Classification of Moulding Sand (by Composition):

1. Natural Sand (Green sand)

 Definition: Sand that is directly obtained from natural sources like
riverbeds, without any additional processing.
 Properties: Contains appreciable amount of clay and moisture along with
a mixture of silica sand and other impurities.
 Uses: Widely used for making moulds in ferrous and non-ferrous casting
operations, especially for medium to large parts.
2. Synthetic Sand
 Definition: Sand that is artificially prepared by mixing relatively clay free
sand (usually silica) with binders and additives.
 Properties: Consistent quality with controlled composition, providing
better mould strength, permeability, and collapsibility.
 Uses: Used for producing high-quality, complex, or larger castings.
3. Special Sands
 Definition: Sands specifically engineered for special casting applications.
It contains mixture of inorganic compounds therefore their costs are
high. They provide better thermal stability, better cast surface, etc.
 Examples: Chromite sand, Zircon sand, Olivine sand, etc

Classification of Moulding Sand (by Use):

1. Green Sand
 Composition: Sand in its moist or natural state (green state). Green sand
is a mixture of mostly silica sand 70-80 %, 18-30 % clay, 6-8 %water, and
other additives.
 Properties: It is moist, plastic, and reusable after conditioning. Molten
metal is directly poured in green sand mould without heating.
 Commonly used for simple, small and medium sized casting due to its
ease of preparation and cost-effectiveness.

2. Dry Sand
 Composition: Similar to green sand (silica sand, clay, and water), but is
dried or baked in suitable oven to remove moisture.
 Properties: Stronger, more rigid and more thermal stability than green
sand. Used for large and heavy casting.
3. Loam Sand
 Composition: A mixture of roughly 50% clay and 50% sand, with water
added to increase plasticity.
 Properties: Highly plastic, suitable for hand-forming large and complex
moulds. It is used for loam moulding of large grey iron castings.
4. Facing Sand
 Composition: A fine-grained mixture of silica sand with binders (like clay
or coal dust) to improve surface finish. It is fresh sand without the
addition of used sand.
 Properties: It possesses high refractoriness and high strength. Used in a
thin layer to form the mould surface that comes in direct contact with
the molten metal. Provides a smooth finish and prevents metal
penetration.
5. Backing Sand
 Composition: Coarser sand, often reused green sand after several cycles.
 Properties: Black in colour due to addition of coal dust and burning.
Used to fill the mould behind the facing sand. Supports the mould but
does not directly contact the molten metal.
6. System Sand (not mentioned in ppt so skip)
 Composition: Clean silica sand with uniform grain size, mixed with
binders and sometimes additives.
  Properties: Used throughout the entire moulding system, especially in
automated moulding systems for high-volume production. Consistent in
composition and performance.
7. Parting Sand
 Composition: It is clay free sand, and consists of dried silica, sea sand
and burnt sand.
 Properties: Applied to surfaces of patterns, mould parts and to the
parting surface of cope and drag to prevent sticking, ensuring easy
separation.
8. Core Sand (Oil sand)
 Composition: Silica sand mixed with binders like linseed oil or any other
oils.
 Properties: Strong and heat-resistant, used for making cores that form
internal cavities in castings. Hence is also called core sand. Easily
collapsible after casting.

The main constituents of moulding sand include:

