Welcome new Session

Computer Network

Sharad Singh
Assistant Professor
Computer Science & Engineering
UNIT-1:Data communication Components: Representation of data and its flow Networks, Various Connection
Topology, Protocols and Standards, OSI model, Transmission Media, LAN: Wired LAN, Wireless LANs,
Connecting LAN and Virtual LAN, Techniques for Bandwidth utilization: Multiplexing - Frequency division, Time
division and Wave division, Concepts on spread spectrum.

UNIT-2:Data Link Layer and Medium Access Sub Layer: Error Detection and Error Correction - Fundamentals,
Block coding, Hamming Distance, CRC; Flow Control and Error control protocols - Stop and Wait, Go back – N
ARQ, Selective Repeat ARQ, Sliding Window, Piggybacking, Random Access, Multiple access protocols- Pure
ALOHA, Slotted ALOHA, CSMA/CD, CDMA/CA, high level data link control (HDLC), Point To Point protocol
(PPP).
UNIT-3:Network Layer: Repeater, Hub, Switches, Bridges, Gateways, Switching, Logical addressing – IPV4,
IPV6, Address mapping – ARP, RARP, BOOTP and DHCP–Delivery, Forwarding and Unicast Routing protocols.

UNIT-4: Transport Layer: Process to Process Communication, User Datagram Protocol (UDP), Transmission
Control Protocol (TCP), SCTP Congestion Control; Quality of Service, QoS improving techniques: Leaky Bucket
and Token Bucket algorithm.

UNIT-5 :Application Layer: Domain Name Space (DNS), DDNS, TELNET, EMAIL, File Transfer FTP WWW,
HTTP, SNMP, Bluetooth, Firewalls, Basic concepts of Cryptography, Digital Signature.
Course Outcome:
Assessment Tool (s) to be used to
Mapping of Mapping of Module PO-Addressed by
CO# CO Description attain
BL to CO to CO CO
CO

Apply the functionality of Layered Architecture of Examination, Assignment

BL2
CO-01 computer networking & layers Protocols for gaining (Understand), BL3 Module 1 PO1, PO2
(Apply)
Engineering Knowledge
Apply error detection, correction techniques, and BL3 (Apply), Examination, Assignment
CO-02 BL4 (Analyze)
Module 2 PO1, PO3
multiple access protocols for reliable communication.
Examination, Assignment, Tutorial,
Analyze network layer functionalities, including
CO-03 BL4 (Analyze) Module 3 PO1, PO2, PO3 Quiz
addressing, routing, and switching.

Examination, Assignment, Tutorial,

Evaluate transport layer protocols, congestion control, BL4 (Analyze),
CO-4 BL5 (Evaluate)
Module 4 PO1, PO2, PO4 Quiz
and QoS techniques.

Explore application layer protocols, cryptography BL3 (Apply), BL4 Examination, Assignment, Tutorial,
CO-5 (Analyze)
Module 5 PO1, PO2, PO6
basics, and security mechanisms like firewalls. Quiz
Data Communication:

 When we communicate, we are sharing information. This sharing can be

local or remote.
 Between individuals, local communication usually occurs face to face, while
remote communication takes place over distance.

 The term telecommunication, which includes telephony, telegraphy, and

television, means communication at a distance (tele is Greek for "far").
Data Communication:

 The word data refers to information presented in whatever form is agreed

upon by the parties creating and using the data.
Data Communication:

 Data communications are the exchange of data between two devices via
some form of transmission medium such as a wire cable.

 For data communications to occur, the communicating devices must be part

of a communication system made up of a combination of hardware (physical
equipment) and software (programs).
Data Communication:

 The effectiveness of a data communications system depends on four

fundamental characteristics: delivery, accuracy, timeliness, and jitter.
Effectiveness of Communication :

 Delivery. The system must deliver data to the correct destination. Data must
be received by the intended device or user and only by that device or user.

