. Jack Hole to connect 20Ammeter.
10. Jack hole to connect milli ammeter &
capacitor
11. Jack Hole connect common (ground)
&ampere;
12. Jack Hole to connect ohm, voltage, diode &
continuity.
13. ac current range 20m, 200m&amp;20A
14. Ac voltage range 2, 20, 200&amp;750v
15. Dc voltage range 0-200m, 2, 20,200&amp;
1000v.

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16. HFE test.
17. NPN transistor test.
18. PNP transistor test.
19. Multi meter.

Breadboard

The breadboard connection practice fives pins (a, b, c, d, e) has continuity and indicate of
number 1_60 has not continuity means open. Anyone, check use multimeter test
continuity in the breadboard, if either has a sound is continuity or hasn’t sound is open
(non continuity)

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Fig:1. 11 Breadboard

Semiconductor

Semiconductor Diodes: are two terminal, single PN junction devices, made from a
semiconductor that has been doped in such a way that it changes from P back to N or
from N back to P.A typical diagram is shown in the figure below.

Voltage
Source

N P
Type Type

Fig:1. 12 Function Diode

It conducts only in one direction (only on forward biasing). Diodes, unlike resistors and
other circuit components, are unilateral devices---the amount of current that flows across
their terminals depends on the polarity and size of voltage applied. When a diode is
connected so as to conduct, it is said to be forward biased otherwise reverse biased.

A diode is a nonlinear circuit element. The symbol of a diode and a real commercial
diode is shown in Fig. Generally there is a band marked at its cathode for its
identification. There exists another type of diode known as zener diode, which has a
heavily doped PN junction.

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D1

1N4007
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Fig:1. 13 symbol Diode

The theoretical equation for the diode current ID ,

Where VD is used the diode voltage drop, IS is the saturation current, n is the emission
coefficient, and VT = kT/q, k=1.38*10^-23 J/K, at T=300K, q =1.602*10^-19C, (VT ≈
0.026V is the thermal voltage). The emission coefficient accounts for recombination of
electrons and holes in the depletion region, which tend to decrease the current. For
discrete diodes, it has the value n is 2.
Under forward biased condition: of a real PN junction diode, the P-side is connected to
the positive and N-side is connected to the negative terminal of the power supply. This
reduces the potential barrier. As a result current flows from P to N-type in forward
direction. When the applied voltage is more than the barrier potential, the resistance is
small (ideally 0) and the current increases rapidly. This point is called the Knee-point or
turn-on voltage or threshold voltage. This voltage is about 0.3 volts for Ge diodes and 0.7
volts for Si diodes.

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Under reverse biased condition: the P-side of the junction diode is connected to the
negative and N-side is connected to the positive terminal of the power supply. This
increases the potential barrier due to which no current should flow ideally. But in
practice, the minority carriers can travel down the potential barrier to give very small
current. This is called as the reverse saturation current. This current is about 2-20 μA for
Ge diodes and (2-20) nA for Si diodes (the values might differ for diodes of different
makes). However, if the reverse bias is made too high, the current through the PN
junction increases abruptly. When the reverse bias exceeds this breakdown voltage, a
conventional diode is subject to high current. Unless this current is limited by external
circuitry, the diode will be permanently damaged. If the junction is heavily doped with
narrow depletion layers, break-down occurs when the reverse voltage is strong enough to
rupture the covalent bonds generating large number of electron-hole pairs. This
phenomenon is called zener breakdown.

Fig:1. 14 (a) Fig:1. 15 (b)

Zener diode: It is a reverse biased heavily doped PN junction diode generally operated in
zener breakdown region. Zener voltage is the reverse voltage above which there is a
controlled KNEE VOLTAGE breakdown which does not damage the diode. The voltage
drop across the diode remains constant at zener voltage no matter how high the reverse

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bias voltage is. The forward characteristic of a zener diode is similar to a normal diode.
The symbol of a zener diode is shown in Figure 3.

Fig:1. 16 symbol Zener diode

Static and Dynamic Resistance:

At a given operating point, the static and dynamic resistance of a diode can be
determined from its characteristics as shown in Fig. 4. The static or dc resistance, RD, of
the diode at the operating point (the point where the load line intersects the diode
characteristics), Q, is simply the quotient of the corresponding levels of VD and ID. The
dc resistance levels at the knee and below will be greater than the resistance levels
obtained for the vertical rise section of the characteristics.