1. Silica Sand (SiO₂)
 Purpose: The primary component, responsible for the bulk of the mould
structure.
 Properties: Provides strength, refractoriness, and forms the basic mould
framework.
 Proportion: Typically makes up 70-90% of the moulding sand mixture.
 Importance: Silica sand has high melting point and is ideal for
withstanding the high temperatures of molten metal during casting.
2. Binders
 Purpose: Bind the sand particles together, providing cohesiveness and
mould stability.
  Types:
o Clay (Bentonite): The most common binder (6-11%), which
develops bonding properties when mixed with water.
o Organic Binders: Like dextrin or cereal binders, used to improve
mould strength.
o Chemical Binders: Resins and sodium silicate used in synthetic
sands for improved strength and precision.
 Importance: Bind the sand particles together to maintain the mould's
shape during casting and improve its strength.
3. Additives
 Purpose: Enhance specific properties of the mould, such as surface
finish, strength, or collapsibility.
 Examples:
o Coal Dust: Prevents metal penetration and improves surface finish.
o Wood Flour: Increases collapsibility, making it easier to break
down the mould after casting.
o Silicon Carbide: Added for improved heat resistance.
 Importance: Additives modify specific properties of the sand to improve
the quality and ease of the casting process.
4. Water
 Purpose: Helps activate the binder (especially clay) to create plasticity
and bonding strength.
 Proportion: Typically, 3-6% in green sand mixtures.
 Importance: Water enables the sand to form cohesive and pliable
moulds, but its content must be carefully controlled to prevent defects
like gas porosity defect.
Tools used in moulding process

 Shovel: Used for mixing and transferring moulding sand to the moulding
box or flask.

 Riddle: A sieve-like tool used to filter out impurities and large particles
from the sand, ensuring a fine and uniform texture for better mould
surface finish.

 Rammer: A tool used for packing and compacting the sand tightly
around the pattern, providing strength and stability to the mould.

 Trowel: Used for smoothing and finishing the mould surface after the
sand is rammed, ensuring clean mould cavities for casting.
 Sprue Pin: A cylindrical pin used to create the sprue, a vertical passage
through which molten metal is poured into the mould cavity.

 Vent Rod: A thin rod used to create small holes or vents in the mould,
allowing gases and steam to escape during the casting process to avoid
defects.

 Draw Spikes: Tools inserted into the pattern to carefully lift and remove
it from the compacted sand without damaging the mould cavity.

 Moulding Boxes (Flasks): These are the frames or boxes that contain the
moulding sand and pattern, holding the sand in place during the
moulding process to maintain the structure of the mould.
 Core

A core is a specially prepared sand insert used in casting processes to create

internal cavities, holes, or hollow sections within the final casting. It is placed
inside the mould before the molten metal is poured, and once the metal
solidifies around it, the core is broken down and removed, leaving the desired
hollow space in the casting. Cores are usually made from sand mixed with
binders and are formed using core boxes that shape the core to fit the mould
cavity.

Main Characteristics of a Good Core:

1. Strength: The core must be strong enough to withstand the pressure and
heat of the molten metal without breaking or deforming.
2. Refractoriness: It should be able to resist high temperatures without
melting or degrading, especially in the case of casting metals with high
melting points.
3. Collapsibility: After the metal solidifies, the core must collapse easily to
allow for its removal without damaging the casting or leaving any residue
inside the hollow sections.
4. Permeability: The core must allow gases to escape, preventing gas-
related defects like porosity or blowholes in the casting.
5. Smooth Surface Finish: The core should have a smooth surface to ensure
the internal cavities of the casting are smooth and free from
imperfections.
6. Dimensional Accuracy: The core must be made with precision to ensure
that the cavities or internal features in the casting are of the correct
dimensions.
7. Low Expansion: A good core should have a low thermal expansion to
avoid cracking or causing defects in the casting when exposed to high
temperatures.
Steps in core making:
1. Core Sand Preparation
 In this step, sand is mixed with appropriate binders (such as clay, resin,
or sodium silicate) and additives to create core sand. The type of binder
used depends on the specific casting requirements and metal to be cast.
 The sand mixture must have the right consistency, strength, and
properties to form the core, including good collapsibility, refractoriness,
and permeability.
2. Core Making
 The prepared core sand is placed into core boxes, which are molds
designed to shape the core to the required dimensions and design. The
sand is packed tightly into the core box using hand tools or mechanical
means to ensure that the core retains its shape.
 Depending on the process, this step can involve hand-ramming or
machine-aided methods like shooting or blowing the sand into the core
box.
3. Core Baking (or Curing)
 After forming, the core is either baked in an oven or chemically cured
(depending on the type of binder used) to harden it and give it the
necessary strength for handling and use in casting.
 The baking or curing process also helps to remove any moisture and
ensure the core can withstand the high temperatures of molten metal.
Elements of gating system