 Accuracy. The system must deliver the data accurately. Data that have been
altered in transmission and left uncorrected are unusable.
Effectiveness of Communication :

Timeliness: The system must deliver data in a timely manner. Data delivered
late are useless. In the case of video and audio, timely delivery means delivering
data as they are produced, in the same order that they are produced, and without
significant delay.This kind of delivery is called real-time transmission
Effectiveness of Communication :

Jitter: Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time. It is the uneven
delay in the delivery of audio or video packets. For example, let us assume that
video packets are sent every 3D ms. If some of the packets arrive with 3D-ms
delay and others with 4D-ms delay, an uneven quality in the video is the result.
Data Communication Component :

.
Data Communication Component :

 Message: The message is the information (data) to be communicated. Popular

forms of information include text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video.

 Sender: The sender is the device that sends the data message. It can be a
computer, workstation, telephone handset, video camera, and so on.

 Receiver: The receiver is the device that receives the message. It can be a
computer, workstation, telephone handset, television, and so on.
Data Communication Component :

 Transmission medium: The transmission medium is the physical path by

which a message travels from sender to receiver. Some examples of
transmission media include twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable,
and radio waves.
Data Communication Component :

 Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It

represents an agreement between the communicating devices. Without a
protocol, two devices may be connected but not communicating, just as a
person speaking French cannot be understood by a person who speaks only
Japanese.
Data Representation :

 Information today comes in different forms such as text, numbers, images,

audio, and video.

 Text In data communications, text is represented as a bit pattern, a sequence

of bits (Os or Is). Different sets of bit patterns have been designed to
represent text symbols. Each set is called a code, and the process of
representing symbols is called coding.
Data Representation :

 Numbers: Numbers are also represented by bit patterns. However, a code

such as ASCII is not used to represent numbers; the number is directly
converted to a binary number to simplify mathematical operations.
Data Representation :

 Today, the prevalent coding system is called Unicode, which uses 32 bits to
represent a symbol or character used in any language in the world. The
American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII), developed
some decades ago in the United States, now constitutes the first 127
characters in Unicode and is also referred to as Basic Latin. Appendix A
includes part of the Unicode.
Data Representation :

Images: Images are also represented by bit patterns. In its simplest form, an
image is composed of a matrix of pixels (picture elements), where each pixel is
a small dot. The size of the pixel depends on the resolution. For example, an
image can be divided into 1000 pixels or 10,000 pixels. In the second case,
there is a better representation of the image (better resolution), but more
memory is needed to store the image
Data Representation :

Audio: Audio refers to the recording or broadcasting of sound or music. Audio

is by nature different from text, numbers, or images. It is continuous, not
discrete. Even when we use a microphone to change voice or music to an
electric signal, we create a continuous signal.
Data Representation :

Video: Video refers to the recording or broadcasting of a picture or movie.

Video can either be produced as a continuous entity (e.g., by a TV camera), or
it can be a combination of images, each a discrete entity, arranged to convey
the idea of motion.
Data Flow :

Communication between two devices can be simplex, half-duplex, or full-

duplex as shown in Figure
Data Flow :
Simplex:
In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way street.
Only one of the two devices on a link can transmit; the other can only receive .
Keyboards and traditional monitors are examples of simplex devices. The
keyboard can only introduce input; the monitor can only accept output. The
simplex mode can use the entire capacity of the channel to send data in one
direction
Half Duplex:
In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the
same time. :When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice
versa.
The half-duplex mode is like a one-lane road with traffic allowed in both
directions.
The half-duplex mode is used in cases where there is no need for
communication in both directions at the same time; the entire capacity of the
channel can be utilized foreach direction.
Half Duplex:
When cars are traveling in one direction, cars going the other way must wait. In
a half-duplex transmission, the entire capacity of a channel is taken over by
whichever of the two devices is transmitting at the time. Walkie-talkies and CB
(citizens band) radios are both half-duplex systems.
Full Duplex:

 Both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously (see Figure 1.2c).
The full-duplex mode is like a two-way street with traffic flowing in both
directions at the same time.
 One common example of full-duplex communication is the telephone
network. When two people are communicating by a telephone line, both
can talk and listen at the same time.
Categories of topology:
Mesh Topology:

Mesh In a mesh topology, every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to

every other device.
To find the number of physical links in a fully connected mesh network with n
nodes, we first consider that each node must be connected to every other node.
Node 1 must be connected to n - 1 nodes, node 2 must be connected to n – 1
nodes, and finally node n must be connected to n - 1 nodes. We need n(n - 1)
physical links.
Mesh Topology:

 However, if each physical link allows communication in both directions

(duplex mode), we can divide the number of links by 2. In other words, we
can say that in a mesh topology, we need n(n -1) /2 full duplex link.
Categories of topology:
Advantage of Mesh topology :
 First, the use of dedicated links guarantees that each connection can carry its
own data load, thus eliminating the traffic problems that can occur when links
must be shared by multiple devices.
 Second, a mesh topology is robust. If one link becomes unusable, it does not
incapacitate the entire system.
 Third, there is the advantage of privacy or security. When every message
travels along a dedicated line, only the intended recipient sees it. Physical
boundaries prevent other users from gaining access to messages.
Advantage of Mesh topology :

 Finally, point-to-point links make fault identification and fault isolation

easy. Traffic can be routed to avoid links with suspected problems. This
facility enables the network manager to discover the precise location of the
fault and aids in finding its cause and solution.
Disadvantage of Mesh topology:

 The main disadvantages of a mesh are related to the amount of cabling and
the number of I/O ports required.
 First, because every device must be connected to every other device,
installation and reconnection are difficult.
 Second, the sheer bulk of the wiring can be greater than the available space
(in walls, ceilings, or floors) can accommodate.
Disadvantage of Mesh topology:

 Finally, the hardware required to connect each link (I/O ports and cable)
can be prohibitively expensive.
 For these reasons a mesh topology is usually implemented in a limited
fashion, for example, as a backbone connecting the main computers of a
hybrid network that can include several other topologies.
Mesh Topology:

 One practical example of a mesh topology is the connection of telephone

regional offices in which each regional office needs to be connected to
every other regional office.
Star Topology :

 In a star topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to a

central controller, usually called a hub. The devices are not directly linked
to one another. Unlike a mesh topology, a star topology does not allow
direct traffic between devices. The controller acts as an exchange: If one
device wants to send data to another, it sends the data to the controller,
which then relays the data to the other connected device.
Star Topology :

 A star topology is less expensive than a mesh topology. In a star, each device
needs only one link and one I/O port to connect it to any number of others.
 This factor also makes it easy to install and reconfigure.
 For less cabling needs to be housed, and additions, moves, and deletions
involve only one connection: between that device and the hub.
Star Topology :
Star Topology :

Other advantages include robustness. If one link fails, only that link is
affected. All other links remain active. This factor also lends itself to easy
fault identification and fault isolation. As long as the hub is working, it can
be used to monitor link problems and bypass defective links.
Star Topology Disadvantage:

 One big disadvantage of a star topology is the dependency of the whole

topology on one single point, the hub. If the hub goes down, the whole
system is dead.
 Although a star requires far less cable than a mesh, each node must be
linked to a central hub. For this reason, often more cabling is required in a
star than in some other topologies (such as ring or bus).
Star Topology Application:

 The star topology is used in local-area networks (LANs).

 High-speed LANs often use a star topology with a central hub.
Bus Topology:

 Bus Topology The preceding examples all describe point-to-point

connections. A bus topology, on the other hand, is multipoint. One long
cable acts as a backbone to link all the devices in a network.
Bus Topology:

 Nodes are connected to the bus cable by drop lines and taps. A drop line
is a connection running between the device and the main cable.
 A tap is a connector that either splices into the main cable or punctures
the sheathing of a cable to create a contact with the metallic core.
 As a signal travels along the backbone, some of its energy is
transformed into heat. Therefore, it becomes weaker and weaker as it
travels farther and farther
Bus Topology:

For this reason, there is a limit on the number of taps a bus can support and,
on the distance, between those taps.
Advantage of Bus Topology:

Advantages of a bus topology include ease of installation. Backbone cable can

be laid along the most efficient path, then connected to the nodes by drop lines
of various lengths.
In this way, a bus uses less cabling than mesh or star topologies. In a star, for
example, four network devices in the same room require four lengths of cable
reaching all the way to the hub.
Advantage of Bus Topology:

In a bus, this redundancy is eliminated. Only the backbone cable stretches

through the entire facility. Each drop line has to reach only as far as the nearest
point on the backbone.
Disadvantage of Bus Topology:

Disadvantages include difficult reconnection and fault isolation. A bus is

usually designed to be optimally efficient at installation. It can therefore be
difficult to add new devices.
Signal reflection at the taps can cause degradation in quality. This degradation
can be controlled by limiting the number and spacing of devices connected to a
given length of cable.
Disadvantage of Bus Topology:

 Adding new devices may therefore require modification or replacement

of the backbone.
 In addition, a fault or break in the bus cable stops all transmission, even
between devices on the same side of the problem. The damaged area
reflects signals back in the direction of origin, creating noise in both
directions.
Ring Topology:

 In a ring topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point connection with

only the two devices on either side of it. A signal is passed along the ring in
one direction, from device to device, until it reaches its destination.

 Each device in the ring incorporates a repeater. When a device receives a

signal intended for another device, its repeater regenerates the bits and passes
them along.
Ring Topology:
Ring Topology:

 A ring is relatively easy to install and reconfigure. Each device is linked

to only its immediate neighbors (either physically or logically). To add
or delete a device requires changing only two connections.
 The only constraints are media and traffic considerations (maximum
ring length and number of devices). In addition, fault isolation is
simplified.
Ring Topology:

 Generally, in a ring, a signal is circulating at all times. If one device

does not receive a signal within a specified period, it can issue an
alarm. The alarm alerts the network operator to the problem and its
location.
Ring Topology:

 However, unidirectional traffic can be a disadvantage. In a simple ring,

a break in the ring (such as a disabled station) can disable the entire
network.
 Ring topology was prevalent when IBM introduced its local-area
network Token Ring. Today, the need for higher-speed LANs has made
this topology less popular.
Hybrid Topology:

 A network can be hybrid. For example, we can have a main star

topology with each branch connecting several stations in a bus
topology.
Protocol and Standard:

 Protocols are a set of rules that govern data communication in a network.

They define how data is formatted, transmitted, received, and acknowledged
between devices.

 Standards ensure interoperability between different hardware and software

manufacturers by defining common communication rules and formats.
Importance of Protocol :

 Importance of Protocols and StandardsEnable seamless communication

between devices from different vendors.Ensure reliability, security, and
efficiency in data transmission.Provide guidelines for network design and
implementation.
Common Networking Protocols :
Common Networking Protocols :
Networking Standard:
Relationship Between Protocol and Standard:

Protocols implement networking standards to ensure compatibility and

interoperability. Example:The IEEE 802.11 standard defines Wi-Fi
communication, and protocols like TCP/IP operate within this standard.
OSI Model:
 OSI stands for Open System Interconnection is a reference model that
describes how information from a software application in one computer
moves through a physical medium to the software application in another
computer.

 OSI consists of seven layers, and each layer performs a particular network
function.
OSI Model:
 OSI model was developed by the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) in 1984, and it is now considered as an architectural
model for the inter-computer communications.

 Each layer is self-contained, so that task assigned to each layer can be

performed independently.
Characteristics of OSI Model:
Characteristics of OSI Model:
The upper layer of the OSI model mainly deals with the application related
issues, and they are implemented only in the software. The application layer is
closest to the end user. Both the end user and the application layer interact with
the software applications. An upper layer refers to the layer just above another
layer.
Characteristics of OSI Model:
The lower layer of the OSI model deals with the data transport issues. The data
link layer and the physical layer are implemented in hardware and software.
The physical layer is the lowest layer of the OSI model and is closest to the
physical medium. The physical layer is mainly responsible for placing the
information on the physical medium.
Characteristics of OSI Model:

The lower layer of the OSI model deals with the data transport issues. The data
link layer and the physical layer are implemented in hardware and software. The
physical layer is the lowest layer of the OSI model and is closest to the physical
medium. The physical layer is mainly responsible for placing the information on
the physical medium.
Layers of OSI Model:

There are the seven OSI layers. Each layer has different functions. A list of
seven layers are given below:
Physical Layer
Data-Link Layer
Network Layer
Transport Layer
Session Layer
Presentation Layer
Application Layer
Layers of OSI Model:
Physical Layer:
Functionality Physical Layer:

 The main functionality of the physical layer is to transmit the individual bits
from one node to another node.
 It is the lowest layer of the OSI model.
 It establishes, maintains and deactivates the physical connection.
 It specifies the mechanical, electrical and procedural network interface
specifications.
Function Physical Layer:

 Line Configuration: It defines the way how two or more devices can be
connected physically.
 Data Transmission: It defines the transmission mode whether it is simplex,
half-duplex or full-duplex mode between the two devices on the network.
 Topology: It defines the way how network devices are arranged.
 Signals: It determines the type of the signal used for transmitting the
information.
Data-Link Layer
Data-Link Layer:
 This layer is responsible for the error-free transfer of data frames. It
defines the format of the data on the network.
 It provides a reliable and efficient communication between two or more
devices.
 It is mainly responsible for the unique identification of each device that
resides on a local network.
Data-Link Layer:
It contains two sub-layers:
1.Logical Link Control Layer:
 It is responsible for transferring the packets to the Network layer of the
receiver that is receiving.
 It identifies the address of the network layer protocol from the header.
 It also provides flow control.
Data-Link Layer:
Media Access Control Layer:
 A Media access control layer is a link between the Logical Link Control
layer and the network's physical layer.
 It is used for transferring the packets over the network.
Functions of the Data-link layer

Framing: The data link layer translates the physical's raw bit stream into
packets known as Frames. The Data link layer adds the header and trailer to
the frame. The header which is added to the frame contains the hardware
destination and source address.
Functions of the Data-link layer

Framing: The data link layer translates the physical's raw bit stream into
packets known as Frames. The Data link layer adds the header and trailer to
the frame. The header which is added to the frame contains the hardware
destination and source address.
Functions of the Data-link layer
Physical Addressing: The Data link layer adds a header to the frame that
contains a destination address. The frame is transmitted to the destination
address mentioned in the header.
Functions of the Data-link layer
Flow Control: Flow control is the main functionality of the Data-link layer. It
is the technique through which the constant data rate is maintained on both the
sides so that no data get corrupted. It ensures that the transmitting station such
as a server with higher processing speed does not exceed the receiving station,
with lower processing speed.
Functions of the Data-link layer
Error Control: Error control is achieved by adding a calculated value CRC
(Cyclic Redundancy Check) that is placed to the Data link layer's trailer which
is added to the message frame before it is sent to the physical layer. If any
error seems to occurr, then the receiver sends the acknowledgment for the
retransmission of the corrupted frames.
Functions of the Data-link layer
Access Control: When two or more devices are connected to the same
communication channel, then the data link layer protocols are used to
determine which device has control over the link at a given time.
Network Layer:
Network Layer:
 It is a layer 3 that manages device addressing, tracks the location of devices on the
network.
 It determines the best path to move data from source to the destination based on the
network conditions, the priority of service, and other factors.
 The Data link layer is responsible for routing and forwarding the packets.
 Routers are the layer 3 devices, they are specified in this layer and used to provide the
routing services within an internetwork.
 The protocols used to route the network traffic are known as Network layer protocols.
Examples of protocols are IP and Ipv6.
Network Layer:
 Routers are the layer 3 devices, they are specified in this layer and used to
provide the routing services within an internetwork.

 The protocols used to route the network traffic are known as Network layer
protocols. Examples of protocols are IP and Ipv6.
Function of Network Layer:

Internetworking: An internetworking is the main responsibility of the

network layer. It provides a logical connection between different devices.

Addressing: A Network layer adds the source and destination address to the
header of the frame. Addressing is used to identify the device on the internet.
Function of Network Layer:

Routing: Routing is the major component of the network layer, and it

determines the best optimal path out of the multiple paths from source to the
destination.
Packetizing: A Network Layer receives the packets from the upper layer and
converts them into packets. This process is known as Packetizing. It is
achieved by internet protocol (IP).
Function of Network Layer:

Routing: Routing is the major component of the network layer, and it

determines the best optimal path out of the multiple paths from source to the
destination.
Packetizing: A Network Layer receives the packets from the upper layer and
converts them into packets. This process is known as Packetizing. It is
achieved by internet protocol (IP).