Fig:1. 17 diode characteristics

RD = VD/ID
The diode circuits generally operate with varying inputs, which will move the
instantaneous operating point up and down a region of the characteristics and defines a

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specific change in current and voltage. Dynamic or ac Resistance, rd, is defined as the
quotient of this change in voltage and change in current around the dc operating point.
rd = ∆VD/ ∆ID

Table 1. 3 Type of diode

NO Name Symbol diode Figures Function of diode

. Diode diode
1 PN Used as rectifier for
Junction converting ac to dc.
2 zener Used as constant voltage
sources

3 Light Emit light when it is forward

emitted biased
4 Constant Acts regulating the voltage as

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current current limiter to achieve high
output impedance
5 Schottky

Used for high current

6 Shockley switching referred to as
trigger voltage
7 Step tends to generate pulses
recovery
8 tunnel Used in oscillators &
microwave amplifier
varactor Act are variable capacitor in
9 reverse bias
10 PIN Act capacitor in revers &
variable resistor in forward
11 photo Allows revers current when
light falls on it
12 Laser Used in CD players

bar code scanners

13 Transient In telecommunication fields,
voltage medical, microprocessors and
signal processing

suppresse

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d
14 avalanche RF Noise Generation,

Microwave Frequency
Generation ,Single Photon
avalanche detector

15 vacuum acts like a switch

16 Gunn Used during radio

communications.

Cathode Ray Tube /Oscilloscope(CRT/O)

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Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) Controls:

(1) INTEN Controls the brightness of the trace.

(2) FOCUS Allows for focusing of the trace to the sharpest image.

(3) TRACE ROTATION Potentiometer for aligning the horizontal trace in parallel with the grid lines. (4) CRT
SCREEN For viewing waveform.

Vertical Axis Controls:

(5) CH 1 Vertical input terminal for Channel 1. When in X-Y operation, X-axis input terminal.

(6) AC-DC-GND Selects connection mode between Channel 1 input signal and vertical amplifier.

(7) VOLTS/DIV Selects the Channel 1 vertical axis sensitivity from 1mV/DIV to 5V/DIV in 12 ranges. (8)
VARIABLE Fine adjustment of Channel 1 vertical axis sensitivity. When in CAL position, sensitivity is
calibrated to the indicated value.

(9) POSITION Vertical position control of Channel 1 trace.

(10) CH 2 Vertical input terminal for Channel 2. When in X-Y operation, Y-axis input terminal.

(11) AC-DC-GND Selects connection mode between Channel 2 input signal and vertical amplifier.

(12) VOLTS/DIV Selects the Channel 2 vertical axis sensitivity from 1mV/DIV to 5V/DIV in 12 ranges (13)
VARIABLE Fine adjustment of Channel 2 vertical axis sensitivity. When in CAL position, sensitivity is
calibrated to the indicated value.

(14) POSITION Vertical position control of Channel 2 trace.

(15) MODE Selects operation of CH 1 and CH2 CH 1 CH 2 DUAL ADD The oscilloscope operates as a single-
channel instrument using CH 1. The oscilloscope operates as a single-channel instrument using CH 2. The
oscilloscope operates as a dual-channel instrument using both CH 1 and CH 2. CHOP/ALT are automatically
changed by the TIME/DIV setting. The oscilloscope displays the algebraic sum of the two signals.

(16) CHOP Allows for the two traces to be displayed in the CHOP mode at all ranges.

(17) CH 2 INV The oscilloscope displays the algebraic difference of the two signals when in ADD mode.

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Horizontal Axis Controls:

(18) TIME/DIV Selects the rate at which the waveform is displayed across the CRT screen (sweep speed).

(19) SWP. UNCAL When pushed in, the sweep time can be made slower using the SWP.VAR control (20) by a
factor of ≥2.5 of the indicated value. When not pushed in, the indicated values are calibrated.

(20) SWP. VAR Vernier control of sweep time. Allows horizontal time scale to be set in between the discrete
TIME/DIV settings. The indicated values are calibrated when the SWP. UNCAL (19) button is not pushed in.

(21) POSITION Horizontal positioning control of the trace.

(22) X 10 MAG When button is pushed in, a magnification of 10 occurs on the horizontal scale.

(23) X-Y X-Y operation is enabled when pressed. When in X-Y mode, time is no longer measured on the X axis.
The X axis represents the CH 1 input and the Y axis represents the CH 2 input.

Trigger Controls:

(24) EXT TRIG Input terminal is used in common for external triggering a signal. To use this terminal, set
SOURCE switch (25) to the EXT position. On this setting, a better-conditioned signal can be used to trigger the
scope while observing a relatively weak signal.

(25) SOURCE Selects the internal triggering source signal. CH1 (X-Y) When the VERT MODE switch (15) is set
to DUAL or ADD, selects CH 1 for the internal triggering source signal. When in X-Y mode, select CH 1 for the
X-axis signal. CH 2 When the VERT MODE switch (15) is set to DUAL or ADD, selects CH 2 for the internal
triggering source signal. LINE Selects the AC power line frequency signal as the triggering signal. EXT The
external signal applied through EXT TRIG input terminal (24) is used for the external triggering source signal.
When in the X-Y mode, the X-axis operates with the external sweep signal.