1. Pouring Basin:
o This is the topmost part of the gating system where molten metal
is initially poured. It temporarily holds the molten metal before it
enters the sprue. The pouring basin helps control the flow rate and
minimize turbulence, preventing air entrapment. Using a skimmer
can stop the slag flowing with the molten metal.
2. Sprue:
o A vertical conical passage that connects the pouring basin to the
sprue base well or runner. The sprue controls the downward flow
of molten metal and ensures a steady flow to prevent turbulence
and entrainment of air. The wider top allows for faster filling, while
the narrowing bottom reduces the velocity, minimizing turbulence
and air aspiration.
3. Sprue Base Well:
o Located at the bottom of the sprue, this well slows down the
molten metal's speed before it enters the runner. It reduces
turbulence and helps prevent erosion of the mould.
4. Runner:
o A horizontal channel that carries the molten metal from the sprue
base well to the gates. The runner ensures smooth flow and
distributes the molten metal to different parts of the mould cavity.
5. Runner Extension:
o A small extension at the end of the runner designed to trap
impurities, slag, or dross, preventing them from entering the
mould cavity. It acts as a dead-end where impurities settle and
helps improve casting quality.
6. Gates:
o Small openings or channels that connect the runner to the mould
cavity. Gates control the flow of molten metal into the mould
cavity, ensuring a steady and controlled rate of filling.
7. Riser:
o A reservoir connected to the mould cavity that stores excess
molten metal. At the beginning it allows the air, steam and gases
to escape from the mould. Its main function is to feed molten
metal to the casting during solidification to compensate for
shrinkage. This ensures the casting is free of voids or internal
shrinkage defects.
Types of Gates:

1. Top Gate:
 In this type, the molten metal enters the mould cavity from the top. It
fills the mould by falling directly onto the pattern, often causing
turbulence. This type of gate is used for thick and heavy castings.

Advantage: The hottest metal comes to rest at the top of the casting.
As a result, proper temperature gradients ensure directional
solidification.
Limitation: Increased risk of mould erosion, leading to poor surface
finish.
2. Bottom Gate:
 Here, the molten metal enters from the bottom of the mould cavity,
rising upwards to fill it. This minimizes turbulence and is used for
delicate castings, ensuring a smoother flow and reducing oxidation.

Advantage: Reduces turbulence and minimizes defects like oxidation

or gas entrapment and hence ideal for delicate and intricate casting.
Limitation: The metal loose its heat as it rises in the mould cavity. So,
the directional solidification is difficult to achieve.

3. Parting Gate:
 The molten metal enters at the parting line between the cope and
drag sections of the mould. This type of gate is common and allows
for relatively balanced filling, often used in medium-sized castings.
It is very simple to construct.
Directional solidification:
Directional solidification is a technique in metal casting where the solidification
of molten metal is controlled to occur in a specific direction, typically from one
end of the casting to the other. The goal is to ensure that solidification
progresses from the farthest point of the mould toward the riser, allowing
molten metal from the riser to compensate for shrinkage as the casting cools
and solidifies.

Stages of Volumetric Contraction

Volumetric contraction occurs during the cooling and solidification of molten
metal and can be broken down into three distinct stages:
1. Liquid Contraction:
 This occurs when the molten metal cools but is still in the liquid state.
As the temperature decreases, the metal shrinks slightly. However,
this is relatively small and mostly compensated by the continued flow
of molten metal from the gating system or riser. Minor volume
reduction occurs, and it doesn't typically cause defects.

2. Solidification Contraction:
 This happens during the transition from liquid to solid, as the metal
solidifies. Significant shrinkage occurs in this stage because the solid
phase occupies less volume than the liquid phase. This is the most
critical phase for shrinkage defects like cavities or porosity. If not
properly managed using risers or directional solidification, voids or
shrinkage defects can form in the casting.

3. Solid Contraction:
Once the metal has fully solidified, it continues to contract as it cools to
room temperature. This shrinkage affects the solid metal but is less severe
than the solidification stage. However, it can still cause warping or
dimensional inaccuracies if not accounted for in the design. Final
dimensional changes occur, which need to be accounted for in casting
design to ensure the part fits specifications.
Cupola Furnace Overview and Working
A cupola furnace is a vertical cylindrical furnace widely used for melting cast
iron, alloys, and scrap. It operates continuously and is one of the most
efficient and economical methods for melting ferrous metals in foundries.

Construction of Cupola Furnace:

Its construction is relatively simple but efficient for continuous melting
operations. Below are the major components of a cupola furnace:
1. Outer Shell:
o Made from steel plates, this cylindrical shell forms the outer body
of the furnace. It provides structural support and contains the
entire furnace setup.
2. Refractory Lining:
o The inside of the shell is lined with refractory material (firebrick or
refractory cement) to withstand the high temperatures generated
inside the furnace and to protect the steel shell from melting or
distortion.
3. Tuyeres:
o These are nozzles located near the bottom of the furnace through
which air is blown into the furnace. The air blast supports the
combustion of coke, increasing the temperature in the furnace to
melt the metal charge.
4. Charging Door:
o Located in the upper section of the furnace, this door is used for
charging the furnace with alternating layers of metal scrap, pig
iron, coke, and flux (typically limestone).
5. Slag Hole:
o Positioned slightly above the tap hole, this opening is used for
removing slag, which forms when impurities from the metal react
with the flux during melting.
6. Tap Hole:
o Located at the bottom of the furnace, the tap hole is used to drain
molten metal from the well of the furnace. It can be opened and
closed to control the flow of molten metal.
7. Spark Arrester:
o This is fitted at the top of the cupola to prevent sparks and dust
from escaping into the atmosphere, improving safety and reducing
emissions.
8. Foundation/Base:
o The cupola furnace is mounted on a strong foundation that
supports its weight and provides stability during operation.

Various Zones of a Cupola Furnace:

The cupola furnace operates in distinct zones, each characterized by

different chemical reactions and temperature gradients. From the bottom to
the top, these zones ensure efficient melting, gas reduction, and preheating
of materials.
1. Well Zone:
o This is the lowest section of the furnace where molten metal
accumulates after it has melted. It acts as a reservoir from which
the molten metal is tapped. The temperature here is about
1500°C.
2. Combustion Zone:
o Just above the well, this zone is where the coke (carbon) burns in
the presence of the air blast (supplied through the tuyeres). This
reaction releases a large amount of heat, which is essential for
melting the metal.
 Reaction: C(coke)+O2(air)→CO2 (carbon dioxide) + Heat
Si + O2 → SiO2 + Heat
2Mn + O2 → 2MnO + Heat
 These reactions generate temperatures of up to 1800°C,
which is enough to melt the metal charge as it descends
through the furnace.
3. Melt Zone:
o In this zone, the intense heat from the combustion zone melts the
metal as it descends. The molten metal flows downwards into the
well. The temperature here is also around 1400-1500°C. This is
where flux (limestone) reacts with impurities.
 Reaction: CaCO3(limestone)→CaO (calcium oxide) +CO2.
Calcium oxide acts as a flux that combines with impurities to
form slag, which is removed through the slag hole.
4. Reduction Zone:
o Located below the melt zone, the reduction zone plays a critical
role in improving the quality of the molten metal. As the molten
metal drips through this region, the hot gases (CO₂) react with
unburnt carbon (coke), producing carbon monoxide, which in turn
helps to reduce any iron oxide (FeO) present in the metal.
 Reaction: CO2+C→2CO
FeO+CO→Fe(iron)+CO2
 This reaction reduces iron oxides and improves the quality
of the molten metal.
5. Preheating Zone:
o The topmost section of the furnace is the preheating zone, where
the metal charge is preheated as it descends toward the lower
zones. The rising hot gases (CO and CO₂) from the combustion
zone heat the incoming metal and flux. This reduces the energy
needed to melt the metal and improves furnace efficiency.