(26) TRIG. ALT When the VERT MODE switch (15) is set to DUAL or ADD, and the SOURCE switch (25) is
selected at CH 1 or CH 2, with the engagement of the TRIG. ALT switch (26), CH1 and CH 2 will be alternately
selected for the internal triggering source signal.

(27) COUPLING Selects the coupling of the triggering signal to the trigger circuit in accordance with the
characteristics of the measured signal. AC This coupling is for AC triggering which is used most commonly. As
the triggering signal is applied to the trigger circuit through an AC coupling circuit, stable triggering can be
attained without being affected by the DC component of the input signal. The low-range cutoff is 10-Hz. HF REJ
(High frequency rejection) The triggering signal is fed to the trigger circuit through an AC coupling circuit and a
low pass filter (approx. 50- kHz). The higher frequencies are rejected and only the lower frequencies are applied
to the trigger circuit. (Useful for noise reduction) TV Useful for observation of TV video signals. The triggering
signal is AC coupled and fed through the triggering circuit to the TV sync separator circuit. The separator circuit
picks off the sync signal, which is used to trigger the sweep. Thus the video signal can be displayed stably. Being
linked to the TIME/DIV switch, the sweep speed is switched for TV-V and TV-H as follows: TV-V: 0.5s – 0.1ms
TV-H: 50µs – 0.1µs DC The triggering signal is DC-coupled to the trigger circuit. This mode is used when

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INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Department Of Electrical And Computer Engineering
triggering is desired with the DC component of the triggering signal or when a signal with very low frequency or
a signal with a large duty cycle ratio is needed to be displayed.

(28) SLOPE Selects the polarity of the triggering signal. + Triggering occurs as the triggering signal crosses the
triggering level in a positive-going direction. – Triggering occurs as the triggering signal crosses the triggering
level in a negative-going direction. 8 Others:

(29) LEVEL Displays a stationary waveform and sets a start point for the waveform. The trigger level changes in
the positive direction when the control knob is turned clockwise, and it changes in the negative direction as the
knob is turned counter-clockwise.

(30) LOCK When the LEVEL LOCK switch is engaged, the triggering level is automatically maintained within
the amplitude of the triggering signal, and stable triggering is made without requiring level adjustment (although
jitter may not be suppressed when in the ALT mode).

(31) HOLD OFF Used when the signal waveform is complex and stable triggering cannot be attained with the
LEVEL knob alone.

(32) TRIGGER MODE Selects the desired trigger mode. AUTO When no triggering signal is applied or when
triggering signal is less than 50-Hz, sweep runs in the free run mode. NORM When no triggering signal is
applied, sweep is in a steady state and the trace is blanked out. Used primarily for observation of a signal ≤ 50-Hz.

Others:

(33) POWER Main power switch of the instrument. When this switch is turned on, the LED (34) is also turned
on.

(34) POWER LED indicating oscilloscope power is turned on.

(35) GND Ground terminal of oscilloscope main frame.

(36) CAL This terminal delivers the calibration voltage of 2-VP-P, 1-kHz, positive square wave. The output is
2kΩ.

Basic Operation Before applying power to the oscilloscope, ensure the instrument switch settings
and controls are set to the default settings according to the table below.

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After the switches and controls are set to the default settings, connect the power cord to the AC line
outlet and continue as follows.

1. Engage the POWER switch (33) and make sure the power LED (34) is turned on. A trace should
appear on the CRT screen (4) in about 20 seconds. If no trace appears after one minute, double check
the switch and control settings.
2. Adjust the trace with the appropriate brightness and sharpness with the INTEN (1) and FOCUS (2)
controls. NOTE: Set the intensity only bright enough to legibly see a trace. Setting the trace intensity
too high for a long period of time could cause permanent damage to the CRT screen.
3. Align the trace with the horizontal center line of the grid by adjusting the CH 1 POSITION (9)
control and TRACE ROTATION (3) control (adjustable by screwdriver).
4. Align the begining of the trace with the left-most vertical grid line on the CRT screen by adjusting
the HORIZ. POSITION (21) control.
5. Connect a probe to the CH 1 INPUT terminal (5). Make sure the slide switch on the probe is set to
the “X1” position.
6. Connect the probe tip to the CAL (36) terminal.
7. Set the CH 1 AC-DC-GND (6) switch to AC and release the GND. A square waveform similar to the
one shown in Figure P-6 should now be displayed on the
CRT screen (The vertical lines of a square wave may be
invisible on your screen but you should still be able to view
the peaks and valleys of the waveform). Since the CH 1
VOLTS/DIV (7) is set to 0.5 V/DIV, we can determine the
peak to peak voltage of the waveform. Each vertical grid
square or division represents 0.5 V. Since the peak to peak
waveform is approximately 4 divisions from top to bottom
our peak to peak voltage is 2 volts (0.5-V x 4 divisions = 2-
VP-P).
8. Now change the CH 1 VOLTS/DIV (7) setting to 0.1 V/DIV, and set the switch on the Channel 1
probe to X10. You should now be viewing a square wave that is approximately 2 vertical grid
squares (divisions) high. By turning on the probe’s X10 switch, a multiplier of 10 is introduced into
the waveform’s vertical calculation. The peak to peak voltage of the waveform can then be found by
taking the CH 1 VOLTS/DIV setting times a multiplier of 10, times the number of divisions of the
waveform (0.1 x 10 x 2 = 2-VP-P). The X10 setting on the probe is mainly used for increasing the
number of voltage ranges the oscilloscope is capable of measuring, therefore making it a more