Working of the Cupola Furnace:

1. Charging the Furnace:

o The furnace is charged through the charging door with alternate
layers of coke, metal charge (scrap iron, pig iron), and flux
(limestone). Each layer is carefully added in specific proportions to
ensure efficient melting.
2. Air Blast:
o An air blast is provided through the tuyeres near the bottom of
the furnace. This air initiates and supports the combustion of coke,
generating the heat required to melt the metal.
3. Combustion and Melting:
o As coke burns in the combustion zone, the temperature rises to
about 1800°C. The heat melts the metal as it passes through the
melt zone, and the molten metal collects in the well zone at the
bottom.
o Impurities in the molten metal react with the flux, forming slag,
which floats on top of the molten metal and is removed through
the slag hole.
4. Reduction Reaction:
o In the reduction zone, the hot gases produced in the combustion
zone react with any remaining carbon to produce CO (carbon
monoxide). This carbon monoxide helps reduce iron oxides
present in the metal, purifying the molten iron.
5. Tapping:
o Once the molten metal collects in the well, it is periodically tapped
through the tap hole and directed into ladles or moulds for
casting. The process can continue continuously by charging the
furnace and removing slag as needed.
6. Slag Removal:
o As the flux reacts with impurities, slag is formed and accumulates
in the furnace. It is removed through the slag hole periodically to
prevent it from mixing with the molten metal.

Advantages of Cupola Furnace:

1. Economical Operation: It uses inexpensive fuel (coke) and is cost-
effective for melting large quantities of metal.
2. Continuous Production: The furnace can run continuously, allowing for
large-scale melting and tapping of molten metal.
3. Simple Construction: Easy to operate and maintain, making it ideal for
foundries.
4. High Efficiency: Preheating of the charge reduces fuel consumption and
improves efficiency.
Disadvantages of Cupola Furnace:
1. Environmental Pollution: It emits large amounts of CO₂ and other
harmful gases.
2. Limited to Ferrous Metals: Primarily used for melting cast iron and other
ferrous metals; not suitable for non-ferrous metals.
3. Lower Metal Quality: Compared to electric furnaces, the molten metal
may have impurities and lower control over composition.
4. Slag Formation: Continuous slag removal is necessary to prevent it from
contaminating the molten metal, which can be labour-intensive.
Shell Casting (Shell Moulding)
Shell casting, also known as shell moulding, is a precision casting process
that uses a thin-walled shell made of sand and resin as the mould. It’s a
variation of sand casting but provides better dimensional accuracy and
surface finish. The process involves creating a mould from a heated pattern
covered with a sand-resin mixture, which hardens into a thin shell.

Working of Shell Casting:

1. Pattern Preparation:
o A metal pattern (typically made of steel or iron) is preheated to
around 175–370°C.
2. Shell Formation:
o The preheated pattern is coated with a mixture of sand and
thermosetting resin (often phenolic resin). The heat causes the
resin to melt and bond with the sand, forming a thin shell around
the pattern.
o Excess loose sand is shaken off, leaving behind a thin, hardened
shell on the surface of the pattern.
3. Curing:
o The shell is further heated (or left to cure) to strengthen and
harden it. Once the shell reaches the desired thickness, it is
removed from the pattern in two halves.
4. Assembly of Shell Mold:
o The two halves of the shell are then assembled and clamped
together. If necessary, cores may be placed inside to create
internal cavities in the casting.
5. Pouring of Molten Metal:
o The molten metal (such as iron, steel, aluminium, or copper alloys)
is poured into the shell mould through a pouring system. The thin
shell mould allows for rapid cooling and solidification of the
molten metal.
 6. Shell Removal:
o Once the metal has cooled and solidified, the shell mould is
broken away, revealing the final casting. The shell mould is thin
and easily collapsible, making it simple to remove.

Advantages of Shell Casting:

1. High Dimensional Accuracy
2. Smooth Surface Finish
3. Reduced machining
4. Economical for large scale production

Limitations of Shell Casting:

1. High Initial Cost (Metal patterns are expensive to make)
2. Limited mould size
Applications:
In automobile industries: Engine components, cylinder heads, brake
components
In aerospace industry: turbine blades, valve bodies, etc.
Pressure Die Casting:
Pressure die casting is a manufacturing process where molten metal is
injected into a mould cavity under high pressure. The metal solidifies
quickly, forming a precise and high-quality casting. This process is widely
used for producing large quantities of complex metal parts with excellent
dimensional accuracy and surface finish.
There are two main types of pressure die casting: Hot Chamber and Cold
Chamber.

1. Hot Chamber Die Casting:

Working:
 In the hot chamber die casting process, the metal is kept in a molten
state inside a reservoir, which is part of the casting machine.
 A plunger or piston is submerged in the molten metal, and when
actuated, it forces the molten metal into a die cavity through a
gooseneck and a nozzle.
 The molten metal solidifies rapidly in the die cavity, and the mould is
then opened, and the casting is ejected.
 After the casting is removed, the cycle repeats.
Advantages:
1. Faster production cycles: The metal is kept in the molten state, resulting
in quicker injections and faster cycle times.
2. Good for low melting point alloys: Suitable for metals like zinc,
magnesium, and lead that have lower melting points.
3. Automation-friendly: The process can be easily automated, reducing
labour costs.
Limitations:
1. Limited to low-melting metals: High-melting metals (like aluminum)
can’t be used because the molten metal would damage the machine
parts.
 2. Corrosion issues: Some metals can corrode machine parts, which limits
material selection.

2. Cold Chamber Die Casting:

Working:
 In the cold chamber die casting process, the molten metal is melted in a
separate furnace and then transferred into the casting machine's shot
chamber.
 A plunger forces the molten metal from the shot chamber into the die
cavity under high pressure.
 The metal solidifies quickly inside the die, and the casting is then
ejected. (ejector pin helps to aid the process)
 The shot chamber is filled again for the next casting cycle.
Advantages:
1. Suitable for high-melting point metals: Ideal for metals like aluminium,
brass, and copper that cannot be used in hot chamber casting.
2. Durable machine components: Since the molten metal is not in constant
contact with machine parts, it reduces wear and tear on components.
3. Good for large castings: Capable of producing larger and more intricate
components compared to hot chamber casting.
Limitations:
1. Slower production cycle: The separate molten metal transfer step
increases the cycle time.
2. Higher equipment cost: More complex machinery and separate furnaces
add to the cost.
Advantages and Limitations of Die Casting
1. Advantages:
 Economical for large production quantities
 Good dimensional accuracy and surface finish
 Thin sections are possible
 Rapid cooling provides small grain size and good strength to casting
2. Disadvantages:
 Generally limited to metals with low melting points
 Part geometry must allow removal from die cavity
 Every metal and alloy cannot be cast.
 Equipment is costly

Applications:
1. Used in producing automobile parts
2. Housing electrical devices

Centrifugal Casting:
Centrifugal casting is a process where molten metal is poured into a rotating
mould. The centrifugal force pushes the metal against the mould walls, creating
a dense, high-quality casting. This method is especially useful for producing
cylindrical or symmetrical parts.
Types of Centrifugal Casting:
1. True Centrifugal Casting:
The mould is spun on its axis, and molten metal is poured into it, forming
a hollow, cylindrical part like pipes, tubes, or rings. The mould is spun on
its axis, and molten metal is poured into it, forming a hollow, cylindrical
part like pipes, tubes, or rings. Used to make parts like pipes, bushings,
and cylinder liners.
2. Semi Centrifugal Casing:
The mould rotates similarly to true centrifugal casting, but it is used for
solid parts with symmetrical shapes, like wheels or pulleys. A core is
often used to shape the inner part of the casting. A core is often used to
shape the inner part of the casting.
3. Centrifuge Casting:
Used for smaller, non-symmetrical parts. The mould is placed at the
periphery of a spinning device, and centrifugal force pushes the metal
into the mould cavities. Typically used for casting multiple small parts in
one operation. Small parts like fittings, valves, or jewellery.