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versatile instrument. It also allows for viewing waveforms with higher voltage and amplitude that
may otherwise be very difficult to observe.
9. The next step will be to determine the frequency of the waveform. Frequency is equal to the
reciprocal of the period, or the length of time needed to complete
one waveform cycle. With the TIME/DIV (18) set to 0.5-mS/DIV,
the waveform cycle is approximately 2 h orizontal divisions in
length. The period can then be found by taking the TIME/DIV
setting times the number of divisions for one cycle (0.5-mS x 2 = 1-
mS). The reciprocal of the 1-mS period will then be the frequency
of the waveform (1/.001-S = 1000-Hz).
10. Now change the TIME/DIV (18) setting from 0.5-mS/DIV to 0.1- mS/DIV. By changing the time
base to a shorter length of time for each division, the waveform, in a sense will appear “stretched
out”. This allows for a more accurate frequency measurement. Each division is separated by 5
smaller divisions indicated as graticule marks on the middle vertical and horizontal grid lines. Each
of these marks represents 0.2 of a whole division. For example, if one complete cycle of the
waveform being measured is just short of 10 divisions by an amount of one graticule mark, then you
would use the value of 9.8 {(9.8 divisions) x (0.1-ms/DIV) = 0.98-mS period}. The reciprocal of the
0.98-mS period would then be 1020-Hz. A more accurate reading of the same input waveform from
step 9. NOTE: For precision and ease of measuring it is common practice to move and align the
waveform with the vertical and horizontal graticule marks on the CRT screen. This is done by
turning the VERT POSITION (9), (14) and the HORIZ POSITION (21) controls. Just as the vertical
scale has an X10 setting directly on the probes, the horizontal scale has the X10 MAG (22) switch
that can be used the same way to magnify the amount of time per division by 10 times. Although
usually not used as often as the vertical magnifier, the X10 MAG can be used to examine waveforms
with extremely low frequencies.
11. Set the TIME/DIV (18) back to 0.5-mS/DIV.
12. Set the VERT MODE (15) switch to CH2 and align the trace with the horizontal center line of the
grid by adjusting the CH2 POSITION (14) control.
13. Connect a second probe to the CH2 INPUT terminal (10).
14. Connect the probe tip to the CAL (36) terminal so both CH1 and CH2 probes are connected.
15. Set the CH2 VOLTS/DIV (12) control to 0.1 V/DIV and select X10 on the CH 2 probe.
16. 16. Set the CH2 AC-DC-GND (11) switch to AC and release the GND. You should now see the
same square wave signal as before, the only difference being the input is now on CH2 instead of
CH1.
17. Set the VERT MODE (15) switch to DUAL. You should now be able to see the waveforms of both
CH1 and CH2 as shown in Figure P-8. You are able to move the waveform of each channel by using
the corresponding CH1 or CH2 VERT POSITION (9), (14) controls. The DUAL channel mode is
very useful for comparing two different waveforms and to observe such characteristics as phase,
voltage, and frequency relationships between the two waveforms. Obviously in order for an accurate
voltage or amplitude reading, both CH1 and CH2 must be set to the same VOLTS/DIV.
18. Set the VERT MODE (15) switch to ADD. The ADD mode displays the sum of CH1 and CH2 input
signals. As you can see the sum of the two 2-VP-P signals is now displayed as a 4-VP-P square

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wave. When using the ADD mode, it is important that both CH1 and CH2 be set to the same
VOLTS/DIV. The ADD mode is mostly used in conjunction with the CH2 INV (17) switch. The
CH2 INV switch inverts the polarity of the CH2 input only. This allows subtractions to be used
(CH1 minus CH2) and ungrounded voltage drops in a circuit to be determined. For example, in most
cases the oscilloscope’s ground is connected to the signal generator’s ground through the wiring of
the power cables and the building’s receptacle plugs. This restricts the oscilloscope to test only
across grounded components.

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