Types of Casting Defects:

Types of Casting Defects in Sand Casting:
1. Misrun:
o Description: Occurs when the molten metal solidifies before
completely filling the mould cavity, resulting in an incomplete
casting.
o Cause: Low pouring temperature, slow pouring, or inadequate
fluidity of the metal.
o Solution: Increase the pouring temperature or improve gating
design to enhance metal flow.
2. Cold Shut:
o Description: A defect where two streams of molten metal do not
fuse properly, leaving a seam or weak line in the casting.
o Cause: Low metal temperature, poor gating system, or interrupted
flow.
o Solution: Raise the metal pouring temperature or improve the
gating system for smoother metal flow.
3. Cold Shot:
o Description: Small, spherical metal droplets entrapped in the
casting, creating surface imperfections.
o Cause: High turbulence during pouring or splashing of molten
metal.
o Solution: Reduce turbulence by modifying the pouring technique
and improving gating design.
4. Shrinkage Cavity:
o Description: A cavity or void that forms as the metal solidifies and
contracts, often found in thicker sections of the casting.
o Cause: Insufficient metal to compensate for shrinkage during
cooling.
o Solution: Use risers and optimize cooling rates to supply
additional molten metal.
 5. Sand Blow:
o Description: A gas-filled cavity or blister formed near the surface
of the casting due to trapped gas or air.
o Cause: Poor mould permeability, improper venting, or high
moisture content in the sand.
o Solution: Improve mould permeability and ensure proper venting
and moisture control in the sand.
6. Pin Holes:
o Description: Tiny gas cavities that form just below the casting
surface, resulting in a porous appearance.
o Cause: Dissolved gases in the molten metal or excessive moisture
in the mould.
o Solution: Reduce moisture content in the sand and minimize gas
formation during pouring.
7. Penetration:
o Description: A defect where molten metal penetrates the sand
mould, creating a rough surface on the casting.
o Cause: High metal fluidity, poor mould compaction, or large grain
size in the sand.
o Solution: Improve mould compaction and use finer sand grains to
reduce metal penetration.
8. Mold Shift:
o Description: A misalignment of the mould halves, causing a step or
mismatch along the parting line of the casting.
o Cause: Improper clamping of the mould or movement during
pouring.
o Solution: Ensure proper clamping of the mould halves and avoid
movement during pouring.
Types of casting defects in any casting:
It includes above mentioned defects plus some extra
1. Blow Holes:
 Description: Small, rounded gas pockets or cavities found on or below
the surface of the casting.
 Cause: Entrapped gases due to inadequate mould permeability,
excessive moisture in the mould, or poor venting.
 Solution: Improve venting, reduce moisture content in the mould, and
ensure proper mould permeability.
2. Shrinkage Cavity:
 Description: Internal voids or cavities that form as the metal contracts
during solidification, typically found in thick sections of the casting.
 Cause: Insufficient molten metal to compensate for shrinkage, poor riser
design, or incorrect cooling rate.
 Solution: Use risers to supply extra molten metal, optimize cooling rates,
and ensure proper gating system design.
3. Hot Tears:
 Description: Irregular cracks that occur when the metal cools and
contracts but is constrained by the mould, resulting in tearing.
 Cause: High thermal stresses during solidification, poor mould design
that restricts metal contraction, or improper alloy composition.
 Solution: Modify mould design to allow for metal contraction, use
adequate chilling techniques, and optimize alloy composition to reduce
thermal stresses.